Shaken,
not stirred!
See page 5
ELECTRICAL
Published by Megger
January 2009
TESTER
The industry’s recognised information tool
Pax joins Megger Group to
expand transformer test
product line
Dr Andrew Dodds
Director of Group Development
Megger Group has announced that has
acquired Pax Diagnostics of Sweden. Pax
transformer testing and insulation
diagnostics products will be a strong
addition to the Megger range of test
instruments for the power industry. The
products will be rebranded to Megger,
although the IDAX and FRAX product names
will be retained. Customers can continue to
buy Pax products through existing
distributors. All former Pax employees will
transfer to Megger, and customers can
continue to deal with their usual contacts.
Industrial logic
The Pax line of dielectric frequency response
analysers and sweep frequency analysis
products are complementary to Megger’s
existing line of transformer test equipment
such as transformer ohmmeters,
transformer turns ratio meters and
insulation testers. While Megger is investing
heavily in its existing technology, the Pax
product line was seen as a way to accelerate
the company’s growth, and give customers
access to advanced diagnostic conditioning
technology as well as the test products.
Combining the two technological bases not
only gives customers access to a complete
line of transformer conditioning and
maintenance testing equipment, but also
helps accelerate Megger’s growth plans.
Dielectric Frequency Response
Analyzers
The IDAX range of Dielectric Frequency
Response Analyzers is designed for
measuring moisture in power transformers
as well as testing insulation material in
various power system products. The
IDAX300 represents the latest generation in
the well-known IDA/IDAX range of
instruments and represents a breakthrough
Power Distribution
Demand for the refurbishment and expansion
of power transmission and distribution
infrastructure is expected to remain strong in
all regions, in spite of fears that a global
recession could affect financing costs.
Ensuring that ageing power distribution
infrastructure in developed countries such as
UK, Germany or USA means that the
incidence of equipment failure is rising.
Customer service quality targets are in danger
or not being met, and power systems that are
in many cases reaching the end of their
lifetimes may be about to cause severe
problems to power utilities and their
customers. See page 2 for a detailed
discussion.
Relay
race!
in terms of weight-performance ratio. With
its optimized design the test set is three
times smaller and lighter and performs
insulation characterization twice as fast as its
predecessor IDA200.
Sweep Frequency Analysis products
The FRAX range of Sweep Frequency
Analysis products is designed for detecting
electromechanical changes inside power
transformers. The products have the highest
measurement range and accuracy in the
industry and fulfil all recent international
standards and recommendations for SFRA
testing.
Advanced diagnostic testing technology
“We have seen a growing demand for
advanced diagnostic testing technology, and
the inclusion of the Pax Diagnostics business
enables Megger to provide a complete
transformer test solution”, said Greg Wolfe
of Megger. “The Pax product line coupled
with the expert knowledge of Pax staff
Dealing with a recession
Managers need to manage. Sounds obvious, but
troubled times are when great managers can
really make a difference. There are opportunities
as well as threats ahead for organisations that
adapt most quickly to the changing economic
climate. But unfortunately, it’s now official.
Countries of the world are either in or about to
enter recession. Rising commodity prices,
restricted access to finance and volatility in the
stock markets can take a huge bite out of
company profits, and that’s not to mention falling
retail sales, higher unemployment and plunging
business confidence. For one company’s
approach on how to deal with the threat of
recession, see page 3.
Developments in the
rapidly developing
world of Frequency
See page 3 Response Analysis
enables customers to move toward
predictive test regimes, potentially saving
time and money as resources can be
directed toward where they are needed
most”. Natural choice “Megger is a natural
choice for Pax”, said Peter Fagerström, CEO
for Pax. “Our vision from the start of Pax
four years ago was to be a top player in the
international power transformer test
equipment market. Our products fit perfect
with the Megger transformer product
portfolio and together we will create the
strongest product line in the industry to
address end user concerns”.
Adding confidence
“The Megger brand will add confidence to
the Pax products,” says Matz Ohlen,
marketing and sales director at Pax. “We
invented the first DFR/FDS field instrument
and now it will carry the Megger brand
name, and will be supported through
Megger sales and applications staff
worldwide”.
Magnetic Materials
Magnets are used in many industries:
generators and motors, microphones,
telephones, receivers, clutches and brakes,
relays, sensors and of course test and
measurement instruments.
