Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuproc

A generalized model of SO2 emissions from large- and small-scale CFB

boilers by artificial neural network approach
Part 1. The mathematical model of SO2 emissions in air-firing, oxygen-enriched and
oxycombustion CFB conditions
J. Krzywanski a,⁎, T. Czakiert b, A. Blaszczuk b, R. Rajczyk b, W. Muskala b, W. Nowak c
a
Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, 13/15 Armii Krajowej Av., Czestochowa, Poland
b
Czestochowa University of Technology, 73 Dabrowskiego, Czestochowa, Poland
c
AGH University of Science and Technology, 30 Mickiewicza Av., Krakow, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Since the complexity of sulfur capture and release during solid fuel combustion in circulating fluidized bed (CFB)
Received 16 December 2014 boilers, especially in the oxycombustion conditions is still not sufficiently recognized, the development of a simple
Received in revised form 30 March 2015 SO2 emission model for wide range of operating conditions is of practical significance.
Accepted 2 April 2015
The paper introduces the artificial neural network (ANN) approach for the prediction of SO2 emissions from CFB
Available online 22 April 2015
boilers. The model considers a wide range of parameters influencing SO2 emissions. The [16-1-6-1] ANN model
Keywords:
was successfully applied to predict SO2 emissions from coal combustion in several large- and small-scale
Modeling CFB boilers, over a wide range of operating conditions, both in air-firing as well as oxygen-enriched and
Circulating fluidized bed oxycombustion conditions.
Oxycombustion Since the method constitutes a quick and easy to run technique this approach makes a complementary tool in
SO2 emissions relation to the experimental procedures and the programmed computing approach. Therefore, the model can
Artificial neural networks be easily applied by scientists and engineers for simulations and optimizations of CFB units.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Sulfur dioxide is the main S-based flue gas compound. Although
other sulfur species, such as SO3 H2S, CS, CS2, COS, SH, can be also detected
in flue gas, their amount is much lower than SO2 [1–7].
The source of SO2 in air-fired conditions constitutes the fuel-bound
sulfur. In combustion recycled flue gas, particularly in oxycombustion
conditions, SO2 from the recycled gas makes an additional sulfur source
[6].
The emission of SO2 is affected by complex factors and when its con-
centration is too high the need for desulfurization of flue gas appears.
An extensive review of sorbent systems for removal of sulfur oxides
from flue gases is given in [8]. The authors distinguished four categories
of the oxide materials intended for SO2 removal: single oxides, mixed
oxides, oxides supported on carbonaceous materials and oxides sup-
ported on porous silica-based materials.
A widely used method for SO2 capture during solid fuel combustion
in CFBC is a dry flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology, based on
thermal decomposition of limestone, followed by the sulfation reaction.
This method belongs to the first of all four groups which are discussed in
the paper [8].
The possibility of the in situ SO2 emissions control by the addition of
a sorbent, usually limestone or dolomite, directly into the combustion
chamber, due to the low combustion temperature, is considered to be
one of the main advantages of fluidized bed boilers [5,9–12]. The
process of dry flue gas desulfurization can proceed via indirect or direct
sulfation [9,13–17].
The investigations presented in the paper are limited to the cases
when if used, limestone is applied as a sorbent to retain SO2 from flue gas.
During conventional air-fired conditions indirect sulfation of lime-
stone occurs, including calcination (1) and CaO–SO2 sulfation (2) reac-
tions [17]:

⁎ Corresponding author at: Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Faculty of CaCO3 →CaO þ CO2 ð1Þ
Mathematics and Natural Science, Institute of Technical Education and Safety, 13/15
Armii Krajowej Av., Czestochowa, Poland. Tel./fax: + 48 343615970.
E-mail address: jkrzywanski@tlen.pl (J. Krzywanski). CaO þ SO2 þ 0:5O2 →CaSO4 : ð2Þ

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2015.04.012
0378-3820/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74 67

