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Jorge Santamaria
B.S., Universidad Centroamericana “Jose Simeon Canas”, El Salvador, 2006
PROJECT
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
at
SUMMER
2011
ANALYSIS OF POWER SYSTEMS UNDER FAULT CONDITIONS
A Project
by
Jorge Santamaria
Approved by:
______________________________, Committee Chair
Turan Gonen, Ph.D
__________________________
Date
ii
Student: Jorge Santamaria
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
iii
Abstract
of
by
Jorge Santamaria
The analysis of Power Systems under fault condition represents one of the most
important and complex task in Power Engineering. The studies and detection of these
faults is necessary to ensure that the reliability and stability of the power system do not
suffer a decrement as a result of a critical event such a fault. This project will conduct a
research, analyze the behavior of a system under fault conditions and evaluate different
scenarios of faults.
_________________________________
Date
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to God for granting me with wisdom and the
opportunity of an education.
I would like to thank my family members and closest friends, who have been a constant
source of inspiration and support throughout my life and academic career, particularly my
My sincere appreciation and gratitude goes to my professor and advisor of this project Dr
Turan Gonen for his advice, assistance and valuable guidance in the preparation of this work.
Acknowledgement is extended to my friend Saud Al-Saiare for his help throughout the
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………v
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………..ix
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………….x
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….1
1.1 Overview………………................................................................... 1
2.1 General…………………………………………………………….. 4
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………… 10
3.3.3 Transformers…………………………………………………… 21
5. CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………….. ……....68
vii
Appendix B. Matlab code…………...………………………………………...…… 76
References …………………………………………………………………..……... 83
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
5. Figure 3.5 Transmission line diagram with equal series and equal mutual
impedances………………………………………………………………….20
x
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
During normal operating conditions, current will flow through all elements of the
electrical power system within pre-designed values which are appropriate to these
elements’ ratings. Any power system can be analyzed by calculating the system voltages
the phase will establish a connection with another phase, the ground or both in some
cases [4]. A falling tree on a transmission lines could cause a three-phase fault where all
phases share a point of contact called fault location. In different occasions, fault could be
Faults can be defined as the flow of a massive current through an improper path
which could cause enormous equipment damage which will lead to interruption of power,
personal injury, or death. In addition, the voltage level will alternate which can affect the
if the voltage is below a minimum level. As a result, the electrical potential difference of
the system neutral will increase [2]. Hence, People and equipment will be exposed to the
In order to prevent such an event, power system fault analysis was introduced.
The process of evaluating the system voltages and currents under various types of short
2
circuits is called fault analysis which can determine the necessary safety measures & the
required protection system [4]. It is essential to guarantee the safety of public [10]. The
analysis of faults leads to appropriate protection settings which can be computed in order
to select suitable fuse, circuit breaker size and type of relay [2].
The severity of the fault depends on the short-circuit location, the path taken by
fault current, the system impedance and its voltage level. In order to maintain the
continuation of power supply to all customers which is the core purpose of the power
system existence, all faulted parts must be isolated from the system temporary by the
protection schemes. When a fault exists within the relay protection zone at any
transmission line, a signal will trip or open the circuit breaker isolating the faulted line.
To complete this task successfully, fault analysis has to be conducted in every location
assuming several fault conditions. The goal is to determine the optimum protection
scheme by determining the fault currents & voltages. In reality, power system can consist
of thousands of buses which complicate the task of calculating these parameters without
the use of computer software such as Matlab. In 1956, L.W. Coombe and D. G. Lewis
There are two types of faults which can occur on any transmission lines; balanced
faults & unbalanced faults. In addition, unbalanced faults can be classified into single
line-to-ground faults, double line faults and double line-to-ground faults. The most
common types taking place in reality are as follow: Line-to-ground fault: this type of
fault exists when one phase of any transmission lines establishes a connection with the
3
ground either by ice, wind, falling tree or any other incident. 70% of all transmission
Line-to-line fault: as a result of high winds, one phase could touch anther phase &
line-to-line fault takes place. 15% of all transmission lines faults are considered line-to-
Double line-to-ground: two phases will be involved instead of one at the line-to-
ground faults scenarios. 10% of all transmission lines faults are under this type of faults
[11].
Three phase fault: in this case, falling tower, failure of equipment or even a line
breaking and touching the remaining phases can cause three phase faults. In reality, this
type of fault not often exists which can be seen from its share of 5% of all transmission
lines faults [11].In order to analyze any unbalanced power system, C.L. Fortescue
introduced a method called symmetrical components in 1918 to solve such system using
a balanced representation [6]. In this project, literature review section will be provided to
summarize the methods used to analyze such cases. Then, a description of the
symmetrical components methods will be discussed in detail. Its mathematical model will
be presented. After that, a 6-bus system will be under fault for analysis. This analysis will
take place using the manual calculations. These results will be compared later with the
results of Matlab codes. These results will be discussed in the final chapter and a
Chapter 2
2.1 General
power systems. The generation of electric power takes place in a power plant. Then the
voltage level of the power will be raised by the transformer before the power is
transmitted. Electric power is proportional to the product of voltage and current this is the
reason why power transmission voltage levels are used in order to minimize power
The primary objective of all power systems is to maintain the continuous power
supply. During normal operating conditions, current will flow through all elements of the
electrical power system within pre-designed values which are appropriate to these
elements’ ratings. However, natural events such as lightning, weather, ice, wind, heat,
failure in related equipment and many other unpredictable factors may lead to undesirable
situations and connection between the phases conductors of a transmission lines or the
phase conductors to ground, these types of events are known as faults. A falling tree on a
transmission lines could cause a three-phase fault where all phases share a point of
contact called fault location. In different occasions, fault could be a result of insulation
Faults can be defined as the flow of a massive current through an improper path
which could cause enormous equipment damage which will lead to interruption of power,
personal injury, or death. In addition, the voltage level will alternate which can affect the
5
if the voltage is below a minimum level. As a result, the electrical potential difference of
the system neutral will increase. Hence, People and equipment will be exposed to the
Any power system can be analyzed by calculating the system voltages and
The fault currents caused by short circuits may be several orders of magnitude
larger than the normal operating currents and are determined by the system impedance
between the generator voltages and the fault, under the worst scenario if the fault persists,
it may lead to long-term power loss, blackouts and permanently damage to the
equipment. To prevent such an undesirable situation, the temporary isolation of the fault
from the whole system it is necessary as soon as possible. This is accomplished by the
The process of evaluating the system voltages and currents under various types of
short-circuits is called fault analysis which can determine the necessary safety measures
& the required protection system to guarantee the safety of public [4].
computed in order to select suitable fuse, circuit breaker size and type of relay [2].
The severity of the fault depends on the short-circuit location, the path taken by
fault current, the system impedance and its voltage level. In order to maintain the
continuation of power supply to all customers which is the core purpose of the power
system existence, all faulted parts must be isolated from the system temporary by the
6
protection schemes. When a fault exists within the relay protection zone at any
transmission line, a signal will trip or open the circuit breaker isolating the faulted
line [4].
location assuming several fault conditions. The goal is to determine the optimum
protection scheme by determining the fault currents & voltages. In reality, power system
can consist of thousands of buses which complicate the task of calculating these
parameters without the use of computer softwares such as Matlab. In 1956, L.W. Coombe
Many exiting texts offer an extensive analysis in fault studies and calculation.
Two worth mentioning are Analysis of Faulted Power System by Paul Anderson and
Gonen. In addition to offer a very illustrative and clear analysis in the fault studies, they
also offer an impressive guideline for the power systems analysis understanding in
general.