In a new series of articles on developments in
magnetic materials and magnetics. Dr Stan
Zurek will describe some interesting
applications of magnetics to test and
measurement technologies. In this first piece,
Dr Zurek outlines some classifications of
magnetics in terms of its physical, structural
and engineering properties, with a useful
summary diagram to explain how the
classifications fit together. See page 6 for the
full story.
See page 4
Growing demand
There is a clear and growing demand for
advanced diagnostic testing, to which the
inclusion of PAX Diagnostics compliments
Megger’s extensive range of transformer
test range of products. The Pax product
lines coupled with the expert knowledge
of former Pax staff enables customers to
move toward predictive test regimes with
the capability to detect and diagnose
electro-mechanical and insulation
problems within power transformers,
potentially saving time and money as
resources can be directed toward where
they are needed most. The technology
provides customers with an extensive
transformer test offer that will prove
invaluable to users who work for
transformer OEMs, service companies and
power utilities.
We view technology improvements and
environment protection as key factors in our
mission to supply test and measurement
equipment throughout the world. As proof of
our commitment to the environment,
Megger’s site in Dover England, and the
Programma site in Täby, Sweden are both
accredited to ISO14001:2000
Please pass this onto a colleague and
recycle when you have finished with it.

The industry’s recognised information tool
Contents Ensuring
Pax joins Megger Group .................................... 1
Dr Andrew Dodds, Group Development Director
that
Ensuring that protection protection
performs .............................................................................................. 2
Adrian Parker, Applications Engineer
performs
IEC61850 architecture............................................ 2
Andrea Bonetti, Product Manager - Relay Adrian Parker
Application Engineer
Investment is key .............................................................. 3
Graham Margery, Manufacturing Director As infrastructure ages, the incidence of
equipment failure is rising and will undoubtedly
continue to rise. Whether a failure results in local
WEEE are the champions.................................. 4 inconvenience or a widespread loss of power to
Mike Liston, Quality Engineer possibly millions of consumers depends largely
on the design and performance of the protective
relay system in use. Dependable testing of these
Testing unusual relay systems has, therefore, never been more
important.
characteristics .......................................................................... 4
Adrian Parker, Application Engineer The purchase of a modern relay test set is how-
ever, a substantial investment, so it’s important to
make the right choice. Megger has recently made
Transformer measurement this easier as, with its acquisition of Programma, it
transformed .................................................................................. 4 now offers two ranges of relay test equipment –
Andy Sagl, Product Manager MPRT and Freja – giving potential users greater
choice, and allowing them to select the system
which best meets their technical and budgetary
Vacuum bottles in vacuum requirements.
breakers do not last forever .................... 4 But what are the differences between the MPRT
and the Freja relay test sets, and how do users
Linus Claesson and Klas Björck, Product Managers
decide between them? Let’s first look at what the
MPRT range has to offer.
Six independent currents for
Key features of MPRT test sets include constant
testing differential protection high-power outputs, a colour touch-screen user
relays............................................................................................................. 5 interface and flexible hardware configuration.
Romain Douib, Marketing Manager These test sets are currently available in two
versions – the MPRT8430, with a maximum
output of 30 Amps and 300 volts and the
Shaken not stirred...........................................................5 MPRT8415, that has a maximum output of 15
Amps and 150 Volts.
Mark Johnson, UK Marketing Communications
Manager
Both models can be used to test virtually all types
of protection relay, from the traditional
electromechanical types to the latest
Magnetic materials ........................................................ 6
microprocessor-based protection schemes,
Dr Stan Zurek, Design Engineer
eliminating the expense and inconvenience of
having to use different types of test set depending
on the type of relay.
The ultimate tool for detecting
transfomer faults .............................................................. 7 To further enhance their versatility, all MPRT
Matz Öhlén MSc., E.E., Marketing and Sales Manager systems have been designed to provide a constant
power output of 200VA per phase. This means
that they can be used for example, to test high-
Testing T-T earthing systems .................. 7 impedance relays and panels of wired relays,
Kerry Burdett, Technical Support Advisor without the need for accessory high-power
current amplifiers.
Training update .................................................................... 8 Fully automated testing and the management of
test files is provided by the AVTS PC-based
Allen Joyce, Training Manager
software package that supports the MPRT system.