petroleum coke combustion when the bed temperature increased

Nomenclature
from 850 to 950 °C, can be attributed to the change from direct to indi-
rect sulfation. Such an increase in sulfur capture could not be, however,
A ash content, wt. %
observed during eastern bituminous coal and Kentucky coal combus-
Ca/S calcium to sulfur molar ratio, –
tion [48].
CO2 oxygen concentration in the inlet gas, %
Most of all above presented and discussed in literature results were
CSO2 sulfur dioxides concentration in flue gas, ppm,
obtained via measurements on real boilers, carried out both on a large-
df mean diameter of coal particles, m
scale and a laboratory-scale CFB units, as experiments are the basic
dl mean diameter of limestone particles, m
cognitive methods that allow one to specify empirical dependencies
EO oxygen excess, %
which occur during solid fuels combustion. A big challenge, as well as
Esqr square error, –
the costs and limitations make the experiments an insufficient data
H height of the combustion chamber, m
mining method.
Hl height of the limestone injection, m
In such situations, an alternative is a mathematical modeling of the
Hsg height of secondary gas inlet, m
−1 processes that occur in a boiler. Two main modeling approaches can
ṁf coal feed rate, kg s
be distinguished: the programmed computing approach and the
p gas inlet pressure, Pa
neurocomputing approach.
Pg primary gas ratio, –
The first one is based on writing algorithms many of which exists in
R2 coefficient of determination, –
literature [11,25,26,32–35,49–62]. A 1D model was applied to study
S sulfur content, wt. %
gaseous pollutants emissions from solid fuel combustion tests in a
T average riser temperature, K
large-scale CFB boiler [39–42] whereas a 2D model was developed to
U average gas velocity in the riser, m s−1
study the influence of operating parameters on bed temperature, CO,
δ relative error, %
NOx, SO2 emissions and combustion efficiency in smaller CFB combus-
tors [11,25,26].
Subscripts
A wide-range review and comparison of circulating fluidized bed
d desired
combustor models was provided by Basu [49]. The author discussed
p predicted by a neural network
two approaches to the performance modeling, i.e. furnace approach
and system approach. The furnace approach describes the details of
Superscripts
what goes on in the furnace while the system approach takes an interest
ad air dried basis,
in system integration. The review applies only to models representing
ar as received,
the furnace approach. These models can be grouped under three levels
of details or/and sophistication: level I: 1D, plug flow/stirred tank,
Acronyms
using simple mass and energy balance; level II: core-annulus, 1.5D
ANN artificial neural network
with broad consideration of combustion and other related processes;
BP Back Propagation
level III: 3D model based on Navier–Stokes equation with detailed con-
CFB circulating fluidized bed
sideration of chemical kinetics and individual physical processes [49].
CFBC circulating fluidized bed combustor
Huilin et al. applied the overall volumetric reaction rate constant to
FGD flue gas desulfurization
describe the reaction rate of a limestone particle [50]. A model for flue
MAE mean absolute error
gas desulfurization by spray-dry absorption with lime slurry was pre-
MRE mean relative error
sented by Scala et al. [51].
NN neural network
Zhou et al. [52] employed the Euler–Euler modeling approach to
RFG Recycled Flue Gas
simulate coal combustion in oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/RFG
mode. The authors emphasized that the simulations conducted on the
platform of FLUENT 12 software with three processors parallel for 70 s
with the number of meshes nearly 8500 cost nearly 60 days.
In O2/CO2 atmospheres, typical for oxycombustion conditions, The 1D, 2D and 3D models were also applied to study coal
excessive partial pressures of CO2 inhibits calcination and therefore di- combustion in CFB air-fired, oxygen-enriched and oxygen-fired
rect sulfation occurs [9,13,15,18], via the reaction: conditions [52–62]. A 2D model of oxy-coal combustion processes
in 50 kW CFB boiler was presented by Zhou et al. [53]. The authors
CaCO3 þ SO2 þ 0:5O2 →CaSO4 þ CO2 : ð3Þ investigated the effect of combustion atmospheres in oxygen-
enriched and oxy-fired combustion conditions with different O 2
Among factors which influence the SO2 release and capture during concentration on solid volume fraction, temperature and gas con-
solid fuel combustion in a CFB boiler, are: the Ca/S molar ratio, residence centrations in the riser.
time of limestone and fuel particles, gas velocity, oxygen excess and Pikkarainen et al. [60] developed a 1D dynamic model of CFB pilot
concentration, air staging, bed pressure, the mean load and bed temper- combustor for simulation of the combustion under O2/CO2/H2O envi-
ature as well as particle size of fuel [3,5–7,9–17,19–44]. The sulfur ronment. The model takes into consideration moisture and volatiles
self-retention process of the ash, especially in the oxycombustion condi- release as well as volatile and char combustion in a CFB pilot reactor.
tions, is also regarded as parameter influencing the SO2 emissions [6,45, The programmed computing approach consists in application
46]. of quite complicated, laborious and time consuming algorithms which
Lupianez et al. [9] and Jia et al. [47] emphasized the differences, may need additional assumptions, correlations or even some data
reported in the literature on sulfur capture efficiencies. The authors from experiments acquired from specific boilers. These features are
stated that such a situation indicates the complexity of sulfur release listed among the main shortcomings of the programmed computing
and capture processes, especially during oxygen-fired conditions, approach.
which are still not sufficiently recognized. The second approach encompasses the use of the artificial neural
Jia et al. [47,48] pointed out that although there is no clear opinion networks (ANN) as they have the ability to reproduce the process
about which of the two sulfation mechanisms is more efficient: direct from training samples [63–70]. The specific knowledge of the pro-
or indirect, a decrease in SO2 concentration in flue gas, noticed during cess is not essential and, therefore, the neurocomputing approach
68 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74
overcomes the shortcomings of experimental procedures as well as
the programmed computing approach.
The present work deals with the ANN technique to predict SO2
concentration in flue gas from coal combustion in different, pilot and
large-scale CFB boilers over a wide range of operating conditions, both
in air-fired, oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion conditions. The neces-
sary training samples to learn the ANN model are taken from the exper-
imental as well as calculated data reported in literature, similar to the
methods described in [65,66,68–72].
2. Material and methods
2.1. Neural network modeling
The neurocomputing approach is applied in the paper since artificial
neural networks have the ability to simulate uncertain, ill-defined, big
and complex systems. Because of the fact, that ANNs can learn from
the relationship between the input and output variables from given
examples/stimuli, they do not need any detailed information about
the studied processes. They operate in a similar way to a “black box”
and their learning process resembles a human brain operation. The
ANN models have also the ability to ignore redundant and excess data,
use incomplete data sets, concentrate on more important inputs as
well as generalize the complex relationships between input and output
data [65–67,73,74]. Since a single neuron has a limited memorizing
capacity, the neural network constitutes a group of interconnected (by
so-called weights) neurons (perceptrons). The knowledge of the pro-
cess is acquired by the network during the learning stage, called also
the training epoch, and it is stored in ANN structure, i.e. weights [65,
69]. The examined process determines the architecture of ANN, the
activation function of neurons, the number of perceptrons in hidden
layers and sometimes the type of ANN. Therefore, there are e.g. recur-
rent, feed-forward, Kohonen, Hopfield, Bayesian–Gaussian, probabilistic
neural networks [63–65,67,75]. Some of them refer to supervised ones,
others — unsupervised or self-organizing NN.
The feed-forward type of ANN was applied in the paper [65], where
neurons are arranged in three kinds of layers and form input, interme-
diate (so-called hidden) and output layers. The feed-forward type of
ANN can contain one or more hidden layers.
In order to be a useful tool, the neural network needs to be previously
prepared by the following principal steps: setting of ANN architecture
and initial values of weights (between 0 and 1), normalization of
input and output signals, the training (learning) and testing process
[65,74]. A suitable architecture and the proper number of hidden neu-
rons must be established to achieve the required accuracy of neural
network estimation. The learning stage with the supervised learning is
based on repeatedly presented input data and corresponding output
pattern, simultaneously. For example, during the overall heat transfer
calculations the data sets consisted of 64, 29 and 69 input and output
sets (data patterns), for membrane-walls, SH I and SH II, respectively
[65]. The learning process makes it possible to modify the connection
weights by a suitable learning method and to adjust them to produce
the desired output. A simple, powerful and reliable supervised training
method of feed-forward neural networks is the Back Propagation (BP)
scheme [68,73]. The BP algorithm constitutes an iterative gradient
algorithm for minimization of the mean square error, between the
desired and predicted output. In the BP scheme the difference between
outputs and the pattern constitutes the measure of the weights modifi-
cation rate.
The logarithmic sigmoid and the hyperbolic tangent sigmoid func-
tion are the most commonly used activation functions in such ANN.