There are two types of faults which can occur on any transmission lines; balanced
faults and unbalanced faults also known as symmetrical and asymmetrical faults
respectively. Most of the faults that occur on power systems are not the balanced three-
phase faults, but the unbalances faults. In addition, faults can be categorized as the shunt
faults, series faults and simultaneous faults [1]. In the analysis of power system under
fault conditions, it is necessary to make a distinction between the types of fault to ensure
7
the best results possible in the analysis. However, for this project only shunt faults are to
be analyzed.
Series faults represent open conductor and take place when unbalanced series
impedance conditions of the lines are present. Two examples of series fault are when the
system holds one or two broken lines, or impedance inserted in one or two lines. In the
real world a series faults takes place, for example, when circuit breakers controls the lines
and do not open all three phases, in this case, one or two phases of the line may be open
while the other/s is closed [1]. Series faults are characterized by increase of voltage and
The shunt faults are the most common type of fault taking place in the field. They
One of the most important characteristics of shunt faults is the increment the current
suffers and fall in voltage and frequency. Shunt faults cab be classified into four
categories [5].
1. Line-to-ground fault: this type of fault exists when one phase of any
wind, falling tree or any other incident. 70% of all transmission lines faults are
2. Line-to-line fault: as a result of high winds, one phase could touch anther
phase & line-to-line fault takes place. 15% of all transmission lines faults are
3. Double line-to-ground: falling tree where two phases become in contact with
the ground could lead to this type of fault. In addition, two phases will be
4. Three phase fault: in this case, falling tower, failure of equipment or even a
line breaking and touching the remaining phases can cause three phase faults.
In reality, this type of fault not often exists which can be seen from its share of
method called symmetrical components in 1918 to solve such system using a balanced
representation [6]. This method is considered the base of all traditional fault analysis
The theory suggests that any unbalanced system can be represented by a number
of balanced systems equal to the number of its phasors. The balanced systems
representations are called symmetrical components. In three-phase system, there are three
sets of balanced symmetrical components can be obtain; the positive, negative and zero
sequence components. The positive sequence consists of set of phasors which has the
9
same original system sequence. The second set of phasors has an opposite sequence
which is called the negative sequence. The zero sequence has three components in phase
with each other. The symmetrical components theory will be discuss into more detail in
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the mathematical model that is used in the analysis of
faulted power systems and the assumptions that are used in this project's analysis.
impedance called Zf between the ground and each phase. The short circuit will be called a
solid fault when Zf is equal to zero. This type of fault is considered the most sever short
circuit which can affect any electrical system. Fortunately, it is rarely taking place in
reality. Fortescue segregated asymmetrical three-phase voltages and currents into three
Analyzing any symmetrical fault can be achieved using impedance matrix method
or Thevenin’s method. Fortescue’s theorem suggests that any unbalanced fault can be
solved into three independent symmetrical components which differ in the phase
sequence. These components consist of a positive sequence, negative sequence and a zero
sequence.
each other by 120o with the same sequence as the original phases. The positive sequence
currents and voltages follow the same cycle order of the original source. In the case of
11
typical counter clockwise rotation electrical system, the positive sequence phasor are
shown in Fig 3.1. The same case applies for the positive current phasors. This sequence is
also called the “abc” sequence and usually denoted by the symbol “+” or “1” [9].
Va1
Vb1
from each other by 120o similar to the positive sequence components. However, it has an
opposite phase sequence from the original system. The negative sequence is identified as
the “acb” sequence and usually denoted by the symbol “-” or “2” [9].The phasors of this
sequence are shown in Fig 3.2 where the phasors rotate anti- clockwise. This sequence
components,
12
Va2
Vc2
magnitude as before but with a zero displacement. The phasor components are in phase
with each other. This is illustrated in Fig 3.3. Under an asymmetrical fault condition, this
sequence symbolizes the residual electricity in the system in terms of voltages and
currents where a ground or a fourth wire exists. It happens when ground currents return to
the power system through any grounding point in the electrical system. In this type of
faults, the positive and the negative components are also present. This sequence is known
Zero Sequence
Components
The addition of all symmetrical components will present the original system
Va = Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2
Vb = Vb 0 + Vb1 + Vb 2 (3.1)
Vc = Vc 0 + Vc1 + Vc 2
a = 1∠0° (3.2)
a 2 = 1∠ − 120°
a3 = 1∠0°
From the above definition and using the “a” operator, it can be translated into a
V=
a0 V=
b0 Vc 0 (3.3)
Vb1 = a 2Va1
(3.4)
Vc1 = aVa1
Vb 2 = aVa 2
(3.5)
Vc 2 = a 2Va 2
Now, the original system phasors Va, Vb and Vc can be expressed in terms of
Va = Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2
Vb =Va 0 + a 2Va1 + aVa 2 (3.6)
Vc =Va 0 + aVa1 + a 2Va 2
Va 1 1 1 Va 0
Vb = 1 a
2
a Va1 (3.7)
Vc 1 a a 2 Va 2
Defining A as:
1 1 1
A = 1 a 2 a (3.8)
1 a a 2
Va Va 0
V = A V (3.9)
b a1
Vc Va 2
This equation can be reversed in order to obtain the positive, negative and zero
Va 0 Va
−1
Va1 = A Vb (3.10)
Va 2 Vc
1 1 1
1
A = 1 a
−1
a 2 (3.11)
3
1 a 2 a
These equations can be applied for the phase voltages and currents. In addition, it can
express the line currents and the line-to-line voltages of any power system under fault
conditions.
Due to the extensive information about sequence impedances and sequence network
machines and other rotating machines have generally different values. For a synchronous
machine the selection of its positive-sequence impedance depends on the time that is
assume to elapse from the instant the fault initiates to the instant at which values are
16
desired (e.g., for relay response, breaker opening, or sustained fault conditions), therefore
subtransnient reactance of the synchronous machine the one usually taken for fault
The subtransient and negative-sequence reactances are the same in the case of a
X d'' + X q''
= =
Z 2 jX j (3.11)
2 2
little more complicated since it varies widely and depends on the pitch of the armature
coils. The zero-sequence impedance is much smaller than the corresponding positive,
by connecting the three armature windings in series and applying a single-phase voltage
[1].
sources are present in its equivalent model. It is also considered a bilateral device which
means the line behavior remains the same way no matter the direction of the current. It is
Due to these characteristics the phase sequence of the applied voltage makes no
difference, this means that the a-b-c (positive-sequence) voltages produce the same
transmission line for its positive- and negative-sequence are the same, provided that the
line is transposed. A transmission line is transposed when the phase conductors of the
line physically exchange positions along the length of the line [7].