This provides advanced features including On-line
– click on fault, RIO file import and DFR playback,
Failure to carry out insulation as well as options for metering and transducer
tests changed world history .................... 8 testing. Facilities for semi-automatic and manual
testing of protection relays are also provided via
Nick Hilditch, Group Marketing Services Manager
the unique Touch-View Interface (TVI), an easy to
Q&A ................................................................................................................ 8
IEC 61850
Note from the Editor
Time for your say. architecture
We have introduced a ‘Questions and Answer’ section
and would like your input. If you have any questions or Andrea Bonetti
stories that you think we could use, then please email Product Manager - Relay
electricaltester@megger.com
'Views expressed in Electrical Tester are not necessarily the
views of Megger.' IEC 61850 is the new standard for substation
automation that has been designed from the
The word ‘Megger’ is a registered trademark outset to be vendor independent, in order to
achieve interoperability among protective devices
Editor Nick Hilditch. (IEDs) from different manufacturers.
T +44 (0)1304 502232 To help achieve these key objectives, IEC 61850
E nick.hilditch@megger.com uses an architecture that incorporates abstracting.
www.megger.com This essentially means that its data items and
services are independent of the underlying
Megger Limited protocols. The major benefit is that the abstract
Archcliffe Road Dover Kent CT17 9EN definitions can be mapped to any protocol that is
T +44 (0)1304 502100 capable of supporting the overall data and service
E uksales@megger.com requirements.
www.megger.com The formalization of the IEC 61850 mapping takes
place in the XML-based Substation Configuration
2 ENSURING THAT PROTECTION PERFORMS
handle colour touch-screen system connected to
the test set’s main power box by a flexible cable.
The TVI also allows manual testing of electric
power type transducers in single- and three-phase
versions and, in addition, it continuously displays
the status, including phase vector graphs, of all
outputs while computer-controlled testing is in
progress. In addition to the measured values,
the TVI also shows calculated values, such as true
and reactive power.
MPRT test systems are available with between one
and four output modules, and additional
modules, up to a maximum of four, can be easily
retrofitted. Each module provides both a voltage
and a current output so that when four modules
are fitted, the MPRT is suitable for testing modern
integrated relays that in addition to three-phase
voltage and current, also require residual voltage
and/or current inputs.
Further flexibility is offered by an option which
allows MPRT voltage outputs to be reconfigured
as current outputs, in order to provide up to six
current channels for testing three-phase
differential relays.
Additional features offered by MPRT protective
relay test sets include ten programmable binary
inputs, six programmable binary outputs with the
capability of Boolean logic control, and facilities
for digitally recording fault files in the industry-
standard COMTRADE format, for later replay with
up to 256,000 samples per channel.
Turning now to the Freja 300 range, with key
features including easy to use software that makes
setting up particularly simple; robust con-
struction; an in-field calibration option; and
excellent portability – the Freja 300 model weighs
only 15kg. Test sets in this range can be operated
with or without a PC. They incorporate a large
liquid crystal display that is used in conjunction
with front panel keys to select and control test
sequences.
Like the MPRT range, the Freja range currently
includes two models. Freja 300 can generate
outputs of 4 x 150V (82VA) and 3 x 15A (87VA) or
1 x 45A (250VA), whereas the Freja 306 offers a
Language files, which will provide a convenient
and efficient way of developing a formal
description of the relationships between the
automation system (Station HMI, vertical
communication, reporting) and the equipments
used in the substation (IEDs, horizontal
communication, GOOSE messages).
The standard was published between 2002 and
2003, and several hundred substations are today
in operation with the current version of the
standard, but still the engineers dealing with it are
called pioneers!
With the technical experience gained in the last
years, several Technical Issues have been
submitted. Today, the second version of the
standard is being prepared. The technical issues
are expected to be cleared and some new
applications will be introduced, not only related
to substation automation. One very important
concept that will probably be available in the new
standard is the security aspect of the message
traffic in the substation.
Based on my personal experience, where I have
been involved in several projects with the IEC
61850 standard, one of the most delicate points of
the standard is the testing procedure and the IEC
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
high power alternative with 6 x 15A (3 x 15A + 3
x 35A) or 1 x 100A (750VA) output. On both
models, all outputs can be set independently, and
both support static and dynamic testing, including
simultaneous ramping of multiple quantities and
waveform editing. Freja 306 is available as an
upgrade for current Freja 300 users.