Different activation functions can also be used in different layers of the
network [74].
When the criterion of the mean square error is fulfilled and the
network has a good ability to predict accurately the validation data set
(generalization ability of the network) the learning step is stopped.
Such prepared neural network constitutes a tool for making non-
iterative and quick calculations, giving accurate results (e.g. in extrapo-
lation or interpolation problems) as an answer to new stimuli, not
previously seen by the neural network [65].
2.2. Application of neural network and calculating conditions
A highly accurate model for the prediction of SO2 emissions needs
some detailed information not only of each combustion process condi-
tions but also about coal-fired CFB combustors, as they are different in
size; they have different height and cross-section of the combustion
chamber, e.g. circular, square and rectangular, some of them are large-
scale/industrial boilers while others pilot-scale combustors. Most of
them have been fitted with cyclones but e.g. the 261 MWe COMPACT
CFB boiler operated in Turow Power Station in Poland is equipped
with two compact separators, as it constitutes the example of the boiler
of the second generation design [33,35,76]. The fuel properties and op-
erating parameters for both, air-fired oxygen-enriched and oxy-
combustion conditions should also be taken into account to accurately
train the ANN model. All possible factors that can affect the SO2 emis-
sions are used making the model as complete as possible. Therefore,
the set of the input parameters consists also of some operation condi-
tions, the fuel properties and geometry factors describing the combus-
tion chamber. However, it is worth mentioning, that the range of the
input parameters set is limited due to the fact that the accessible train-
ing data set, applied in the model, is also not so large.
The input parameters are: the atmosphere tag IDatm defining the
atmosphere mode (‘1’ for O2/N2, ‘2’ for O2/CO2 and ‘3’ for O2/Recycled
Flue Gas (RFG) mode), the Ca/S molar ratio, the oxygen concentration
in the inlet gas CO2, the excess oxygen EO, the primary gas ratio Pg,
the average gas velocity in the riser U, the average temperature T in
the riser, the Sauter mean diameter of the coal particles df and limestone
particles dl, the inlet gas pressure p, coal feed rate ṁf, sulfur (S) as well as
ash content (A) in the coal (air dried basis) and three geometrical
factors describing the feeding points of limestone and secondary gas
in relation to the height of the combustion chamber, i.e.: height of the
combustion chamber H, height of secondary gas inlet/height of the
combustion chamber Hsg/H, height of the limestone injection point/
height of the combustion chamber Hl/H. For the cases when a boiler
was neither supplied by secondary gas nor limestone, the parameters
HSG and Hl are assumed to be 0 for calculation purposes. The input
parameters are given in Table 1.
The average temperature in the riser is considered to be the temper-
ature defined in a similar way as it is given in [18,47,48,77]. In large scale
units the temperature used in simulations was the average temperature
Table 1
The input parameters used for training and testing the ANN model.
Input parameter Value
a
Atmosphere tag IDatm , – 1, 2, 3
Calcium to sulfur molar ratio Ca/S, – 0–9.494
Oxygen concentration in the inlet gas CO2, % 21.0–45.0
Oxygen excess EO, % 0–100
Primary gas ratio Pg – 0.4–1.0
Average gas velocity in the riser U, m s−1 2.28–6.2
Average riser temperature T, K 1073–1262
Mean diameter of coal particles df, mm 0.000756–11.096
Mean diameter of limestone particles dl, mm 0.024–1.1
Gas inlet pressure p, atm 1.0–9.0
Coal feed rate ṁf, kg s−1 0.0008–71.3
Sulfur content Sad, wt.% 0.20–6.00
Ash content Aad, wt.% 0.48–35.7
Height of the combustion chamber H, m 1.8–48
Height of secondary gas inlet/Height of the combustion 0.0–0.3
chamber Hsg/H, –
Height of the limestone injection/Height of the combustion 0.0–0.38
chamber Hl/H, –
a
1 stands for: O2/N2 mode, 2 — O2/CO2 mode, 3 — O2/RFG (Recycled Flue Gas) mode.
 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74
in the combustion chamber above the secondary gas feed points.
The tag of IDatm is named 1, 2 and 3 for O2/N2, O2/CO2 and O2/Recycled
Flue Gas (RFG) inlet gas mixtures with different oxygen concentra-
tion, respectively. Therefore, the air-fired, oxygen-enriched and
oxycombustion conditions are taken into account by the model.
The average gas velocity U is considered to be a superficial gas veloc-
ity in the riser above the secondary gas inlet level.
Since the model is in the development stage the Sauter mean diam-
eter of limestone particles was used only. This issue should be also taken
into consideration during further development of the model. The Sauter
mean diameter could not be sufficient to describe the real particle size
distributions, since two kinds of limestone with the same mean diame-
ter but different particle size distribution would not offer the same
sulfur capture. To be more comprehensive and precise, the model
should also take into consideration the limestone reactivity among the
input data.
All the input parameters are easy to acquire and applied in the
model. The output variable is the SO2 concentration in flue gas. Since
the number of neurons in the input and output layers are the same as
the number of input and output parameters, respectively, the input
and output layers consist of sixteen and one neurons, respectively.
Each neural network was prepared via a supervised learning (train-
ing) procedure, in which 16 inputs and the corresponding output
pattern were introduced to the network simultaneously.
The normalization of input and output parameters and an instance
of Back Propagation scheme called the Lee and Park's algorithm is
applied during calculations [34,65]. This algorithm consists in changing
the momentum and learning rate simultaneously.
The coefficient of determination R2 of the linear regression line
between the predicted values from the neural network and the desired
output, the mean absolute error MAE as well as the mean relative error
MRE are used to select the optimal number of neurons in hidden layers,
i.e. to choose the best ANN architecture, characterized by the highest
coefficient of determination R2 and the lowest errors: MAE and MRE.
On the basis of preliminary calculations and previous experience [34,
65], a hyperbolic tangent sigmoid function is applied as an activation
function for all perceptrons.
The necessary training samples constitute the experimental data set
of 150 input–output data pairs, obtained from large-scale and pilot-
scale CFB combustors, reported in the literature [3,11,16,25,26,29,47,
48,52,54–56,77,78]. The data made it possible to apply an approach
similar to the method described in [68,69,71,72]. The values correspond
to different combustion modes since the combustors were operating
under air-fired, oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/
RFG conditions. The concentrations of SO2 have been normalized to 6%
of the oxygen content of the flue gas. The Leave-one-out methodology
was used to select data sets. Because of the fact, that the amount of
accessible data was not so large, it was necessary to use mostly the
dependent data sets. The testing data included 30 whereas validation
data set contained 20 samples of which 10 were independent validation
data sets, similar to the procedure given in [34,65].
3. Results and discussion
Different ANN architectures were studied as the network's perfor-
mance depends on its structure. The number of neurons in each hidden
layer varied from 1 to 16 and then the best architecture of the network
was selected by the use of the earlier mentioned error measures. Such
an approach helps to reduce the risk of the memorization instead of
generalization the relationship within the data set [65,66].
This procedure resulted in a generation of family of neural models,
including 256 networks in total. In addition, previously unused inde-
pendent data were used for validating each network.
The best ANN architecture turned out to be the [16-1-6-1] structure,
shown in Fig. 1. The ANN model consists of 7 hidden neurons forming
two hidden layers. This artificial neural network was characterized by
69
IDatm
Ca/S
CO2
EO
Pg
U
T
df
CSO2
dl
p
Sad
Aad
H
Hsg/H
Hl/H
Fig. 1. The structure of the [16-1-6-1] type of neural network.
the highest coefficient of determination R2 = 0.9833 and the lowest
number of errors: mean absolute error MAE = 64.78 and the mean
relative error MRE = 0.09.
The ANN model was successfully validated against experimental
results, using both training and the new samples, unseen before in the
network. The approach was undertaken since the comparison between
experimental and calculated data is regarded as the most difficult type
of model's validation procedure [57,58,65].
The data were collected from the wide variety of boilers, both pilot-
an large-scale, operating in air-firing, oxygen-enriched O2/N2 as well as
oxy-fired: O2/CO2, and O2/RFG combustion modes.
The comparison between the predicted C pSO2 and desired C dSO2 emis-
sions of SO2 for different boilers (large- and pilot-scale) and a wide
range of operating conditions, both in air-fired, oxygen-enriched and
oxycombustion atmospheres is shown in Fig. 2. The comparison for
new, previously unused independent data is shown in Fig. 3. Good accu-
racy in prediction of SO2 emissions by the [16-1-6-1] type ANN model
was obtained. The calculated results are located within the range of
±20% compared to the experimental data.
Good accuracy in prediction of SO2 emissions by the model was also
observed for three of all four data points presented in [47]. However, the
prediction error for the highest value, i.e. for 14,720 ppm was too large.
It was due to the fact that training data set was not so large, since the
number of accessible experimental data for oxycombustion conditions
in open literature is limited. This remark has to be taken into account
70 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74