Ia
a Zaa a’
Ib Zab
b Zbb b’
Va Va'
Zbc
c Ic Zcc Zca c’
Vb Vb'
Vc n Ia + Ib + Ic= In n’ Vc'
Where,
18
Z aa Z ab Z ac
[ Z abc ] = Zba Z bb Z bc (3.13)
Z ca Z cb Z cc
Z aa ≠ Z bb ≠ Z cc (3.14)
Z ab ≠ Z bc ≠ Z ca (3.15)
then,
where,
[ Z 012 ] [ A] [ Z abc ][ A]
−1
(3.18)
Z 00 Z 01 Z 02
[ Z 012 ] = Z10 Z11 Z12 (3.19)
Z 20 Z 21 Z 22
( Z s 0 + 2 Z m 0 ) ( Z s 2 − Z m 2 ) ( Z s1 − Z m1 )
[ Z 012 ] =
( Z s1 − Z m1 ) ( Z s 0 − Z m 0 ) ( Z s 2 + 2Z m 2 ) (3.20)
( Z s 2 − Z m 2 ) ( Z s1 − 2Z m1 ) ( Z s 0 − Z m 0 )
19
Therefore,
The resultant matrix from Equation 3.20 is not symmetrical this means that the
result obtained from Equation 3.27 will show a non desirable result such as mutual
There are two solutions to this problem, one is to completely transpose the line
and the other one is to obtained equal mutual impedances by placing the conductors with
20
transposed line with equal series and equal mutual impedances. [1]
Ia
a Zs a’
Ib Zm
b Zs b’
Va Va'
Zm
c Ic Zs Zm c’
Vb Vb'
Vc n Ia + Ib + Ic= In n’ Vc'
Figure 3.5 Transmission line diagram with equal series and equal mutual impedances
For a transposed line such as the one represented in Figure 3.5 the mutual
impedances are
Z=
ab Z=
bc Z=
ca Zm (3.28)
Z=
aa Z=
bb Z=
cc Zs (3.29)
Zs Zm Zm
[ Z abc ] = Z m Zs Z m (3.30)
Z m Z 21 Z s
D
Z s = ( ra + re ) + j 0.1213ln e l Ω, (3.31)
Ds
21
De
Zm =
re + j 0.1213ln l Ω, (3.32)
Deq
And,
( Z s + 2 Z m ) 0 0
=[ Z 012 ] 0 ( Zs − Zm ) 0
, (3.34)
0 0 ( Z s − Z m )
Z0 0 0
[ Z 012 ] = 0 Z1 0 , (3.35)
0 0 Z 2
As it can be seen from equations 3.34 and 3.35, the result is desirable since there
is no mutual coupling among the three sequences. This means that each sequence
network only produce voltage drop in their respective sequence network. [1]
3.3.3 Transformers
phase transformer. This is known as a three-phase transform bank. The positive and
negative sequence currents in a transformer are the same. However, the zero-sequence
series impedances of three-units are a little different than the positive-, and negative-
22
sequence series impedance, but in practice all the sequences impedances are assumed to
Z=
0 Z=
1 Z=
2 Z trf (3.36)
transformer connection.
shown in Figure 3.6. If the zero sequence current path is not indicated in the diagram this
Some points are important to highlight, zero sequence current flows inside the
delta windings for a delta-delta bank but prevents it to flow outside the windings by not
Also, it is important to notice that there is no existing path that allows the flow of
bank. The reason is no zero-sequence current is present in any given winding on the wye
side of the transformer bank since it has an ungrounded wye connection. [1]
23
P S n
Ia0 Ia0
3Ia0 3Ia0
Ia0 Ia0
N0
Z0
P S
P S n n
N0
Ia0 Z0
P S
n
P S
Ia0
3Ia0
Ia0
N0
Z0
P S
P S
N0
Z0
P S
P S
N0
Z0
P S
P S n n
N0
made of three indentical single-phase transformers with three windings are shown in
figure 3.7. It is important to note that for a three-phase transformer bank made with three
24
identical single-phase transformers with three windings the wye-wye connection with
delta tertiary is the only one that allows the flow of zero-sequence current from either
T ZT
N0
T
P S ZP ZS
P S
T ZT
N0
P S ZP ZS
P S
T ZT
N0
S ZP ZS
P P S
T ZT
N0
that interferes with the normal current flow in a power system and forces voltages and
accurate fault analysis of an asymmetrical three-phase system. When the fault is caused
by an unbalance in the line impedance and does not involve a ground, or any type of
hand, when the fault occurs and there is an inter-connection between phase-conductors or
between conductor(s) and ground and/or neutral it is known as a shunt fault. [3]
Statistically, series faults do not occur as often as shunt faults does. Because of
this fact only the shunt faults are explained here in detail since the emphasis in this
frequent fault, it is the most dangerous. Some of the characteristics of a three-phase fault
are a very large fault current and usually a voltage level equals to zero at the site where
where F is the fault point with impedances Zf and Zg . Figure 3.9 shows the sequences
F
a
b
c
Iaf Iaf Iaf
Zf Zf Zf
+ F0 + F1 + F2
Va0 Va1 Z1 Va2
Z0 + Z2
- - o -
N0 N1 1.0 0 N2
-
From Figure 3.9 it can be noticed that the only one that has an internal voltage
source is the positive-sequence network. Therefore, the corresponding currents for each
Ia0 = 0
Ia2 = 0 (3.37)
1.0∠0°
I a1 =
Z1 + Z f
27
1.0∠0°
I a1 = ( 3.38)
Z1
I af 1 1 1 0
I bf = 1 a
2
a I a1 (3.39)
I cf 1 a a 2 0
1.0∠0°
I= I= ,
Z1 + Z f
af a1
1.0∠240°
=
I bf a=
2
I a1 , (3.40)
Z1 + Z f
1.0∠120°
= =
I cf aI
Z1 + Z f
a1
Since the sequence networks are short-circuited over their own fault impedance
Va 0 = 0
Va1 = Z f I a1 (3.41)
Va 2 = 0
Vaf 1 1 1 0
Vbf = 1 a
2
a Va1 (3.42)
Vcf 1 a a 2 0
Therefore,
28
V=
af V=
a1 Z f I a1
Vbf = a 2Va1 = Z f I a1∠240° (3.43)
Vcf = aVa1 = Z f I a1∠120°
If Zf equals to zero,
1.0∠0°
I af =
Z1
1.0∠240°
I bf = , (3.45)
Z1
1.0∠120°
I cf =
Z1
Vaf = 0
Vbf = 0 (3.46)
Vcf = 0
Va 0 = 0
Va1 = 0 (3.47)
Va 2 = 0
The single line-to-ground fault is usually referred as “short circuit” fault and
occurs when one conductor falls to ground or makes contact with the neutral wire. The
29
the fault point with impedances Zf. Figure 3.11 shows the sequences network diagram.
Phase a is usually assumed to be the faulted phase, this is for simplicity in the fault
F
a
b
c
Iaf Ibf = 0 Icf = 0
+
Vaf Zf
-
n
Ia0
F0
+
Va0 Z0
Iaf - N0
Ia1
F1
+ Z1
3Zf Va1 +
- N1 1.0
-
Ia2
F2
+
Va2 Z2
- N2
Since the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence currents are equals as it can be
1.0∠0°
I= I= I a= (3.48)
Z 0 + Z1 + Z 2 + 3Z f
a0 a1 2
Since
I af 1 1 1 Ia0
I bf = 1 a
2
a I a1 (3.49)
I cf 1 a a 2 I a 2
I af = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 (3.50)
it can also be
=
I af 3=
I a 0 3=
I a1 3I a 2 (3.51)
Vaf = Z f I af (3.52)
The voltage at faulted phase a can be obtained by substituting Equation 3.49 into
Vaf = 3Z f I a1 (3.53)
but,
therefore,
Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2 =
3Z f I a1 (3.55)
31
With the results obtained for sequence currents, the sequence voltages can be
obtained from
Va 0 0 1 1 1 Ia0
V = 1.0∠0° − 1 a 2 a I a1 (3.56)
b1
Vc 2 0 1 a a 2 I a 2
By solving Equation
Va 0 = − Z 0 I a 0
V=
a1 1.0 − Z1 I a1 (3.57)
Va 2 = − Z 2 I a 2
If the single line-to-ground fault occurs on phase b or c, the voltages can be found
Vaf 1 1 1 Va 0
Vbf = 1 a
2
a Va1 (3.58)
Vcf 1 a a 2 Va 2
as
transmission system and occurs when two conductors are short-circuited. One of the
characteristic of this type of fault is that its fault impedance magnitude could vary over a
wide range making very hard to predict its upper and lower limits. It is when the fault
impedance is zero that the highest asymmetry at the line-to-line fault occurs [3].
32
is the fault point with impedances Zf. Figure 3.13 shows the sequences network diagram.