For automated testing, Freja 300 test sets are used
in conjunction with the Freja Win software
package, which allows users to save test setups
and results via a standard Microsoft Explorer
display, making it easy to create test object
structures.
Which of these two versatile ranges of protection
relay test sets is the most suitable depends of
course, on the applications in which it will be
used. However, it’s possible to give some general
guidance.
Where electromechanical relays are to be tested,
then the higher output power available from the
MPRT 8430 makes it the preferred choice. On the
other hand, if portability (light weight) and ease
of use are key issues and high output power is
not required, the Freja 300 range offers the
benefits of lighter weight and smaller size.
While both ranges offer standalone operation, the
MPRT with its full-colour Touch View Interface, is
substantially more versatile when used without a
PC. Arguably, the Freja user interface is simpler to
use for straightforward tests in standalone mode,
but it is less well adapted for complex
applications.
Both of the product ranges are supported by
excellent software – AVTS for the MPRT test sets,
and Freja Win for Freja instruments. However the
AVTS package offers features that are of particular
benefits to advanced relay test users where
technical acceptance is a key issue.
In simple terms, the overall conclusion is that
Freja products are an ideal and cost-effective
choice for straightforward field applications, while
the MPRT test sets offer additional complex test
facilities and expansion options that are of
particular interest to advanced users, or users
with a wide range of protection relay testing
requirements.
61850 tools that should be used to perform the
61850 engineering of the substation. Other issues,
due to initial different interpretation of the
standard by different vendors, have been mainly
cleared today with cooperation among vendors.
Since the standard aims to achieve
interoperability, this means that all the parties
(relay manufacturers, SCADA manufacturers,
customers and test equipment manufacturers)
must cooperate in order to achieve it.
Megger is currently working on an IEC 61850
interface that will soon be available. The interface
will be compatible with all the new and old
Megger MPRT and Programma FREJA test
equipments.
Megger, represented by Programma in Sweden, is
currently cooperating with STRI, the Swedish
independent technology consulting company and
accredited high voltage laboratory located in
Ludvika, Sweden, for testing interoperability
among protective devices from different vendors.
For this purpose, one 4-day IEC 61850
training/workshop was held in Ludvika between
the 25th and the 28th of November, 2008. For
more information please visit the site
www.STRI.se.

The industry’s recognised information tool
Investment is key to surviving a
recession in manufacturing
Graham Margery
Manufacturing Director
Unfortunately, it’s now official – business in the
UK and in most other countries of the world is
going through a period of recession. Clearly, this
is not a good thing, but it’s not as bad as it may at
first appear. It’s worth remembering that only the
weakest companies succumb to recessionary
pressures, and it would be easy to argue that, in
these cases, the recession has done little but
speed their demise.
In fact, it’s by no means unknown for well-
managed and well-resourced companies to
benefit from a recession, but achieving this
desirable end undoubtedly takes a certain
amount of courage. Because the key to beating a
recession is investment.
Here’s why. In recessionary times, prices fall. It’s
a buyer’s market. That means that new
equipment can be purchased and installed at
prices that are very attractive. Unfortunately, the
price pressures also work in the other direction,
and it is certain that whatever product or service
your company provides, your customers will be
looking for savings.
Those companies that have invested wisely will,
of course, be in a position to respond, as their
new equipment and other resources will have
helped them to reduce costs and become more
competitive. Not only will this see them in good
stead while the recession lasts, it will also put
them in a superb position to move forward when
it ends.
Those who would like to see how these ideas
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
Automated PCB assembly helps keep costs down and quality up
might be translated into practice may find the
actions taken by Megger to be of interest.
The first of these is the implementation of a
company-wide SAP enterprise resource planning
(ERP) system. By streamlining administration at
every level and providing managers with accurate
information about resources and performance,
this has greatly enhanced the company’s
productivity.
It’s not however the only step that Megger has
taken to boost productivity and control costs.
The company has also invested in a new pick-
and-place machine for automated assembly of
printed circuit boards. Not only is this much
faster than the older machine it replaces,
providing a very significant increase in
production capacity, it is also capable of handling
the very latest – and very tiny – components.
