SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT NAME INFORMATION POLICY ,STRATEGIES AND SYSTEMS

UNIT CODE; LDIT 2110

LECTURE NAME: JIMMY MAKAU

E-MAIL :jimmycatar9@gmail.com
Learning Outcomes

By the end of the unit, a learner should be able to:

• Understand the main issues related to information policy and strategy;
• Appreciate the main mechanisms used in security and backup policies;
• Understand the main issues relevant to security of data;
• Define the main issues relevant to network security;
• Understand the main modes used for data communication and the need for standards in this
regard;
• Appreciate the main basic aspects of human-computer interaction (HCI).
Methodology

Lectures, Brainstorming, Individual and group assignments

Learning Resources

Online platforms , Zoom Whiteboard, computers and Resources, Journals and books ,

Course Evaluation

Cats/ Assignments/ Presentation 30%

Final Examination 70%

Total 100%

REFERNCES
Computer fundamentals 5th,sith edition pradeepk Sinha ,priti sinha
Computer organization 6th edition
Business Systems Development , by Tudor Dorothy and Tudor Ian (1997), NCC Education
Services LimitedISBN 1-90234-305-0
Human Communication and Information Systems, by Stuart Harris (1988), NCC Education
Services Limited, 1998ISBN 1-90234-300-X
The Complete A-Z ICT & Computing Handbook, by Bob Penrose and Bill Pollard, Hodder &
Stoughton Ltd
 COURSE OUTLINE

WEEK 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEM

Definition of information
Definition of information system
Types of information systems in organization
WEEK 2 Role of information systems in organization.
Challenges faced by information system In organization

WEEK 3 CHAPTER 2.INFORMATION POLICIES AND STRATEGIES.

Definition of information policies
Importance of information in organization

WEEK 4 Information policy procedures.

Information strategies.

WEEK 5 CHAPTER 3; DATA SECURITY

Meaning of data security
Data security mechanism
Data integrity and its importance
WEEK 6 Malicious acts towards data integrity.
Security measures needed in information system.
Disaster planning and backup strategies.
WEEK 7 CAT ONE

WEEK 8 CHAPTER 4: COMPUTER NETWORKS

Data networks
Telecommunication standards and protocols-OSI Model
Internet protocols
Network topologies
WEEK 9 Chapter 5.Human Computer Interaction.
Definition of HCI
Goals of HCI
User interface development

WEEK 11 :CAT TWO

WEEK 12 EMERGING TRENDS IN INFORMATION POLICY

WEEK 13 FINAL EXAMS

 LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Meaning of Information and information systems What

is data?
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized
manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)
Data is a raw fact that does not have much meaning to the user.

What is Information?
Information is one of the main resources available to the manager.information can be managed
just as any other resource.
Computer information is used by managers,Non-managers and persons within the firms
environment.
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics
−
• Timely − Information should be available when required.
• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.
Information is needed to:
• To gain knowledge about the surroundings, and whatever is happening in the society and
universe.
• To keep the system up to date.
• To know about the rules and regulations and bye laws of society, local government, provincial
and central government, associations, clients etc. as ignorance is no bliss.

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their
usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the following basic
steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

• Input(Data) − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic
computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the several types of input
medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on. Processing − In this step, the input
data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example, pay-checks can be
calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month can be calculated from
the sales orders.
• Output(information) − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is
collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For
example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.
 Information systems
This is a set of interrelated components that collect (or retrieve),process,store,and distribute
information.

Roles of Information Systems in an Organization

Information systems play a vital role in an organizations’ overall performance. They

provide many advantages to their users which range from simple transaction processing at the

operational level to difficult tasks such as making important and competitive decisions at the

strategic level of the organization. Several roles played by information systems in an organisation

can be identified but O’Brien and Marakas (2008) have identified three fundamental roles played

by information systems in businesses. These are; Information systems support business processes

and operations. Secondly, they support decision making of employees and managers and lastly,

they support strategies for competitive advantage. These three fundamental roles encompass any

other roles played by information systems in an organization.

Information systems support business processes and operations of an organization in many

ways. In a hotel for instance, customer check - ins and check-outs are done by computers and

software which makes work easy unlike the traditional method of using notebooks and paper to

record such information. Customers can now even make their own bookings through the hotels

website instead of visiting the hotel in person to do so, which may lead to pressure on front office

staff. Systems have now been developed to gather customer information easily and quickly. Now,

because of information systems, the various departments of an organization work together with

ease. The housekeeping department of a hotel can now inform the front office about which rooms

are ready for use and which are not, without personal interactions of staff as a result of information
systems. The running of an organization has now become smoother with well integrated

information systems.