Phase b and c are usually assumed to be the faulted phases; this is for simplicity in the
F
a
b
c
Iaf = 0 Ibf Icf = -Ibf
Zf
Zf
I af = 0
I bf = − I cf (3.60)
Vbc = Z f I bf
33
Ia0 = 0 (3.61)
1.0∠0
I a1 =
−Ia2 = (3.62)
Z1 + Z 2 + Z f
If Zf = 0,
1.0∠0
I a1 =
−Ia2 = (3.63)
Z1 + Z 2
The fault currents for phase b and c can be obtained by substituting Equations
Va 0 = 0
Va1 = 1.0 - Z1 I a1 (3.65)
Va 2 = − Z 2 I a 2 = Z 2 I a1
V=
af Va1 + V=
a2 1.0 + Ia1( Z 2 - Z 1)
Vbf= a 2Va1 + aVa=
2 a 2 + Ia1(aZ 2 - a 2 Z 1)
Vcf = aVa1 + a 2Va 2= a + Ia1(a 2 Z 2 - aZ 1) (3.66)
fault when not clear in appropriate time. The major problem when analyzing this type of
fault is the assumption of the fault impedance Zf , and the value of the impedance towards
3.14 where F is the fault point with impedances Zf and the impedance from line to ground
Zg . Figure 3.15 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase b and c are assumed to be
the faulted phases, this is for simplicity in the fault analysis calculations. [1]
F
a
b
c
Iaf = 0 Ibf Icf
Zf Zf
Zg Ibf +Icf
N
n
+ F0 + F1 + F2
Va0 Va1 Z1 Va2
Z0 + Z2
- -
N0 N1 1.0 0o - N2
-
I af = 0
Vbf =( Zf + Zg ) Ibf + ZgIcf (3.68)
Vcf =( Zf + Zg ) Icf + ZgIbf
1.0∠0
Ia1 =
( Z 2 + Zf )( Z 0 + Zf + 3Zg )
( Z 1 + Zf ) +
( Z 2 + Zf ) + ( Z 0 + Zf + 3Zg )
( Z 0 + Z f + 3Z g )
Ia 2 = −[ ]Ia1 (3.69)
( Z 2 + Zf ) + ( Z 0 + Zf + 3Zg )
( Z 2 + Zf )
Ia 0 = −[ ]Ia1
( Z 2 + Zf ) + ( Z 0 + Zf + 3Zg )
If Zf and Zg are both equal to zero, then the positive-, negative-, and zero-
1.0∠0
Ia1 =
( Z 2)( Z 0)
( Z 1) +
( Z 2 + Z 0)
( Z 0)
Ia 2 = −[ ]Ia1 (3.71)
( Z 2 + Z 0)
( Z 2)
Ia 0 = −[ ]Ia1
( Z 2 + Z 0)
I af = 0 (3.72)
Now, substituting Equations 3.71 into Equation 3.49 to obtain phase b and c fault
currents
I bf =I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2
(3.73)
I cf =I a 0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a 2
I=
n 3I a=
0 I bf + I cf (3.74)
V 0 a = − Z 0 Ia 0
V=
a1 1.0 − Z 1 Ia1 (3.75)
Va 2 = − Z 2 Ia 2
Vaf = Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2
Vbf =Va 0 + a 2Va1 + aVa 2 (3.76)
Vcf =Va 0 + aVa1 + a 2Va 2
V=
a0 V=
a1 V=
a2 1.0 − Z 1Ia1 (3.78)
Va 2
Ia 2 = −
Z2 (3.79)
Va 0
Ia 0 = −
Z0
The resultant phase voltages from the relationship given in Equation 3.78 can be
expressed as
=
Vabf V=
af − Vbf Vaf
=
Vbcf V=
bf − Vcf 0
Vcaf = Vcf − Vaf = −Vaf (3.81)
38
Chapter 4
Ward and Hale is used in the following section [2]. The mathematical model previously
confirm the results obtained by hand. Figure 4.1 shows the 6-network system. The
parameters of the system are given in Appendix A and were taken from Faulted Power
1 4 3
Y
1
2
7
9 8
6 3 2
6
5
Y 2
Y
10 5
Hand calculation was done based on the mathematical model and Equations
explained in Chapter 3 and shows the computations for total fault current, buses voltages,
fault currents for each line, sequence currents and phase currents for each shunt fault at
bus 4.
Vk (0)
Ik (F ) = (4.1)
(Z + Z f )
1
kk
where k is the number of the bus where the fault takes place,
V4 (0)
I4 (F ) =
(Z + Z f )
1
44
1∠0
= (4.2)
[(0.13269 + j 0.57694) + 0]
= 1.689183∠ − 77.04782
V1=
(F ) V1 (0) − Z14 I 4
= 1.05∠0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(1.689183∠ − 77.04782 ) (4.4)
= 0.75776∠ − 2.137
40
V3=
(F ) V3 (0) − Z 34 I 4
= 1∠0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(1.689183∠ − 77.04782 ) (4.5)
= 0.07525∠26.769
V4=
(F ) V4 (0) − Z 44 I 4
= 1∠0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(1.689183∠ − 77.04782 ) (4.6)
= 0∠0
V6=
(F ) V6 (0) − Z 64 I 4
= 1∠0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(1.689183∠ − 77.04782 ) (4.7)
= 0.40269∠ − 2.59
Vl ( F ) − V4 ( F ) Vl ( F ) − 0 Vl ( F )
=
Il 4 ( F ) = = (4.8)
( Z l 4 ) Actual ( Z l 4 ) Actual ( Z l 4 ) Actual
For line between bus 1 and bus 4 and applying Equation (4.8) with l = 1
V1 ( F )
I14 ( F ) =
( Z14 ) Actual
(4.9)
0.75776∠ − 2.137
= = 1∠ − 79.936
(0.16 + j 0.74)
For line between bus 3 and bus 4 and applying Equation (4.8) with l = 3
V3 ( F )
I 34 ( F ) =
( Z 34 ) Actual
(4.10)
0.07525∠26.769
= = 0.2894∠ − 63.231
(0 + j 0.26)
For line between bus 6 and bus 4 and applying Equation (4.8) l = 4
41
V6 ( F )
I 64 ( F ) =
( Z 64 ) Actual
(4.11)
0.40269∠ − 2.59
= = 0.4812∠ − 79.1848
(0.194 + j 0.814)
The sequence currents at bus 4 for a single line-to-ground fault are given by
V4 (0)
I=
0
I=
1
I 42
( Z + Z + Z 442 + 3Z f )
4 4 0 1
44 44
1∠0
= (4.13)
(0.00756 + j 0.24138) + 2(0.13269 + j 0.57694) + 0
= 0.70338∠ − 78.931
1 1 1 I 40
I 4=
abc
(F ) =
AI 012
4 1 a
2
a I 41 (4.14)
1 a a 2 I 42
1 1 1 0.70338∠ − 78.931
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.70338∠ − 78.931
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.70338∠ − 78.931
2.1101∠ − 78.931
= 0
0
42
=
I 4a ( F ) 2.1101∠ − 78.931
(4.15)
I 4b ( F ) = I 4c ( F ) = 0
I 4=
(F ) 3=
I 40 3(0.70338∠ − 78.931 )
(4.16)
= 2.1101∠ − 78.931
Vi 0 ( F )= 0 − Z i04 I 40
Vi1=
(F ) Vi (0) − Z i14 I 41 (4.17)
Vi 2
= 0−Z I
(F )
2 2
i4 4
V10 ( F )= 0 − Z140 I 40
= 0 − (−0.0112 + j 0.11474)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.18)
= 0.08108∠ − 163.355
V11=
(F ) V1 (0) − Z141 I 41
= 1.05∠0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 )
(4.19)
= 0.9278∠ − 0.479
V12 ( F )= 0 − Z142 I 42
= 0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.20)
= 0.1224∠ − 176.368
V30 ( F )= 0 − Z 340 I 40
= 0 − (0)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.21)
= 0∠0
43
V31=
(F ) V3 (0) − Z 34
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 )
(4.22)
= 0.6128∠2.513
V32 ( F )= 0 − Z 342 I 42
= 0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.23)
= 0.3889∠176.035
V40 ( F )= 0 − Z 44
0 0
I4
= 0 − (0.00756 + j 0.24138)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.24)