Fig. 2. Comparison of the SO2 concentrations (without normalization) desired and predicted by the [16-1-6-1] type ANN. Open symbols refer to air-firing whereas closed ones apply to
oxygen-enriched and oxygen-fired conditions.

during further development of the model and the training data set The training data set, which was used to build up the model, corre-
should have been expanded. sponds to different conditions. The combustors that are considered
Figs. 2 and 3 do not indicate references, since some of the data for in the paper operated under both below and above the calcination tem-
large-scale boilers are confidential. perature. It would be difficult, especially for specific oxycombustion

Fig. 3. Comparison of the SO2 concentrations (without normalization) desired and predicted by the [16-1-6-1] type ANN for new, unused before, independent data sets. Open symbols refer
to air-firing whereas closed ones apply to oxygen-enriched and oxygen-fired conditions.
 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74 71

conditions, to determine whether a furnace is operating above or Table 3

below the calcination temperature as the CO2 concentration cannot Properties of lignite.

be precisely determined in this combustion mode. This is where Lower heating value (LHV) (kJ kg−1) 8200–12,100
the neurocomputing approach can overcome the shortcomings of Proximate analysis/wt.%
experimental procedures as well as the programmed computing Fixed carbon(by difference) FCar 6.50–39.90
approach. Volatile Var 17.60–22.00
Since neural networks have the ability to reproduce the process Ash Aar 6.50–31.50
Moisture War 36.00–40.00
from training samples via the learning stage, the knowledge about the
phenomenon allows ANN model to produce correct SO2 concentration Ultimate analysis/wt.%
for the given set of input variables. Carbon Car 23.90–30.40
Hydrogen Har 1.90–6.85
The obtained results show that the model is flexible enough to be
Oxygen Oar 4.57–8.61
applied for different CFB combustors [3,11,16,25,26,47,48,56,77–79]. Nitrogen Nar 0.2–0.41
Among boilers used during validation tests are three large scale Sulfur Sar 0.20–1.06
boilers, i.e.:

• the world's largest once-through supercritical 460 MWe (1296 t/h)

CFB boiler, installed in the Tauron Generation Lagisza Power Plant in The effect of primary air ratio on the SO2 emission from coal combus-
Poland, tion in the large-scale 235 MWe (667 t/h) CFB boiler, operating in PGE
• the 261 MWe (704 t/h) COMPACT CFB boiler, GiEK S.A. Dept. Turow Power Plant in Poland as well as in a bench
• the 235 MWe (667 t/h) CFB boiler, scale 30 kW CFB combustor, is given as an example in the paper. Sche-
matic diagram of the 235 MWe CFB boiler is presented in Fig. 4.
The riser of the 30 kW CFB unit is 7 m high and has inner diameter of
operating in PGE GiEK S.A. Dept. Turow Power Plant in Poland. 0.086 m. The CFB combustor was fired with bituminous coal and rice
The 460 MWe boiler is fired with bituminous coal, whereas the husk. For the purpose of this work the test no 1 of coal combustion
261 MWe and 235 MWe boilers with lignite. Properties of fuels are was applied (biomass feeding rate was equal 0). The detailed descrip-
given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The boilers run under the condition tion of the 30 kW CFB unit can be found elsewhere [82].
of 40% to 100% of full load. The Ca/S molar ratio changed in the range The calculations are performed using the described [16-1-6-1] type
between 1.38 and 9.49. Detailed descriptions of these CFB units can be ANN model. The input parameters and SO2 emissions values in different
found elsewhere [34,35,58,65,80,81]. combustion conditions are given in Tables 4 and 5. All concentrations
The furnace of the 460 MWe boiler is 48 m high with the cross- have been converted to 6% O2 basis.
sectional area of 27.6 × 10.6 m. Unlike typical CFB boilers, the supercrit- The values correspond to different combustion modes since the
ical 460 MWe CFB boiler is equipped with Benson vertical-tubes which combustors were operating under air-fired, oxygen-enriched and
make a new supercritical steam technology [80].
The dimensions of cross-section area of the atmospheric 261 MWe
COMPACT CFB boiler with natural circulation is 21.9 × 10.1 m and
the total height of the combustion chamber is 42 m.
The 235 MWe (667 t/h) CFB boiler is a large-scale CFB boiler with
a single furnace and natural circulation. The cross-section dimensions
are 21.2 × 5.2 m above the air distributor and 21.2 × 9.9 m at the height
of 6.7 m above the grid level. The furnace has 48 m in height.
The ANN model is time-efficient to run and therefore can be easily
applied for calculations of SO2 concentration in the flue gas via the,
so-called, non-iterative procedure. The ANN model can be also applied
as a submodel or a separate module in engineering calculations to
predict SO2 emissions from coal combustion in CFB units. During the
non-iterative procedure the neural network operates in a similar way
to a “black box”. Since the ANN has already been taught the studied
process, the model does not need to perform any iterations, typical
for the learning epoch. However, the non-iterative procedure can be
applied only when all the 16 input variables are properly prepared to
be used in the model.

Table 2
Properties of bituminous coal.

Lower heating value (LHV) (kJ kg−1) 20,785–21,429

Proximate analysis/wt.%
Fixed carbon(by difference) FCar 39.86–49.83
Volatile Var 24.48–29.65
Ash Aar 11.12–15.74
Moisture War 14.57–14.75

Ultimate analysis/wt.%
Carbon Cad 53.84–57.09
Hydrogen Had 4.19–44.41
Oxygen Oad 6.09–6.88
Nitrogen Nad 0.78–0.85
Sulfur Sad 0.95–1.23
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the 235 MWe CFB boiler [65].
72 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74

Table 4
Input parameters (common data).