Megger’s engineers, therefore, now have
complete freedom in the choice of components
for their new designs, potentially allowing them
to develop more compact products with
enhanced performance.
Visual inspection system verify correct component placement
To match the increased capacity of its new pick-
power applications, and PAX Diagnostics a
and-place machine, Megger has invested in a new
specialist in transformer diagnostic equipment.
wave-soldering system. This takes full advantage
These examples, of course, illustrate only one
of recent advances in environmentally friendly
company’s approach to moving forward in a
lead-free soldering technology to virtually
recession and to establishing a platform that can
eliminate defective boards. The consequential
be built upon to achieve even greater successes
reduction in failures on test and time needed for
once the recession is over.
reworking is another important element in the
reduction of costs.
It is, however, possibly worth mentioning that
Megger has been around for well over a century.
Of course, a recession is not just a good time to
During that period it has weathered many a
invest in new equipment, it’s also a good time for
recession, and even the Great Depression of the
well-resourced companies to consider buying
1920s, obviously with sufficient success to ensure
other organisations. Megger has done exactly that Robotic flow solder machinery for lower volume
its continued survival. There must be some
with its recent acquisition of Programma, printed circuit boards ensure consistent output with
justification in arguing, therefore, that Megger minimal waste
Sweden’s leading specialist in the development
sets an example that is well worth following.
and manufacture of test equipment for electrical
INVESTMENT IS KEY 3

The industry’s recognised information tool
WEEE
are the
Champions
Mike Liston
Quality Engineer
As an environmentally responsible supplier, you
would expect Megger to have made provisions to
meet its obligations under the Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equipment Regulations 2006 – more
commonly known as the WEEE Regulations. But
what do these regulations mean?
The answer, quite simply is that producers of
electrical and electronic equipment must take
responsibility for, and pay the costs of disposing of
that equipment when it reaches the end of its
useful life. In other words, users return their old
old equipment to Megger and at no cost to users,
the company will ensure that its disposal is
handled properly and responsibly.
From 1st April 2007, it has been a requirement to
mark equipment that is covered by the WEEE
Regulations with a special symbol – a crossed-
through wheelie bin. However, Megger’s WEEE
service applies to any products manufactured by
the company or its predecessor, such as AVO,
Biddle or Multi-Amp whether or not they bear this
symbol.
To meet its WEEE obligations, Megger has joined
the B2B Compliance scheme, an initiative of
GAMBICA, which is operated by B2B Compliance
Limited. Megger’s registration number under the
scheme is WEE/HE0146QT. This number can
legally be requested by any customer prior to
purchasing products from the company, and its
provision is now almost always a condition of
tendering to supply major organisations.
Customers wishing to take advantage of the
Megger WEEE scheme should either contact the
company direct, by sending an email to
mike.liston@megger.com, or contact B2B
Compliance by emailing weee@electrocycle.biz,
and mentioning that they are doing so in
connection with Megger equipment.
Note that a few terms and conditions apply. In
particular, the scheme currently only operates in
the EU countries. We’ll be happy to supply more
details on request.
Testing unusual
relay characteristics
Adrian Parker
Applications Engineer
Testing older-style electromechanical over-current
relays with the versatile MPRT protection relay
test set is now a fast, convenient process, thanks
to the introduction of a new easy-to-use curve
tracing tool. Part of the AVTS software suite that
accompanies MPRT test sets, the new tool, which
is intuitive in operation and involves no fiddly on-
screen boxes to complete, works with a simple
scan of the relay characteristics.
To digitise one or more curves, the user simply
calls up a suitable blank log-log graph screen with
the AVTS software, and then superimposes the
scanned image of the relay characteristics on it.
The next stage is to align the top left and bottom
right points of the scanned characteristic with the
underlying blank graph screen and, without
further effort, the individual curves can then be
digitised.
The whole process takes only around five minutes
and, as the results can be stored, it only needs to
be done once for each type of relay.
When the digitisation process is complete, the
MPRT test set can be used to test the relay to its
actual characteristic. Should the multiplier or time
dial setting fall between the published curves, the
AVTS software will automatically interpolate
between the curves, allowing it to display and use
exactly the right characteristic.