= 0.1698∠ − 170.72
V41=
(F ) V4 (0) − Z 44
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 )
(4.25)
= 0.5839∠1.3426
V42 ( F )= 0 − Z 442 I 42
= 0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.26)
= 0.416∠178.11
V60 ( F )= 0 − Z 640 I 40
= 0 − (−0.01706 + j 0.05554)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 )
(4.27)
= 0.0408∠ − 151.85
V61=
(F ) V6 (0) − Z 64
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 )
(4.28)
= 0.7509∠0.0461
V62 ( F )= 0 − Z 642 I 42
= 0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(0.70338∠ − 78.931 ) (4.29)
= 0.249∠179.86
44
Vl 2 ( F ) − V42 ( F ) Vl 2 ( F ) − 0.416∠178.11
=I 2
l4 (F ) = (4.32)
( Z l24 )line ( Z l24 )line
For line between bus 1 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.30 through 4.32,
with l = 1
V10 ( F ) − V40 ( F )
I140 ( F ) =
( Z140 )line
0.08108∠ − 163.355 − 0.1698∠ − 170.72
= (4.33)
(0.8 + j1.85)
= 0.0446∠ − 63.96
V11 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
I141 ( F ) =
( Z141 )line
0.9278∠ − 0.479 − 0.5839∠1.3426
= (4.34)
(0.16 + j 0.74)
= 0.455∠ − 81.365
V12 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 2
14 ( F ) =
( Z142 )line
0.1224∠ − 176.368 − 0.416∠178.11
= (4.35)
(0.16 + j 0.74)
= 0.3888∠ − 81.98
1 1 1 I140 ( F )
= abc
=
I14 ( F ) AI 012
14 ( F ) 1 a
2
a I141 ( F ) (4.36)
1 a a 2 I142 ( F )
1 1 1 0.0446∠ − 63.96
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.455∠ − 81.365
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.3888∠ − 81.98
0.0446∠ − 63.96
= 0.455∠ − 81.365
0.3888∠ − 81.98
=
I14a ( F ) 0.0446∠ − 63.96
I14=
b
(F ) 0.455∠ − 81.365 (4.37)
I = 0.388∠ − 81.98
c
14 ( F )
For line between Bus 3 and Bus 4 and applying Equations 4.29 through 4.31
with l = 3
V30 ( F ) − V40 ( F )
I 340 ( F ) =
( Z 340 )line
(4.38)
0∠0 − 0.1698∠ − 170.72
= = 0∠0
(0)
V31 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
I 1
34 ( F ) = 1
( Z 34 )line
(4.39)
0.6128∠2.513 − 0.5839∠1.3426
= = 0.1179∠ − 65.15
( j 0.266)
V32 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 2
34 ( F ) = (4.40)
( Z 342 )line
46
0.3889∠176.035 − 0.416∠178.11
= = 0.1156∠ − 64.65
( j 0.266)
I 34abc ( F ) = AI 34012 ( F )
1 1 1 I 340 ( F )
1
= 1 a 2 a I 34 (F )
(4.41)
1 a 2 2
a I 34 ( F )
1 1 1 0∠0
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.1179∠ − 65.15
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.1156∠ − 64.65
=
I 34a ( F ) 0.2335∠ − 63.90
=
I 34b ( F ) 0.1176∠116.07 (4.42)
=
I 34c ( F ) 0.1159∠114.11
For line between Bus 6 and Bus 4 and applying Equations 4.30 through 4.32
with l = 6
V60 ( F ) − V40 ( F )
I 0
64 ( F ) =
( Z 640 )line
0.0408∠ − 151.85 − 0.1698∠ − 170.72
= (4.43)
(0.9 + j 2.06)
= 0.0586∠ − 62.86
V61 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
(F ) =
1
I 64 1
( Z 64 )line
0.7509∠0.0461 − 0.5839∠1.3426
= (4.44)
(0.194 + j 0.814)
= 0.2003∠ − 81.068
47
V62 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 642 ( F ) =
( Z 642 )line
0.249∠179.86 − 0.416∠178.11
= (4.45)
(0.194 + j 0.814)
= 0.1999∠ − 81.09
I 34abc ( F ) = AI 34012 ( F )
1 1 1 I 340 ( F )
1
= 1 a 2 a I 34 (F )
(4.46)
1 a 2 2
a I 34 ( F )
1 1 1 0.0586∠ − 62.86
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.2003∠ − 81.068
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.1999∠ − 81.09
=
I 64a ( F ) 0.4562∠ − 78.78
= b
I 64 (F ) 0.1455∠91.82 (4.47)
=
I 64c ( F ) 0.1457∠91.56
The sequence currents at bus 4 for a single line-to-ground fault are given by
I 40 = 0 (4.49)
V4 (0)
I 41 = (4.50)
( Z + Z 442 + Z f )
1
44
48
1∠0
= = 0.8446∠ − 77.048
2*(0.13269 + j 0.57694) + 0
I 42 =− I 41 =0.8446∠102.95 (4.51)
1 1 1 I 40
= 1 a 2 a I 41
1 a a 2 I 42
1 1 1 0
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.8446∠ − 77.048
0
= 1.4628∠ − 167.05
1.4628∠12.95
I 4b ( F ) =
− I 4c ( F ) =
− j 3I 41
= − j 3(0.8446∠ − 77.048 ) (4.53)
= 1.4628∠ − 167.05
I 4c ( F ) =
− I 4b ( F ) =
1.4628∠12.952 (4.54)
Vi 0 ( F )= 0 − Z i04 I 40
Vi1=
(F ) Vi (0) − Z i14 I 41 (4.55)
Vi 2
= 0−Z I
(F )
2 2
i4 4
V10 ( F )= 0 − Z140 I 40
= 0 − (−0.0112 + j 0.11474)(0∠0 ) (4.56)
= 0∠0
V11=
(F ) V1 (0) − Z141 I 41
= 1.05∠0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(0.8446∠ − 77.048 ) (4.57)
= 0.9037∠ − 0.895
V12 ( F )= 0 − Z142 I 42
=
0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(0.8446∠102.95 ) (4.58)
= 0.147∠5.5123
V30 ( F )= 0 − Z 340 I 40
=
0 − (0)(0∠0 ) (4.59)
= 0∠0
V31=
(F ) V3 (0) − Z 34
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(0.8446∠ − 77.048 )
(4.60)
= 0.533∠1.82
V32 ( F )= 0 − Z 342 I 42
=
0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(0.8446∠102.95 ) (4.61)
= 0.4667∠ − 2.083
V40 ( F )= 0 − Z 44
0 0
I4
=
0 − (0.00756 + j 0.24138)(0∠0 ) (4.62)
= 0∠0
V41=
(F ) V4 (0) − Z 44
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(0.8446∠ − 77.048 ) (4.63)
= 0.499∠0.002
50
V42 ( F )= 0 − Z 442 I 42
=
0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(0.8446∠102.95 ) (4.64)
= 0.5∠ − 0.002
V60 ( F )= 0 − Z 640 I 40
= 0 − (−0.01706 + j 0.05554)(0∠0 ) (4.65)
= 0∠0
V61=
(F ) V6 (0) − Z 64
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(0.8446∠ − 77.048 ) (4.66)
= 0.7011∠ − 0.742
V62 ( F )= 0 − Z 642 I 42
=
0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(0.8446∠102.95 ) (4.67)
= 0.299∠1.74
Vl 0 ( F ) − V40 ( F ) Vl 0 ( F ) − 0∠0
=I l04 ( F ) = (4.68)
( Z l04 )line ( Z l04 )line
For the line between bus 1 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.68 through 4.70,
with l = 1
V11 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
I141 ( F ) =
( Z141 )line
0.9037∠ − 0.895 − 0.499∠0.002
= (4.72)
(0.16 + j 0.74)
= 0.535∠ − 79.8
V12 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I142 ( F ) =
( Z142 )line
0.147∠5.5123 − 0.5∠ − 0.002