Information systems also help employees and managers of a business to make well

informed decisions. This is because information systems have the capability of analyzing data that

has been collected from both within the organization and from external sources into useful

information which can be used by employees and managers in their decision making process.

Decision-making is an integral part of management and occurs in every function and at all levels.

Decisions are better made when accurate information is available which aids the decision maker

in making an objective decision (Terry Lucey 2005). Information systems types like Management

Information System (MIS), Decisions Support Systems (DSS) and Executive Information Systems

(EIS) are specially designed to help management of an organization in their decision making

process. These systems generate typical reports and graphs on issues such as trend of orders,

customer analysis, product profitability, finished stock positions and forecasts, accident and

absentee reports, job evaluation reports and many more. Managers and employees use these reports

and graphs as a basis for their decisions. For example, decisions on which meals that need to be

added or removed from a hotel menu may be taken by the food and beverage manager after a

typically analysis is made by the help of a Decisions Support System.

Finally, information systems also support strategies for competitive advantage.

Competition in today’s business is keen and what will become important is how quickly companies

can convert their reams of information they collect into knowledge so that they can provide

services and products that are ahead of their competitors. Strategic information systems can help

provide hospitality operations with the innovative mediums they need to provide products and

services that will give them comparative advantage over their competitors. Nhyiem et al (2005)
observes that, in the hospitality industry, competitive advantages may result in increased room

sales ( through efficient reservation systems and organisational websites), decreased cost of goods

( through reduction in operating cost and less expensive distribution channels), brand awareness

(through effective advertising campaigns targeted at the appropriate customer and delivered

through the most appropriate cost effective medium), good customer-organisational relationship

(by keeping database of customers and their needs) and effective decisions making that are timely.

Therefore, Information systems can perform three major roles in business organization.

1. support business operations

2. Support strategic advantages
3. Support managerial decision.

The roles are described as;

1.Business operations
The information system supports business operations
e.g keep track of inventory,record employee payments,evaluate sales trade etc

2.Managerial decision making

IS help the managers to to make better decisions after analyzing all stored records

3.stategic advantages
It helps the managers keep them looking for ways to gain a competitive advantages over the other
organizations.
Challenges facing information systems
1. information systems investment challenge.
The greatest challenge faced by managers is ensuring that their companies do obtain meaningful
returns from the money spend on Information Systems.

Maintaining the information systems may be costly hence making most of the managers not to
invest in them.

2.The strategic business challenge

Despite heavy information technology investment,many organisations are not realizing
significant business value from their systems,because they lack the complementary assets
required to make their technology assets work.

3.The globalization challenge

The rapid growth in international trade and the emergence of a global economy call for
information systems that can support both producing and selling good in many in many different
countries.

4.The information Technology Infrastructure challenge.

Many companies are facing are scared of implementing expensive and unwieldy information
technology platforms that can not adapt to innovation and change.

5.Ethics and Security.

Although information systems have provided wide range of benefits and efficiencies ,they have
also created new ethical and social problems and challenges.
For management, its challenging to make informed decisions that are subject to negative
consequences
Types of information systems
1. Decision Support System
This is a model based set of procedures for processing data and judgment to assist a manager in
his decision-making .
They are interactive software-based systems intended to help managers in decision-making by
accessing large volumes of information generated from various related information systems
involved in organizational business processes such as office automation system, transaction
processing system, etc.DSS uses the summary information, exceptions, patterns, and trends using
the analytical models. A decision support system helps in decision-making but does not
necessarily give a decision itself. The decision makers compile useful information from raw data,
documents, personal knowledge, and/or business models to identify and solve problems and
make decisions.
There are two types of decisions - programmed and non-programmed decisions.
Programmed decisions are basically automated processes, general routine work, where:
 These decisions have been taken several times.
 These decisions follow some guidelines or rules.
For example, selecting a reorder level for inventories, is a programmed decision.
Non-programmed decisions occur in unusual and non-addressed situations, so:
 It would be a new decision.
 There will not be any rules to follow.
 These decisions are made based on the available information.

judgment.