All aspects of the new AVTS curve tracing tool are
implemented in a single window which, together
with the absence of multiple boxes to complete,
make it the easiest and most convenient solution
currently available for digitising protection relay
characteristic curves.
4 TRANSFORMER MEASUREMENT
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
Transformer measurement
Andy Sagl
Product Manager
transformed
Measuring the resistance of power transformer
windings isn’t as easy as it sounds. Because of the
very high inductance of the windings, the test
current takes a fair bit of time to stabilise and, as
the rate of change of current decreases over time,
it’s not easy to decide when it has reached its
final value.
With conventional ohmmeters, therefore,
measuring transformer winding resistances can be
a very slow and tedious process. Nevertheless,
accurate resistance measurements can provide
invaluable information about the condition of the
transformer, quickly revealing, for example, the
presence of shorted turns or loose connections.
Because of the usefulness of these measurements,
Megger has developed the technologies used in
the new MTO210 transformer ohmmeter to allow
them to be made more conveniently.
The key technology is the patented “Quick Test”
measurement technique. This works by applying
test currents simultaneously to the primary and
secondary windings in such a way that the
magnetic effects in the transformer core oppose
each other. This allows test results to be obtained
up to ten times more quickly than with
conventional instruments.
Further, the simultaneous testing of primary and
secondary windings, in both single- and three-
phase transformers, means that testing time is Because transformers store large amounts of While primarily designed for use with
reduced by a factor of two compared with electrical energy, safety is an important concern transformers, the MTO210 is an excellent choice
performing the tests separately. when making resistance measurements. This for making DC resistance measurements on all
concern is fully addressed in the MTO210 by types of magnetic windings including, for
Also, the MTO210 provides a bi-directional test making provisions for the stored energy to be example, those in motors and generators. It is
capability, which allows the test currents to be automatically discharged on completion of the also suitable for performing low-resistance
applied to the transformer in the direction that test, if the test leads are inadvertently measurements on non-inductive components,
makes best use of any existing core disconnected, or if the power fails during a test. such as connections, busbar joints, contacts and
magnetisation. This cuts the time needed to even control circuits.
obtain accurate test results. Further, the MTO210 offers an integrated
demagnetisation feature, which allows users to Easily portable and with direct digital readout for
In addition to its main function of measuring demagnetise the transformer core either prior to two measurement channels, the MTO210 features
winding resistances, Megger’s MTO210 is also testing or after testing is complete. internal data storage, allowing test results to be
invaluable for checking the contact resistance of downloaded for subsequent recall, printing, and
voltage regulators and tap changers with make- Demagnetisation can also be carried out as a analysis. It is also fully compatible with the
before-break contacts. The instrument instantly standalone operation, independent of resistance Megger’s versatile PowerDB data recording and
gives a clear indication if pitted or misaligned testing. analysis software package.
contacts are detected.
Linus Claesson and Klas Björck
Product Managers Vacuum bottles in vacuum
More and more companies are moving towards
the vacuum technology for different reasons.
Vacuum is the ideal dielectric, contact travel is
breakers do not last forever
very short (about 12.5 mm) and a small contact
travel requires a very short breaking time. This One question raised is why there is no built-in
means that there is less required stored energy to ammeter in VIDAR. The idea behind this is that it
break the circuit. Less stored energy and short should be possible to analyse a trend
breaking time simplifies the operating over the years to determine the time
mechanism. A vacuum breaker has approximately of replacement of the breaker.
Answer: It is possible to use an
one third as many parts as a comparable SF6
ammeter and make the
breaker.
measurements but the result will
not add any information.
The Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) of a vacuum
breaker mechanism is many times longer than for
The reason is that there are too
non-vacuum breakers. Improvements in vacuum
many parameters that cannot be
technology over the past several years have
controlled. One day you get the
resulted in most of the world’s medium voltage
value 5 micro amps and the next
switchgear manu-facturers adopting the vacuum
day 10 micro amps depending on the
option. More than half of the world’s current
conditions at the test, e.g. humidity,
annual productions of medium voltage circuit
degree of pollution, temperature. These
breakers are vacuum circuit breakers.
measuring values have nothing to do with
the condition of the breaker.