= (4.73)
(0.16 + j 0.74)
= 0.467∠99.91
1 1 1 I140 ( F )
= 1 a 2 a I141 ( F )
1 a a 2 I142 ( F )
1 1 1 0∠0
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.535∠ − 79.8
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.467∠99.91
=
I14a ( F ) 0.8856∠ − 80.77
=
I14b ( F ) 0.3777∠ − 105.11 (4.75)
=
I14c ( F ) 0.3895∠ − 87.76
For line between bus 1 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.68 through 4.70,
with l = 3
V31 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
(F ) =
1
I 34 1
( Z 34 )line
0.533∠1.82 − 0.499∠0.002
= (4.76)
( j 0.266)
= 0.1418∠ − 63.373
V32 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 342 ( F ) =
( Z 342 )line
0.4667∠ − 2.083 − 0.5∠ − 0.002
= (4.77)
( j 0.266)
= 0.141∠116.7570
1 1 1 I 340 ( F )
1
= 1 a 2 a I 34 (F )
1 a 2 2
a I 34 ( F )
1 1 1 0∠0
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.1418∠ − 63.37
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.141∠116.76
=
I 34a ( F ) 0.0009∠ − 85.61
=
I 34b ( F ) 0.2447∠ − 153.4 (4.79)
=
I 34c ( F ) 0.2450∠ − 26.78
For line between bus 6 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.68 through 4.70,
with l = 6
V61 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
(F ) =
1
I 64 1
( Z 64 )line
0.7011∠ − 0.742 − 0.499∠0.002
= (4.81)
(0.194 + j 0.814)
= 0.242∠ − 79.17
V62 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 642 ( F ) =
( Z 642 )line
0.299∠1.74 − 0.5∠ − 0.002
= (4.82)
(0.194 + j 0.814)
= 0.240∠100.810
1 1 1 I 340 ( F )
1
= 1 a 2 a I 34 (F )
1 a 2 2
a I 34 ( F )
1 1 1 0∠0
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.242∠ − 79.17
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.240∠100.81
I 64a ( F ) = 0∠0
=
b
I 64 (F ) 0.242∠ − 79.17 (4.84)
I=
c
64 ( F ) 0.240∠100.81
The sequence currents at bus 4 for a single line-to-ground fault are given by
54
V4 (0)
I 41 = (4.85)
Z 440 + 3Z f
(Z 1
+ Z 2
)
Z 442 + Z 440 + 3Z f
44 44
1∠0
I 41 =
(0.592∠77.048 )(0.241∠88.206 )
[(0.592∠77.048 ) + ] (4.86)
(0.592∠77.048 ) + (0.241∠88.206 )
= 1.3107∠ − 78.83
V4 (0) − Z 44
1 1
I4
I 42 = 2
Z 44
1∠0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(1.3107∠ − 78.83 )
=
(0.13269 + j 0.57694) (4.87)
0.225∠6.136
=
0.592∠77.048
= 0.3813∠ − 70.91 /109.105
V4 (0) − Z 44
1 1
I4
I 40 =
( Z 44 + 3Z f )
0
1 1 1 I 40
= 1 a 2 a I 41
1 a a 2 I 42
55
1 1 1 0.9347∠97.94
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 1.3107∠ − 78.83
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.3813∠109.105
0.0002∠91.52
= 1.935∠146.77
2.113∠54.33
I=
4 (F ) I 4b ( F ) + I 4c ( F )
(4.90)
= 1.935∠146.77 + 2.113∠54.33 = 2.803∠97.92
Vi 0 ( F )= 0 − Z i04 I 40
Vi1=
(F ) Vi (0) − Z i14 I 41 (4.91)
Vi 2 ( F )= 0 − Z i24 I 42
V10 ( F )= 0 − Z140 I 40
= 0 − (−0.0112 + j 0.11474)(0.9347∠97.94 ) (4.92)
= 0.108∠13.51
V11=
(F ) V1 (0) − Z141 I 41
= 1.05∠0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(1.3107∠ − 78.83 ) (4.93)
= 0.822∠ − 1.035
V12 ( F )= 0 − Z142 I 42
=
0 − (0.02254 + j 0.17266)(0.3813∠109.105 ) (4.94)
= 0.066∠11.66
V30 ( F )= 0 − Z 340 I 40
=
0 − (0)(0.9347∠97.94 ) (4.95)
= 0∠0
V = V3 (0) − Z 34
1
3 (F )
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(1.3107∠ − 78.83 ) (4.96)
= 0.282∠9.98
V32 ( F )= 0 − Z 342 I 42
=
0 − (0.14333 + j 0.53368)(0.3813∠109.105 ) (4.97)
= 0.21∠4.07
V40 ( F )= 0 − Z 44
0 0
I4
=
0 − (0.00756 + j 0.24138)(0.9347∠97.94 ) (4.98)
= 0.226∠6.146
V41=
(F ) V4 (0) − Z 44
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(1.3107∠ − 78.83 ) (4.99)
= 0.226∠6.137
V42 ( F )= 0 − Z 442 I 42
=
0 − (0.13269 + j 0.57694)(0.3813∠109.105 ) (4.100)
= 0.226∠6.152
V60 ( F )= 0 − Z 640 I 40
= 0 − (−0.01706 + j 0.05554)(0.9347∠97.94 ) (4.101)
= 0.054∠25.02
V61=
(F ) V6 (0) − Z 64
1 1
I4
= 1∠0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(1.3107∠ − 78.83 ) (4.102)
= 0.536∠0.033
57
V62 ( F )= 0 − Z 642 I 42
=
0 − (0.06881 + j 0.34726)(0.3813∠109.105 ) (4.103)
= 0.135∠7.897
Vl 0 ( F ) − V40 ( F ) Vl 0 ( F ) − 0.226∠6.146
=I l04 ( F ) = (4.104)
( Z l04 )line ( Z l04 )line
Vl 2 ( F ) − V42 ( F ) Vl 2 ( F ) − 0.226∠6.152
=I 2
l4 (F ) = (4.106)
( Z l24 )line ( Z l24 )line
For line between bus 1 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.104 through 4.106,
with l = 1
V10 ( F ) − V40 ( F )
I140 ( F ) =
( Z140 )line
(4.107)
0.108∠13.51 − 0.226∠6.146
= = 0.059∠112.89
(0.8 + j1.85)
V11 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
I141 ( F ) =
( Z141 )line
(4.108)
0.822∠ − 1.035 − 0.226∠6.137
= = 0.79∠ − 81.53
(0.16 + j 0.74)
V12 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I142 ( F ) =
( Z142 )line
(4.109)
0.066∠11.66 − 0.226∠6.152
= = 0.212∠111.27
(0.16 + j 0.74)
1 1 1 I140 ( F )
= 1 a 2 a I141 ( F )
1 a a 2 I142 ( F )
1 1 1 0.059∠112.89
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.79∠ − 81.53
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.212∠111.27
0.5297∠ − 88.21
= 0.9082∠168.64
0.9550∠32.53
=
I14a ( F ) 0.5297∠ − 88.21
=
I14b ( F ) 0.9082∠ − 168.64 (4.111)
=
Ic
0.9550∠ − 32.53
14 ( F )
For line between bus 3 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.104 through 4.106,
with l = 3
V30 ( F ) − V40 ( F )
I 340 ( F ) =
( Z 340 )line
(4.112)
0∠0 − 0.226∠6.146
= = 0∠0
(0)
V31 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
(F ) =
1
I 34 1
( Z 34 )line
(4.113)
0.282∠9.98 − 0.226∠6.137
= = 0.22∠ − 65.01
( j 0.266)
59
V32 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 2
34 ( F ) =
( Z 342 )line
(4.114)
0.21∠4.07 − 0.226∠6.152
= = 0.067∠121.45
( j 0.266)
1 1 1 I 340 ( F )
1
= 1 a 2 a I 34 (F )
1 a 2 2
a I 34 ( F )
1 1 1 0∠0
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.22∠ − 65.01
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.067∠121.45
0.1536∠ − 67.83
= 0.2543∠ − 171.03
0.2653∠43.27