Characteristics of a DSS
1. Support for decision-makers in semi-structured and unstructured problems.
2. Support for managers at various managerial levels, ranging from top executive to
3. line managers.
4. Support for individuals and groups. Less structured problems often requires the 5.
involvement of several individuals from different departments and organization
6. level.
7. Support for interdependent or sequential decisions.
8. Support for intelligence, design, choice, and implementation.
9. Support for variety of decision processes and styles.
10. DSSs are adaptive over time.
2.KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
This is an information system that is programmed to imitate human solving by means of artificial
intelligence and reference to a database of knowledge on a particular subject .
A knowledge management system comprises a range of practices used in an organization
to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption to insight and experience.
Such insights and experience comprise knowledge, either embodied in individual or
embedded in organizational processes and practices.

Importance of KMS
1. Improved performance
2. Competitive advantage
3. Innovation
4. Sharing of knowledge
5. Integration

3. EXECUTIVE SUPPORT SYSTEM

An Executive Support system (ESS), also known as an executive information system (ESS),
This is a user friendly information system that lay more emphasis on presentation of summary
information, exception report techniques and establish link with basic operations of the
enterprise
Executive support systems are intended to be used by the senior managers directly to provide
support to non-programmed decisions in strategic management

ESS is a type of management information system that facilitates and supports senior executive
information and decision-making needs. It provides easy access to internal and external
information relevant to organizational goals. It is commonly considered a specialized form of
Decision Support System (DSS).

ESS emphasizes graphical displays and easy-to-use user interfaces. They offer strong reporting
and drill-down capabilities. In general, ESS are enterprise-wide DSS that help top-level executives
analyze, compare, and highlight trends in important variables so that they can monitor performance
and identify opportunities and problems
Component

ESS components can typically be classified as:

1. Hardware

When talking about computer hardware for an EIS environment, we should focus on the hardware
that meets the executive’s needs. The executive must be put first and the executive’s needs must
be defined before the hardware can be selected.

The basic hardware needed for a typical ESS includes four components:

• . Input data-entry devices. These devices allow the executive to enter, verify, and update
data immediately

• .The central processing unit (CPU), which is the most important because it controls the
other computer system components

• .Data storage files. The executive can use this part to save useful business information, and
this part also helps the executive to search historical business information easily

• .Output devices, which provide a visual or permanent record for the executive to save or
read. This device refers to the visual output device such as monitor or printer
2. Software
Choosing the appropriate software is vital to an effective EIS.[citation needed] Therefore, the
software components and how they integrate the data into one system are important. A typical

3. User interface

An EIS must be efficient to retrieve relevant data for decision makers, so the user interface is very
important. Several types of interfaces can be available to the EIS structure, such as scheduled
reports, questions/answers, menu driven, command language, natural language, and input/output.
The ESS information is often external, unstructured and even uncertain. Exact scope and context
of such information is often not known beforehand.
This information is intelligence based:
1. Market intelligence
2. Investment intelligence
3. Technology intelligence
Following are some examples of intelligent information, which is often the source of an ESS:
1. External databases
2. Technology reports like patent records etc.
3. Technical reports from consultants
4. Market reports
5. Confidential information about competitors
6. Speculative information like market conditions
7. Government policies
8. Financial reports and information

Advantage of ESS

1. They solve aggregate issues bordering the organization.

2. The lay good structures for the organization.
3. They provide direction to other information system with in the Hierarchy of the company
4. Achievement of the company overall objective 5. Communication capacity and quality are
increased
6. Offers highly broad aggregate information.

Disadvantage of ESS

1. Slow in decision making process

2. Feedback is slow
3. There is system dependent and failure
4. Most executives are not computer inclined
5. System used by executives can be expensive
4.Transaction Processing System.
Its An Information system that processes data arising from the occurrence of business
transactions. Transaction processing systems (TPS) are aimed at improving the routine business
activities on which all organizations depend. A transaction is any event or activity that affects
the organization which occur as part of doing business, such as sales, purchases, deposit,
withdrawals, refunds and payments. Common transactions include placing orders, billing
customers, hiring employees, and depositing cheques. The types of transactions that occur vary
from organization to organization. Transaction processing, the set of procedures for handling the
transactions, often includes the activities like calculation, storage and retrieval, classification,
summarization, sorting. Transaction processing procedures are often called standard operating
procedures.

Types of Transaction Processing System

Batch processing

All transactions are accumulated over a period of time and processed as a single unit.