However the vacuum bottles in vacuum breakers
do not last forever. Leakage starts after years or
As an alternative to the high DC voltage the
decades and the bottles fill with air making the
VIDAR utilises, a high AC voltage can also be used.
breaker unreliable. In most cases the leakage
The electrical resistance of the vacuum in a
process is rapid once it has started. In addition to
breaker is identical in behaviour for AC and DC.
leakage, dirt on the poles and on the exterior
The main difference in using DC vs. AC is that AC
surface of the bottle can make it unsafe during malfunction of a vacuum breaker in the field and
also is sensitive to the capacitance of the breaker.
operation. The mechanics of the breaker can that using AC would not add any additional
The DC (resistive) current component is 100 to
become misaligned so that the distance between information.
1000 times lower in magnitude than the AC
the poles is no longer adequate. Vidar uses high
(capacitive) current component, depending on
voltage DC to test the integrity of vacuum At the National Institute of Radiation Protection
the individual bottle capacitance and therefore
breakers. There are some 2000 units of Vidar in in Stockholm, VIDAR, together with a Siemens
difficult to distinguish when testing using AC. As a
field service all over the world that perform daily N 677 have been analysed for x-ray radiation. The
result AC requires heavier equipment for testing
tests on the integrity of vacuum breakers. outcome proved safe for anyone operating the
compared to the 8 kg VIDAR.
combination of Vidar and a vacuum breaker.
The Programma VIDAR is the ideal tool for
When the VIDAR product was introduced, a
testing vacuum breakers due to its wide coverage Both the DC and the AC methods are detailed in
rigorous study was undertaken at the facility of
range and its ease of use. A green lamp indicates standards. The DC method is described in the
one of the major vacuum bottle manufacturers.
approval of the breaking chamber and a red lamp ANSI/IEEE 37.20.2-1987 standard.
The study concluded that VIDAR was suitable for
if it is defective.
testing all potential sources of dielectric
 ELECTRICAL
The industry’s recognised information tool TESTER
Six independent currents for testing Shaken,
differential protection relays not
Injected currents are shown in primary and secondary values:
Romain Douib
Marketing Manager
stirred!
Mark Johnson
FREJA 306 and FREJA DIFFERENTIAL UK Marketing Communications Manager

It is time to announce FREJA 306, the relay test-set from Programma able
to drive six independent currents for testing differential protection relays.
In a scene reminiscent of a James Bond movie, an
The new FREJA 306 is an evolution of the FREJA 300 that is well known to aluminium flight case recently came flying from
any experienced relay tester engineer. Freja 306 evolution and not a the window of a speeding van on the M69
revolution, in respect to the conservativeness of the protection relay motorway which carries vehicles between
community, due to its high responsibility in the engineering profession and Leicester and Coventry in England. Instead of the
to society. latest in espionage equipment, however, the case
contained the latest in electrical testing
The main feature of FREJA 306 is its concept: any FREJA 300 (three-current technology, in the form of a Megger MTK320
test set) can be upgraded to a FREJA 306. This is because Programma electrical contractors’ test kit that had been
respects the investment of its customers and knows the importance of the stolen from a vehicle belonging to leading UK
decision of buying a relay test equipment. electrical training provider, G-TEC Training.

The upgrade is done by adding he CA30 amplifier to the FREJA 300 test
set, which contains three powerful state of the art current generators, as
the figure below shows:
It is possible to run pseudo-continuous ramps, for testing the static
accuracy of the relay, or ramps done by sequences of pre-fault and fault
steady state simulations, called as “binary search”, more suitable for
commissioning tests:
Despite a rough landing at speeds close to 70
mph (110 kph), the insulation, loop and RCD
testers that make up the kit were subsequently

It is possible of course to keep the CA30 amplifier as separate unit, and

connect it to a “stand alone” FREJA 300 only when needed. As there is not
always the need for six currents when testing protective relays, the
possibility of “sharing” the CA30 among several test-sets can be a winning
compromise for customers that already own several FREJA 300.
No matter if you are using FREJA 306 or a FREJA 300 with the CA30

amplifier, the software FREJA WIN recognizes the new set-up, and nothing
The Wizard.
will be changed from the old test plans: they will run as before.