Input parameter Tests 1–12

235 MWe 30 kW CFB

CFB boiler combustor

Calcium to sulfur molar ratio Ca/S, – 2.6 0

Oxygen excess EO, % 20
Average riser temperature T, K 1135
Mean diameter of coal particles df, mm 11.1
Mean diameter of limestone particles dl, mm 0.66
Gas inlet pressure p, atm 1.1
Coal feed rate ṁf, kg s−1 63
Sulfur content Sad, wt.% 0.33
Ash content Aad, wt.% 16.4
Height of the combustion chamber H, m 48
Height of secondary gas inlet/height of the 0.27
combustion chamber Hsg/H, –
Height of the limestone injection/height of the 0.02
combustion chamber Hl/H, –
oxycombustion O 2/CO2 , and O2 /RFG conditions. The differences
between the various combustion modes considered in the paper
(air → O2/N2 → O2/CO2 → O2/RFG) are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
The SO2 emissions calculated by the [16-1-6-1] type ANN show good
agreement with the desired data given by experiment.
The increase in primary gas ratio generally leads to a decrease in SO2
emissions [81]. This could be explained by the fact, that the supply of
oxygen is considered to be a beneficial factor for sulfur capture process-
es. Moreover, the reducing conditions, which occur in the primary com-
bustion zone, cause the release of additional SO2 from the sulfated
sorbent [5,38,81].
The decrease in SO2 concentrations for large-scale boiler is much
lower compared to the bench scale CFB unit (see Table 5). Similar
results were also reported in [81]. The difference could be the result
of the incomplete penetration of secondary gas into the large-scale com-
bustor. The measurements carried out on the 235 MWe CFB boiler
revealed that the depth of penetration of secondary air was about 2 m
[81]. Similar phenomenon was also reported by other researches [83].
The authors pointed out that an increase in oxygen concentration at
the secondary air injection level was recognized in the vicinity of the
walls and not in the center of the combustion chamber. Such behavior
did not occur in a lab-scale CFB combustor due to slim and tall geometry
of the riser. The secondary gas was mixed almost immediately with
the main gas stream over the crossectional area [83].
Therefore, due to smaller penetration of secondary gas in large-scale
boilers, the gas-staging effect will be less emphasized than in small-
scale CFB units. As the result the cut-off effect [26] of the secondary
26.3
1137
0.47
0
1.1
2.68
0.62
11.41
7
0.24
0
Fig. 5. The effect of primary gas ratio on SO2 emissions (normalized to 6% O2 basis) from
coal combustion under air-fired, oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/RFG
conditions in the large-scale 235 MWe CFB boiler; U = 5.4 m s−1 for air-fired conditions
and U = 3.74 m s−1 for oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/RFG
conditions.
jets in small CFB units, leads to an increase in the suspension density
below the secondary gas injection port due to decreased flow rate, caus-
ing an increase in residence time of fuel particles in the riser [84,85].
Since the cut-off effect of the secondary jets decreases with the increase
in primary gas ratio, the residence time of the fuel particles and there-
fore SO2 emissions tend to decrease [26].
Sulfur dioxide emissions especially in small-scale CFB combustor
clearly increase with O2 concentrations mostly due to smaller diluting
effect of the flue gas. Higher combustion intensity in such conditions is
also mentioned in literature as a factor influencing the increase in SO2
emissions Czakiert et al. [3]. Therefore, an increase in SO2 concentration
is observed when changing from air-fired to 30% O2/N2 combustion
mode. Similar observations were also noted by Czakiert et al. [3] and
Duan et al. [23].
Replacing N2 with CO2 for the same oxygen concentration results in
the further enhancement of SO2 emissions mainly in the small-scale
unit. The study performed by Duan et al. [23] revealed that the increase
in SO2 concentrations could be the result of additional C–S–CO2 reac-
tions which occur in the combustion chamber, leading to form CO and
COS, further oxidized to SO2.
In the large scale tests, where limestone is used, the increase of SO2
is small mostly due to the fact that the direct sulfation occurs in

Table 5
Input parameters (variable data) and SO2 emissions (normalized to 6% O2 basis).

Input parameter/test no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Atmosphere tag IDatma, – 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3

Oxygen concentration in the inlet gas CO2, % 21 21 21 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Primary gas ratio Pg – 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.0

235 MWe CFB boiler

Average gas velocity in the riser U, m s−1 5.40 3.76
SO2 concentration, predicted C pSO2 , ppm 140.7 140.4 140.1 141.0 140.6 140.2 142.7 142.0 141.4 145.9 144.5 143.4
SO2 concentration, desired C dSO2 , ppm 148
δ [%] 4.9