=
I 34a ( F ) 0.1536∠ − 67.83
=
I 34b ( F ) 0.2543∠ − 171.03 (4.116)
=
I 34c ( F ) 0.2653∠43.27
For line between bus 6 and bus 4 and applying Equations 4.104 through 4.106,
with l = 6
V60 ( F ) − V40 ( F )
I 640 ( F ) =
( Z 640 )line
(4.117)
0.054∠25.02 − 0.226∠6.146
= = 0.0782∠114.04
(0.9 + j 2.06)
60
V61 ( F ) − V41 ( F )
I 1
64 ( F ) = 1
( Z 64 )line
(4.117)
0.536∠0.033 − 0.226∠6.137
= = 0.373∠ − 80.97
(0.194 + j 0.814)
V62 ( F ) − V42 ( F )
I 642 ( F ) =
( Z 642 )line
(4.118)
0.135∠7.897 − 0.226∠6.152
= = 0.109∠106.97
(0.194 + j 0.814)
1 1 1 I 640 ( F )
1
= 1 a 2 a I 64 (F )
1 a 2 2
a I 64 ( F )
1 1 1 0.0782∠114.04
= 1 1∠240 1∠120 0.373∠ − 80.97
1 1∠120 1∠240 0.109∠106.97
0.1928∠ − 91.52
= 0.4714∠164.59
0.4603∠37.73
=
I 64a ( F ) 0.1928∠ − 91.52
= b
I 64 (F ) 0.4714∠ − 164.59 (4.120)
=
I 64c ( F ) 0.4603∠37.73
61
computer can be utilized to perform fault analysis in well-organized, effective, faster and
logical means. The goal of including this part is to confirm the hand calculations found
previously. In addition, the code can be used to accomplish this task where hand
calculations can’t handle a larger system and the analysis become difficult.
Matlab was selected as the simulation tool in this project due to several reasons.
Our background of Matlab was the main reason behind this choice. In addition, any code
can be edited and modified easily to handle any future cases using the command edit
window. Also, Matlab contains many built-in functions to resolve different electrical
problem. Matlab has also many unique features that allow users to develop an algorithm
in order to resolve any specific case. These features will not be discussed in this part.
However, a short introduction will be provided about Matlab since it the most common
done using matrix operations. It was driven from the description “Matrix Laboratory”
[S11] the program was created in 1984 by Mathworks who established afterward a
community called Matlab Central [S11]. Most of that community’ members are engineers
from all around the world. Users can write their codes using the M-files available in
Matlab. M-files is a script that will perform series of commands. This script can be edited
and modified based on the user’s needs at any stage. The script will perform specific
The Matlab code used to solve the problem statement in this project starts by
identifying the system input arguments. These variables are manly reactance of the
system transformers, branches and generators. This step is to form the system admittance.
After that, the fault analysis calculations were done for the three-phase, single line-to-
ground, line-to-line and double line-to-ground faults using the pre-defined functions from
Hadi Saadat’s known codes. The code can be seen in Appendix B with the output results
In this section, the results of hand calculations and the Matlab code using
symmetrical components method will be discussed. This discussion will be done for all
types of fault listed earlier. Then, the comments and recommendations will be provided
based on that. The accuracy of the hand calculations will be confirmed by comparing its
results with the code’s output. The system consists of six buses, two generators and seven
branches as seen in Figure 4.1. All data was provided in Appendix A. The results are
From the above tables, it can be seen that the results from the simulation output
matches the hand calculations results provided earlier with small error. The error does not
exceed 0.1 per unit value. In addition, both results confirmed the final results of the
system analysis provided in Paul Anderson’s Book. Also, the admittance matrix formed
in the hand calculations’ part is almost identical to the matrix generated by Matlab using
As seen from the above tables which also confirm the content of [11], the
outcome of the simulation stage in this project can be listed in the following points:
1 In three-phase fault, the voltages at faulted bus phases dropped to zero during
the fault. The faulted bus is bus number four where Phase A, B and C has a
fault. In addition, only Phase A has current since it is the faulted phase in this
3 Since Phase B and Phase C are in contact in line-to-line fault, the voltages at
both phases are equal. The fault current are passing from B to C. in Phase A,
4 In double line-to-ground fault, Phase B and C voltages are equal to zero. The
faulted current is flowing through both phases only. In addition, this type of
fault is the most sever fault on the system which can be seen from its current
value.
68
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS
In this project, fault analysis was done for a 6-bus system where bus number four
was the main focus of this report. The analysis was carried manually using symmetrical
components method. The results were compared with software solutions to validate the
hand calculations’ accuracy. The error was acceptable and below 0.1 p.u. for all type of
fault as discussed in the previous chapter. The following observations have been made
1 In three-phase fault, the voltages at faulted bus phases dropped to zero during
the fault. The faulted bus is bus number four where Phase A, B and C has a
fault. In addition, only Phase A has current since it is the faulted phase in this
3 Since Phase B and Phase C are in contact in line-to-line fault, the voltages at
both phases are equal. The fault current are passing from B to C. in Phase A,
4 In double line-to-ground fault, Phase B and C voltages are equal to zero. The
faulted current is flowing through both phases only. In addition, this type of
69
fault is the most sever fault on the system which can be seen from its current
value.