Typical periods: daily, weekly, biweekly, monthly, etc.

Examples Payroll
Billing

Online transaction Processing. All transactions are

processed immediately, without delay.

Also called Real-time transaction processing.

e.g hotel reservation, air ticketing, bus ticketing-Commerce etc.
5.Expert system

Expert systems are computer applications which embody some non algorithm expertise for solving
certain types of problem.

Benefits of expert system

There are several benefits of expert systems:

1. Increase the probability, frequency, consistency of making good decisions.

2. Help distribute human expertise.

3. Facilitate real time, low cost expert level decisions by the non expert.

4. Enhance the utilization of most of the available data

5.Free up the mind and the time of the human expert to enable him or her concentrate on more
creative activities

6. Encourage investigations into the subtle areas of a problem.

6.MANAGEMENT IFORMATION SYSTEM.
Management Information System or 'MIS' is a planned system of collecting, storing, and
disseminating data in the form of information needed to carry out the functions of management.

The MIS has more than one definition, some of which are given below:

• The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision-making in
the organization.

• The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the organization evolved for the
purpose of providing information to the people in the organization.
Though there are a number of definitions all of them converge on a single point, i.e. the MIS is a system
that support the decision-making function of the organization. The difference lies in defining the elements
of MIS. However, in today’s world, the MIS is a computerized business processing system generating
information for the people in the organization to meet the information needs for decision-making to
achieve the corporate objective of the organization.

MIS is a computer-based system that provides flexible and speedy access to accurate data. The
organizational information system which in general relates to the planning, operation and control
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIS

It should be based on a long-term planning.

• It should provide a holistic view of the dynamics and the structure of the
organization.
• It should work as a complete and comprehensive system covering all interconnecting
sub-systems within the organization.
• It should be planned in a top-down way, as the decision makers or the management
should actively take part and provide clear direction at the
development stage of the MIS.
• It should be based on need of strategic, operational and tactical information of
managers of an organization.
• It should be able to make forecasts and estimates, and generate advanced
information, thus providing a competitive advantage. Decision makers can take
actions on the basis of such predictions.
• It should create linkage between all sub-systems within the organization, so that the
decision makers can take the right decision based on an integrated view. It should
allow easy flow of information through various sub-systems, thus avoiding
redundancy and duplicity of data. It should simplify the operations with as much
practicability as possible.
• Although the MIS is an integrated, complete system, it should be made in such a
flexible way that it could be easily split into smaller sub-systems as and when
required.

Components of MIS

a. People: People is the only living component of MIS which operates and controls the other
components of MIS. They enter, analyze and diagnose data, so that useful information is produced
and provided to top executives for decision making.

b. Data process: Data process uses different procedures so that data can be properly analyzed
and effective information generated. Procedures explains to users how to operate the computer
hardware, what program to run, what data to use and what to do with the results.

c. Data communication: There are different ways of communicating data. May be orally or
in the form of written report. Written reports are more appropriate than oral as it is permanent and
systematic way of organizing information.

d. Information: data are facts and figures that are not currently being used in decision
making. Data is process by applying different procedures to obtain information. It may be recorded
in computer, storage media or manual files and is retrieved whenever required.

e. Hardware and software: the hardware consist of computer equipment’s. Software consist
of programs or instructions given to the computer such as payroll processing
 Pyramidical structure of MIS

i. Lower level: The bottom layer consist of information required for transaction processing and
inquiry processing.

ii. Operational level: This layer has the information required for day to day performance of activities
and their control.

iii. Middle level: This layer has information useful for tactical planning and decision making to

implement the policy of top management. iv. Top level: This layer has information useful for strategies

and policy planning.

ROLE OF MIS TO THE ORGANISATION

Here are some of the important roles of the MIS:

i. The MIS satisfies the diverse needs through variety of systems such as query system, analysis
system, modeling system and decision support system.

ii. The MIS helps in strategic planning, management control, operational control and transaction
processing. The MIS helps in the clerical personal in the transaction processing and answers the queries
on the data pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and reference on a variety of
documents.

iii. The MIS helps the junior management personnel by providing the operational data for planning,
scheduling and control , and helps them further in decision-making at the operation level to correct an
out of control situation.

iv. The MIS helps the middle management in short term planning, target setting and controlling the
business functions. It is supported by the use of the management tools of planning and control.

v. The MIS helps the top level management in goal setting, strategic planning and evolving the
business plans and their implementation.