30 kW CFB combustor
Average gas velocity in the riser U, m s−1 5.22 3.64
SO2 concentration, predicted C pSO2 , ppm 446 388 340 485 420 366 747 636 545 1170 995 845
SO2 concentration, desired C dSO2 , ppm 462
δ [%] 16
a
1 stands for: O2/N2 mode, 2 — O2/CO2 mode, 3 — O2/RFG (Recycled Flue Gas) mode
 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74
Fig. 6. The effect of primary gas ratio on SO2 emissions (normalized to 6% O2 basis) from
coal combustion under air-fired, oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/RFG
conditions in the pilot-scale 30 kW CFB combustor; U = 5.22 m s−1 for air-fired conditions
and U = 3.64 m s−1 for oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/RFG
conditions.
oxycombustion conditions. There is no limestone feed in the 30 kW CFB
combustor. Therefore, clear increase in SO2 emissions can be observed
in small-scale CFB unit.
Moreover, the fuel-bound sulfur constitutes the only source of SO2 in
air-fired as well as in O2/N2 and O2/CO2 combustion modes. Replacing
O2/CO2 with O2/RFG oxycombustion mode for the same oxygen concen-
tration results in further enhancement of SO2 emissions. Such a behav-
ior could be explained by the fact, that in O2/RFG oxy-fired combustion
mode sulfur dioxide from the recycled gas makes an additional sulfur
source [6]. Therefore, an increase in SO2 concentration can be observed
in O2/RFG mode due to intense accumulation of SO2 in the furnace
during flue gas recycle [3,7,79].
Contrary to the small-scale combustor the large scale tests employ
limestone. Therefore, the increase in SO2 emissions in the large-scale
boiler is small due to direct sulfation which occurs in oxy-fired combus-
tion modes.
The prepared neural network constitutes a new tool, which can
be used for optimization purposes with the respect of lowering SO2
emissions from CFB boilers operating in air-fired, oxygen-enriched
and oxycombustion environments.
4. Conclusions
The artificial neural network approach was proposed in the paper in
order to predict SO2 emissions from coal combustion in CFB boilers. The
calculations are performed for several CFB combustors, both large- and
pilot-scale, over a wide range of operating conditions, in air-firing,
oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion conditions. Good accuracy in the
prediction of SO2 emissions by the [16-1-6-1] type ANN model was
obtained. The results show that the ANN model is capable of generaliz-
ing relationships between the SO2 emissions and operating parameters
and, therefore, the neurocomputing approach is a suitable method
for the purpose described in the paper.
The developed [16-1-6-1] ANN model constitutes a useful, easy
to implement tool in modeling and takes into account a wide range of
operating parameters.
The simulations of sulfur dioxide emissions from coal combustion
in large- and pilot-scale CFB boilers, operating in air-fired as well as in
oxygen-enriched and oxycombustion O2/CO2 and O2/RFG atmospheres
are described in the Part 2 of the paper.
73
Acknowledgments
Financial support of this work by the Polish Government, as a part of
Framework Project PZ-403-601/07: Supercritical Coal-fired Power
Units, is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] J. Ahn, D. Overacker, R. Okerlund, A. Fry, E.G. Eddings, SO3 formation during oxy-coal
combustion, The Proc. of the 35th International Technical Conference on Clean Coal
& Fuel Systems, The Clearwater Clean Coal Conference, Clearwater, Florida, USA June
6–10 2010, pp. 78–87.
[2] E.L. Bool, S. Laux, E. Eddings, Oxy-coal combustion in small-scale CFB, Proc. of the
35th International Technical Conference on Clean Coal & Fuel Systems June 6–10
2010, pp. 190–196 (Florida, USA).
[3] T. Czakiert, Oxy-fuel Combustion of Coal in Circulating Fluidized Bed, Monograph
no. 282, Publ. Office of Czestochowa University of Technology, Czestochowa (in Polish),
2013.
[4] EPA/600/R – 08/047FA, Integrated Science Assessment for Sulfur Oxides — Health
Criteria. National Center for Environmental Assessment — RTP Division, Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, 2008.
[5] M.J. Fernandez, A. Lyngfelt, Concentration of sulphur compounds in the combustion
chamber of a circulating fluidised-bed boiler, Fuel 80 (2001) 321–326.
[6] G. Scheffknecht, L. Al-Makhadmeh, U. Schnell, J. Maier, Oxy-fuel coal combustion —
a review of the current state-of-the-art, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 5S (2011)
S16–S35.
[7] T. Wall, Y. Liu, C. Spero, L. Elliott, S. Khare, R. Rathnam, F. Zeenathal, B. Moghtaderi, B.
Buhre, C. Sheng, R. Gupta, T. Yamada, K. Makino, J. Yu, An overview on oxyfuel coal
combustion — state of the art research and technology development, Chem. Eng.
Res. Des. 87 (2009) 1003–1016.
[8] Y. Mathieu, L. Tzanis, M. Soulard, J. Patarin, M. Vierling, M. Molière, Adsorption of
SOx by oxide materials: a review, Fuel Process. Technol. 114 (2013) 81–100.
[9] C. Lupiáñez, I. Guedea, I. Bolea, L.I. Díez, L.M. Romeo, Experimental study of SO2 and
NOx emissions in fluidized bed oxy-fuel combustion, Fuel Process. Technol. 106
(2013) 587–594.
[10] L.F. Diego, C.A. Londono, X.W. Wang, B.M. Gibbs, Influence of operating parameters
on NOx and N2O axial profiles in a circulating fluidized bed combustor, Fuel 75
(1996) 971–978.
[11] A. Gungor, Prediction of SO2 and NOx emissions for low-grade Turkish lignites in CFB
combustors, Chem. Eng. J. 146 (2009) 388–400.
[12] L.A.D.C. Tarelho, M.A.A. Matos, F.J.M.A. Pereira, The influence of operational param-
eters on SO2 removal by limestone during fluidised bed coal combustion, Fuel Process.
Technol. 86 (2005) 1385–1401.
[13] C. Chen, C. Zhao, C. Liang, K. Pang, Experimental study on the sulfation characteris-
tics of limestone with SO2 under high CO2 partial pressure, Proc. of the 19-th FBC
Conference, 2006.
[14] F. García-Labiano, A. Rufas, L.F. De Diego, M.D.L. Obras-Loscertales, P. Gayán, A. Abad,
J. Adánez, Calcium-based sorbents behaviour during sulphation at oxy-fuel fluidised
bed combustion conditions, Fuel 90 (2011) 3100–3310.
[15] H. Liu, S. Katagiri, U. Kaneko, K. Okazaki, Sulfation behavior of limestone under high
CO2 concentration in O2/CO2 coal combustion, Fuel 79 (2000) 945–953.
[16] H. Liu, B.M. Gibbs, The influence of limestone addition at different positions on
gaseous emissions from a coal-fired circulating fluidized bed combustor, Fuel 77
(1998) 1569–1577.
[17] F. Scala, R. Chirone, P. Meloni, G. Carcangiu, M. Manca, G. Mulas, A. Mulas, Fluidized
bed desulfurization using lime obtained after slow calcination of limestone particles,
Fuel 114 (2013) 99–105.
[18] Y. Tan, L. Jia, Y. Wu, E.J. Anthony, Experiences and results on a 0.8 MWth oxy-fuel