70
APPENDIX A
Summary
Line and Bus Totals Actual Max MW MVAR
Transmission Lines 5 750 Total Load 67.500 18.000
Transformers Fixed 2 250 Total Losses 5.112 17.666
LTC 0 250 Line Charging -4.618
Phase Shifters 0 0 Fixed Cao/Reac 0.0
Total Lines 7 750 System Mismatch -0.002 -0.001
Non reg
Buses (Including 5 500 Total Generation 72.610 31.047
Swing)
Generator 1 190
Total Buses 6 500
73
APPENDIX B
Matlab code
% This code is to perform Fault Analysis of 6-bus system. The sys. data
% was provided by Paul Anderson's book as one of its examples. The
% following functions "Copyright (C) 1998 H. Saadat" were utilized to
% calculate the fault at bus number 4:
% 1)symfaul
% 2)lgfault
% 3)dlgfault
% 4)llfault
clc
System Data:
% the 6-bus system: line positive sequence parameters
PosSeqData=[ 0, 1, 0.02, 0.24;
0, 2, 0.03, 0.48;
1, 4, 0.16, 0.74;
1, 6, 0.24, 1.036;
2, 3, 1.446, 2.1;
2, 5, 0.564, 1.28;
3, 4, 0, 0.266;
6, 4, 0.194, 0.814;
5, 6, 0, 0.6];
% the 6-bus system: line negative sequence parameters
NegSeqData=PosSeqData;
% the 6-bus system: line zero sequence parameters
% without the mutual coupling
ZerSeqData=[ 0, 2, 0, 0.032;
0, 4, 0, 0.266;
0, 6, 0, 0.6;
1, 4, 0.8, 1.85;
1, 6, 0.98, 2.084;
2, 3, 3.78, 5.26;
2, 5, 2.82, 3.84;
6, 4, 0.90, 2.06];
77
Sequence matrices:
% Positive Sequence Matrix:
Z1bus=[ 0.02253+1i*0.21503 -0.00609+1i*0.04974 0.02635+1i*0.16117
0.02254+1i*0.17266 0.02118+1i*0.12825 0.01831+1i*0.16379;
-0.00609+1i*0.04974 0.04422+1i*0.38094 -0.01594+1i*0.15713 -
0.00786+1i*0.13434 -0.00698+1i*0.22306 0.00023+1i*0.15223;
0.02635+1i*0.16117 -0.01594+1i*0.15713 0.16244+1i*0.73912
0.14333+1i*0.53368 0.06192+1i*0.27007 0.07295+1i*0.32786;
0.02254+1i*0.17266 -0.00786+1i*0.13434 0.14333+1i*0.53368
0.13269+1i*0.57694 0.06506+1i*0.27818 0.06881+1i*0.34726;
0.02118+1i*0.12825 -0.00698+1i*0.22306 0.06192+1i*0.27007
0.06506+1i*0.27818 0.16569+1i*0.80649 0.13256+1i*0.46538;
0.01831++1i*0.16379 0.00023+1i*0.15223 0.07295+1i*0.32786
0.06881+1i*0.34726 0.13256+1i*0.46538 0.13034+1i*0.61119];
% Negative Sequence Matrix:
Z2bus=Z1bus;
% Zero Sequence Matrix:
Z0bus=[0.36392+i*1.11336 0+1i*0 0+1i*0 -
0.0112+1i*0.11474 0+1i*0 0.02526+1i*0.3412;
0+1i*0 0+1i*0.032 0+1i*0.032 0+1i*0
0+1i*0.032 0+1i*0 ;
0+1i*0 0+1i*0.032 3.75+1i*5.292 0+1i*0
0+1i*0.032 0+1i*0 ;
-0.0112+1i*0.11474 0+1i*0 0+1i*0 0.00756+1i*0.24138
0+1i*0 -0.01706+1i*0.05554;
0+1i*0 0+1i*0.032 0+1i*0.032 0+1i*0
2.82+1i*3.872 0+1i*0;
0.02526+1i*0.3412 0+1i*0 0+1i*0 -0.01706+1i*0.05554
0+1i*0 0.03849+1i*0.047472];
Results:
Warning: Invalid escape sequence appears in format string. See help sprintf for valid
escape sequences.
> In symfaul at 34
In zimp at 57
Balanced three-phase fault at bus No. 4
Total fault current = 1.6892 per unit
Bus Voltages during fault in per unit
Bus Voltage Angle
No. Magnitude degrees
1 0.7432 -2.2887
2 0.8629 -4.6653
3 0.0753 26.7701
78
4 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.5174 0.1972
6 0.4027 -2.5905
Ifabcm =
2.1101
0.0000
0.0000
Total fault current = 2.1101 per unit
Bus Voltages during the fault in per unit
Bus -------Voltage Magnitude-------
No. Phase a Phase b Phase c
1 0.7289 1.0422 1.0148
2 0.9179 1.0360 1.0784
3 0.2308 0.8999 0.8466
4 0.0000 0.9413 0.8624
5 0.5986 0.9232 0.9093
6 0.4663 0.9312 0.8935
Bus ------- Complex Voltage -------
No. Zer-Seq Pos-Seq Neg-Seq
1 0.0811 -163.3565 0.9278 -0.4790 0.1225
-176.3693
2 0.0000 0.0000 1.0086 -1.3389 0.0947
-165.5831
3 0.0000 0.0000 0.6128 2.5134 0.3887
176.0353
4 0.1699 -170.7255 0.5840 1.3431 0.4164
178.1162
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.7992 0.5267 0.2009
177.9048
6 0.0409 -151.8564 0.7510 0.0463 0.2490
179.8604
Line currents for fault at bus No. 4
From To -----Line Current Magnitude----
Bus Bus Phase a Phase b Phase c
79
0 0 0 0.0196 - 0.0401i 0
-0.0092 + 0.0156i
0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0
0
-0.0196 + 0.0401i 0 0 0 0
-0.0267 + 0.0522i
0 0 0 0 0
0
0.0092 - 0.0156i 0 0 0.0267 - 0.0522i 0
0
Positive Sequence currents
Ink1 =
0 0 0 0.0683 - 0.4500i 0
0.0299 - 0.1637i
0 0 0.0718 - 0.1392i 0 0.0401 -
0.1457i 0
0 -0.0718 + 0.1392i 0 0.0496 - 0.1069i 0
0
-0.0683 + 0.4500i 0 -0.0496 + 0.1069i 0 0
-0.0311 + 0.1980i
0 -0.0401 + 0.1457i 0 0 0
0.0112 - 0.0803i
-0.0299 + 0.1637i 0 0 0.0311 - 0.1980i -0.0112 +
0.0803i 0
Negative Sequence currents
Ink2 =
0 0 0 0.0544 - 0.3855i 0
0.0192 - 0.1179i
0 0 0.0496 - 0.1069i 0 0.0112 -
0.0803i 0
0 -0.0496 + 0.1069i 0 0.0496 - 0.1069i 0
0
-0.0544 + 0.3855i 0 -0.0496 + 0.1069i 0 0
-0.0311 + 0.1980i
0 -0.0112 + 0.0803i 0 0 0
0.0112 - 0.0803i
-0.0192 + 0.1179i 0 0 0.0311 - 0.1980i -0.0112 +
0.0803i 0
0 0 0 -0.0584 + 0.2028i 0
-0.0193 + 0.0618i
0 0 -0.0347 + 0.0536i 0 -0.0121 +
0.0423i 0
0 0.0347 - 0.0536i 0 -0.0347 + 0.0536i 0
0
0.0584 - 0.2028i 0 0.0347 - 0.0536i 0 0
0.0317 - 0.1039i
81
0 0.0121 - 0.0423i 0 0 0
-0.0121 + 0.0423i
0.0193 - 0.0618i 0 0 -0.0317 + 0.1039i 0.0121 -
0.0423i 0
Ink2 =
0 0 0 -0.0805 + 0.4605i 0
-0.0277 + 0.1407i
0 0 -0.0637 + 0.1263i 0 -0.0167 +
0.0959i 0
0 0.0637 - 0.1263i 0 -0.0637 + 0.1263i 0
0
0.0805 - 0.4605i 0 0.0637 - 0.1263i 0 0
0.0451 - 0.2363i
0 0.0167 - 0.0959i 0 0 0
-0.0167 + 0.0959i
0.0277 - 0.1407i 0 0 -0.0451 + 0.2363i 0.0167 -
0.0959i 0
83
REFERENCES
[1] Turan Gonen, “Electric Power Transmission System Engineering, Analysis and
Design”, Crc Press Taylor and Francis Group.
[2] Paul M. Anderson, “Analysis of Faulted Power Systems”, The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1995.
[3] Miroslav D. Markovic, “Fault Analysis in Power Systems by Using the Fortescue
Method”, TESLA Institute, 2009.
[4] Jun Zhu. “Analysis Of Transmission System Faults the Phase Domain”, Texas A&M
University. Master Thesis, 2004.
[5] C.L. Wadhwa, “Electrical Power Systems”, pp 306, New Age International, 2006
[7] http://helios.acomp.usf.edu/~fehr/carson.pdf
[10]. T.K Nagsarkar and M.S Sukhija, “Power System Analysis”, New York Oxford
University Press, pp.14-25, 2005
[11] Hadi Saadat. Power System Analysis. Milwaukee Scholl of Engineering. WBC
McGraw-Hill.