operation pilot-scale circulating fluidized bed, Appl. Energy 92 (2012) 343–347.
[19] J. Adanez, L.D. Diego, F. García-Labiano, P. Gayán, Sulphur retention in circulating
fluidized bed coal combustion. Modelling and simulation, coal, Sci. Technol. 24
(1995) 1839–1842.
[20] J. Adanez, L.F. de Diego, P. Gayán, L. Armesto, A. Cabanillas, Modelling of sulfur reten-
tion in circulating fluidized bed combustors, Fuel 75 (1996) 262–270.
[21] J. Adanez, P. Gayán, G. Grasa, L.F. De Diego, L. Armesto, A. Cabanillas, Circulating
fluidized bed combustion in the turbulent regime: modelling of carbon combustion
efficiency and sulphur retention, Fuel 80 (2001) 1405–1414.
[22] A. Coppola, P. Salatino, F. Montagnaro, F. Scala, Hydration-induced reactivation of
spent sorbents for fluidized bed calcium looping (double looping), Fuel Process.
Technol. 120 (2014) 71–78.
[23] L. Duan, C. Zhao, W. Zhou, C. Liang, X. Chen, Sulfur evolution from coal combustion
in O2/CO2 mixture, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 86 (2009) 269–273.
[24] T. Eriksson, O. Sippu, A. Hotta, Z. Fan, K. Myohanen, T. Hyppanen, Oxyfuel CFB boiler
as a route to near zero CO2 emission coal firing, Proc. of Power Generation Europe,
Madrid, Spain, June 26–28 2007.
[25] A. Gungor, N. Eskin, Two-dimensional coal combustion modelling of CFB, Int.
J. Therm. Sci. 47 (2008) 157–174.
[26] A. Gungor, N. Eskin, Effects of operational parameters on emission performance and
combustion efficiency in small-scale CFBCs, J. Chin. Inst. Chem. Eng. 39 (2008)
541–556.
[27] F. Scala, P. Salatino, Attrition of limestones by impact loading in fluidized beds: the
influence of reaction conditions, Fuel Process. Technol. 91 (2010) 1022–1027.
74 J. Krzywanski et al. / Fuel Processing Technology 137 (2015) 66–74
[28] C. Lupiáñez, F. Scala, P. Salatino, L.M. Romeo, L.I. Díez, Primary fragmentation of
limestone under oxy-firing conditions in a bubbling fluidized bed, Fuel Process.
Technol. 92 (2011) 1449–1456.
[29] C. Zhao, L. Duan, W. Zhou, X. Chen, D. Zeng, T. Flynn, D. Kraft, Coal combustion
characteristic on an oxy-CFB combustor with warm flue gas recycle, Proc. of the
21 International Conference on fluidized bed combustion. Naples, Italy, June 3–6
2012, pp. 437–444.
[30] Y. Hu, S. Naito, N. Kobayashi, M. Hasatani, CO2, NOx and SO2 emissions from
the combustion of coal with high oxygen concentration gases, Fuel 79 (2000)
1925–1932.
[31] B. Leckner, A. Lyngfelt, Optimization of emissions from fluidized bed combustion of
coal, biofuel and waste, Int. J. Energy Res. 26 (2002) 1191–1202.
[32] W. Muskała, J. Krzywański, R. Sekret, W. Nowak, Model research of coal combustion
in circulating fluidized bed boilers, Chem. Process. Eng. 29 (2008) 473–492.
[33] J. Krzywański, R. Rajczyk, W. Nowak, Model research of gas emissions from lignite
and biomass co-combustion in a large scale CFB boilers, Chem. Process. Eng. 35
(2014) 217-213.
[34] J.M. Krzywański, Modelling of flue gas emissions and heat transfer during solid
fuels combustion in circulating fluidized bed, A Practical Approach, Publ. Office of
Czestochowa University of Technology, Monograph No 293, Czestochowa2014.
[35] J. Krzywanski, R. Rajczyk, M. Bednarek, M. Wesolowska, W. Nowak, Gas emissions
from a large scale circulating fluidized bed boilers burning lignite and biomass,
Fuel Process. Technol. 116 (2013) 27–34.
[36] T. Klajny, J. Krzywanski, W. Nowak, Mechanism and kinetics of coal combustion in
oxygen enhanced conditions, Proc. of the 6th International Symposium on Coal
Combustion Location: Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol. Wuhan, China, Dec. 1–4 2007,
pp. 148–153.
[37] W. Muskała, J. Krzywański, T. Czakiert, W. Nowak, The research of CFB boiler
operation for oxygen-enhanced dried lignite combustion, Rynek Energii 1 (2011)
172–176.
[38] B. Leckner, Fluidized bed combustion: mixing and pollutant limitation, Prog. Energy
Combust. 24 (1998) 31–61.
[39] A. Lyngfelt, L.E. Aamand, B. Leckner, Obtaining low N2O, NO, and SO2 emissions from
circulating fluidized bed boilers by reversing the air staging conditions, Energy Fuel
9 (1995) 386–387.
[40] A. Lyngfelt, B. Leckner, Sulphur capture in circulating fluidized-bed boilers: can the
efficiency be predicted? Chem. Eng. Sci. 54 (1999) 5573–5584.
[41] T. Mattisson, A. Lyngfelt, A sulphur capture model for circulating fluidized-bed
boilers, Chem. Eng. Sci. 53 (1998) 1163–1173.
[42] M.B. Toftegaard, J. Brix, P.A. Jensen, P. Glarborg, A.D. Jensen, Oxyfuel combustion of
solid fuels, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 36 (2010) 581–625.
[43] M. Varonen, I. Hyytiäinen, M. Palonen, V. Ylä-Outinen, Results of oxyfuel combustion
tests in 4 MWth CFB pilot boiler, Proc. of the 21th International Conference on
Fluidized Bed Combustion, Naples, Italy June 3–6 2012, pp. 325–333.
[44] F. Scala, P. Salatino, Flue gas desulfurization under simulated oxyfiring fluidized bed
combustion conditions: the influence of limestone attrition and fragmentation,
Chem. Eng. Sci. 65 (2010) 556–561.
[45] E.J. Anthony, D.L. Granatstein, Sulfation phenomena in fluidized bed combustion
systems, Prog. Energy Combust. 27 (2001) 215–236.
[46] C. Sheng, M. Xu, J. Zhang, Y. Xu, Comparison of sulphur retention by coal ash in
different types of combustors, Fuel Process. Technol. 64 (2000) 1–11.
[47] L. Jia, Y. Tan, Y. Wu, E.J. Anthony, Oxy-fuel combustion tests using a 0.8 MWth pilot-
scale circulating fluidized bed, Proc. of the 21 International Conference on Fluidized
Bed Combustion, Naples, Italy June 3–6 2012, pp. 381–389.
[48] L. Jia, Y. Tan, C. Wang, E.J. Anthony, Emissions of SO2 and NOx during oxy-fuel CFB
combustion tests in a mini-circulating fluidized bed combustion reactor, Energy
Fuel 24 (2010) 910–915.
[49] P. Basu, Combustion of coal in circulating fluidized-bed boilers: a review, Chem. Eng.
Sci. 54 (1999) 5547–5557.
[50] L. Huilin, Z. Guangbo, B. Rushan, C. Yongjin, D. Gidaspow, A coal combustion model
for circulating fluidized bed boilers, Fuel 79 (2000) 165–172.
[51] F. Scala, M. D'Ascenzo, A. Lancia, Modeling flue gas desulfurization by spray-dry
absorption, Sep. Purif. Technol. 34 (2004) 143–153.
[52] W. Zhou, C. Zhao, L. Duan, X. Chen, D. Liu, A simulation study of coal combustion
under O2/CO2 and O2/RFG atmospheres in circulating fluidized bed, Chem. Eng. J.
223 (2013) 816–823.
[53] W. Zhou, C. Zhao, L. Duan, D. Liu, X. Chen, CFD modeling of oxy-coal combustion in
circulating fluidized bed, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 5 (2011) 1489–1497.
[54] W. Zhou, C. Zhao, L. Duan, X. Chen, A simulation study of oxy-fuel combustion in a
circulating fluidized bed, Proc. of the 35th International Technical Conference on
Clean Coal & Fuel Systems, USA, June 6–10 2010, pp. 299–306.
[55] W. Zhou, C. Zhao, L. Duan, C. Qu, Two-dimensional computational fluid dynamics
simulation of coal combustion in a circulating fluidized bed combustor, Chem.
Eng. J. 173 (2011) 564–573.
[56] J. Krzywanski, T. Czakiert, W. Muskała, W. Nowak, Modelling of CO2, CO, SO2, O2
and NOx emissions from the oxy-fuel combustion in a circulating fluidized bed,
Fuel Process. Technol. 92 (2011) 590–596.
[57] J. Krzywanski, T. Czakiert, W. Muskala, R. Sekret, W. Nowak, Modeling of solid fuels
combustion in oxygen-enriched atmosphere in circulating fluidized bed boiler.
Part 1. The mathematical model of fuel combustion in oxygen-enriched CFB envi-
ronment, Fuel Process. Technol. 91 (2010) 290–295.
[58] J. Krzywanski, T. Czakiert, W. Muskala, R. Sekret, W. Nowak, Modeling of solid fuel
combustion in oxygen-enriched atmosphere in circulating fluidized bed boiler.
Part 2. Numerical simulations of heat transfer and gaseous pollutant emissions
associated with coal combustion in O2/CO2 and O2/N2 atmospheres enriched
with oxygen under circulating fluidized bed conditions, Fuel Process. Technol. 91
(2010) 364–368.
[59] T. Eriksson, K. Nuortimo, A. Hotta, K. Myohanen, T. Hyppanen, T. Pikkarainen, Near
zero CO2 emissions in coal firing with oxyfuel CFB boiler, Proc. of the 9th Interna-
tional Conference on Circulating Fluidized Beds. Hamburg, Germany, 2008.
[60] T. Pikkarainen, A. Tourunen, H. Nevalainen, T. Leino, J. Saastamoinen, T. Eriksson,
Small scale fluidized bed experiments under oxygen combustion conditions, Proc.
of the International Conference on Coal Science & Technology, University of Notting-
ham, UK, August 28–31 2007.
[61] N. Zhang, B. Lu, W. Wang, J. Li, 3D CFD simulation of combustion in a 150 MWe
circulating fluidized bed boiler, Proc. of the 10th International Conference on Circu-
lating Fluidized Beds and Fluidization Technology – CFB – 10, Sunriver, Oregon, USA,
May 1–5 2011, pp. 537–544.
[62] C. Zhao, W. Zhou, L. Duan, X. Chan, 2D Euler–Euler simulation of oxy-coal combus-
tion in a circulating fluidized bed, Proc. of the 21 International Conference on Fluid-
ized Bed Combustion, Naples, Italy, June 3–6 2012, pp. 495–502.
[63] M. Liukkonen, M. Heikkinen, T. Hiltunen, E. Halikka, R. Kuivalainen, Y. Hiltunen,
Artificial neural networks for analysis of process states in fluidized bed combustion,
Energy 36 (2011) 339–347.
[64] M. Liukkonen, T. Hiltunen, E. Hälikkä, Y. Hiltunen, Modeling of the fluidized bed com-
bustion process and NOx emissions using self-organizing maps: an application to the
diagnosis of process states, Environ. Model Softw. 26 (2011) 605–614.
[65] J. Krzywanski, W. Nowak, Modeling of heat transfer coefficient in the furnace of CFB
boilers by artificial neural network approach, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 55 (2012)
4246–4253.
[66] J. Krzywanski, A. Blaszczuk, T. Czakiert, R. Rajczyk, W. Nowak, Artificial intelligence
treatment of NOx emissions from CFBC in air-fired and oxy-fuel conditions, Proc. of
the 11th International Conferences on Fluidized Bed Technology, CFB — 11, Beijing,
China, May 14–17, 2014.
[67] R.R. Jensen, S. Karki, H. Salehfar, Artificial neural network-based estimation of
mercury speciation in combustion flue gases, Fuel Process. Technol. 85 (2004)
451–462.
[68] R. Karadag, O. Akgobek, The prediction of convective heat transfer in floor-heating
systems by artificial neural networks, Int. Commun. Heat Mass 35 (2008) 312–325.
[69] J. Zhang, F. Haghighat, Development of artificial neural network based heat convec-
tion algorithm for thermal simulation of large rectangular cross-sectional area
earth-to-air heat exchangers, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 435–440.
[70] P. Boniecki, J. Dach, K. Pilarski, H. Piekarska-Boniecka, Artificial neural networks for
modeling ammonia emissions released from sewage sludge composting, Atmos.
Environ. 57 (2012) 49–54.
[71] U. Kesgin, Genetic algorithm and artificial neural network for engine optimization of
efficiency and NOx emission, Fuel 83 (2004) 885–895.
[72] S.S. Sablani, A neural network approach for non-iterative calculation of heat transfer
coefficient in fluid-particle systems, Chem. Eng. Process. 40 (2001) 363–369.
[73] S.A. Kalogirou, Applications of artificial neural networks in energy systems. A
review, Energy Convers. Manag. 40 (1999) 1073–1087.
[74] M.W. Gardner, S.R. Dorling, Artificial neural networks (the multilayer perceptron) —
a review of applications in the atmospheric sciences, Atmos. Environ. 32 (1998)
2627–2636.
[75] H. Ye, R. Nicolai, L. Reh, A Bayesian–Gaussian neural network and its applications in
process engineering, Chem. Eng. Process. 37 (1998) 439–449.
[76] J. Werther, Fluid dynamics, temperature and concentration fields in large-scale CFB
combustors, Proc. of the 8-th International Conference on Circulating Fluidized Beds,
Hangzhou, China, May 10–13 2005, pp. 1–25.
[77] L. Jia, Y. Tan, C. Wang, E.J. Anthony, Experimental study of oxy-fuel combustion and
sulfur capture in a mini-CFBC, Energy Fuel 21 (2007) 3160–3164.
[78] L. Jia, T. Tan, D. McCalden, Y. Wu, I. He, R. Symonds, E.J. Anthony, Commissioning
of 0.8 MWth CFBC for oxy-fuel combustion, Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control 7 (2012)
240–243.
[79] L. Duan, H. Sun, C. Zhao, W. Zhou, X. Chen, Coal combustion characteristics on an
oxy-fuel circulating fluidized bed combustor with warm flue gas recycle, Fuel 127
(2014) 47–51.
[80] A. Blaszczuk, W. Nowak, Bed-to-wall heat transfer coefficient in a supercritical
CFB boiler at different bed particle sizes, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 79 (2014) 736–749.
[81] R. Sekret, Thermal and flow conditions and pollutant emissions, Large-scale Circu-
lating Fluidized Bed Boilers, Monograph no. 1694, Silesian University of Technology,
Gliwice (in Polish), 2005.
[82] J.J. Xie, X.M. Yang, L. Zhang, T.L. Ding, W.L. Song, W.G. Lin, Emissions of SO2, NO and
N2O in a circulating fluidized bed combustor during co-firing coal and biomass,
J. Environ. Sci. 19 (2007) 109–116.
[83] T. Knöbig, J. Werther, L.E. Åmand, B. Leckner, Comparison of large-and small-scale
circulating fluidized bed combustors with respect to pollutant formation and reduc-
tion for different fuels, Fuel 77 (1998) 1635–1642.
[84] L.E. Ersoy, M.R. Golriz, M. Koksal, F. Hamdullahpur, Circulating fluidized bed hydro-
dynamics with air staging: an experimental study, Powder Technol. 145 (2004)
25–33.
[85] Y. Kang, P.S. Song, J.S. Yun, Y.Y. Jeong, S.D. Kim, Effects of secondary air injection on
gas–solid flow behavior in circulating fluidized beds, Chem. Eng. Commun. 177
(2000) 31–47.