The final test, introduced by Programma for the first time, is called Wizard. found to have survived their ordeal completely
The Wizard will ask some application questions to the engineer: unscathed. A thorough check in the Megger
Testing of 5 A rated protective relays is now more comfortable, as up to
35 A can be output by the new CA30 current generators. calibration laboratory showed that none of the
instruments needed even the slightest of
Testing of electromechanical relays is also more comfortable, as 50 V can adjustments!
be obtained from the new CA30 amplifier.
“We’d loaded the instruments into our van in
FREJA DIFFERENTIAL preparation for driving to an on-site training
The new software designed to test and course the next day,” said Griff Thomas,
transformer differential protection and is easy Managing Director of G-TEC Training, “but,
to use and intuitive. Programma has done its during the night, someone decided to help
best to make what is complicated simple. themselves to everything in the van that was
portable. They obviously didn’t realise the value
The software is designed by bearing in mind of the Megger equipment however, as they
and will perform some simple tests on the relay: simply threw it out of the window of their vehicle
that:
n The test engineer must be able to drive
while speeding along the motorway.”
the test-set, and not to be driven by it.
n The test set must help the test engineer in
The Megger equipment was retrieved by the
realising the actions he needs to do. Think on what to do, and not how motorist following the van from which it was
to do it. thrown, who had to swerve violently to avoid it.
n The test set must be able to give the most significant information to the
Advised by the police that they could do nothing
engineer, allowing him to take the best decision. to trace the owner of the equipment, the
motorist was sufficiently interested and
The data for the protected power transformer is entered in a very intuitive concerned to contact Megger.
way that is difficult to misunderstand:
“Many people simply don’t bother to register
their instruments with the manufacturer,” said
Depending on the application information entered by the user, the Wizard Griff Thomas, “but this case shows one of the
will report if the relay seems to be correctly set or not: many reasons that taking a few minutes to
complete the registration process is time very
well spent. By looking up the serial numbers of
the instruments in its registration database,
Megger was able to identify us as their rightful
owner.”

Prior to returning the instruments to G-TEC

Training, Megger carried out a complementary
check on their functionality and calibration. The
test report says it all – “Thrown from moving
vehicle. No action required.”
Programma hopes that the Wizard will help test engineers in discovering
wrong settings for the differential transformer relays that might cause
One of the most crucial points, the current transformer grounding, is “We’ve relied on Megger instruments for many
unwanted trip for external faults. The Wizard will not replace all the other
indicated with pictures, arrows and mouse clicks: years,” said Griff Thomas, “and we’ve always
tests that relay manufacturers recommend for the commissioning of
recognised them as being tough and reliable. In
their relays. The Wizard is intended to be a complementary test method, that
this instance, however, I think it’s fair to say that
Programma strongly
they’ve performed well beyond the call of duty.”
recommends should be
carried out.
“And,” he continued, “Megger’s superb service
was amply demonstrated by the company’s
Freja 306 welcomes new and
efforts in tracing us, checking our instruments
experienced users to, look at
and returning them to us, all at no cost! Buy
it and try it. Programma thinks
Megger equipment in future? You can be sure we
you will love it.
will!”

TESTING DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAYS 5


The industry’s recognised information tool
Magnetic
materials
Dr Stan Zurek
Design Engineer
This is a first in the series of articles describing
magnetic materials and their applications in
electrical testers, as well as the relevance to the
tested electrical equipment and installations.
Introduction
Almost every electric device utilises magnetic
materials (MM) to some extent. The use of the
MM for magnetic cores of electrical machines is
quite obvious, but the applications are much
wider, ranging from data storage through sensors
through actuators to transformers and specialised
machinery. This article will focus on the types of
classification and will highlight the MM, which are
most widely used in current and future
engineering solutions.
Classification
The plethora of existing MM allows introducing
several classifications, depending on the area of
interest. For the purpose of this article let us
introduce categorisation according the following
properties:
1) physical
2) engineering
3) structural
Physical properties (top part of figure 2)
All substances exhibit some magnetic properties
– when subjected to a magnetic field they
respond by amplifying or damping it. This is
linked to the so-called “spin” of electrons in the
atoms, which behave like magnetic dipoles, thus
reacting to the external magnetic field.
Depending on the type of interaction between
the electrons and the field the behaviour can be
appropriately classified. There are over ten types
of “magnetisms”, but only a few of them found
wide use so far, at least in the conventional
engineering. The most commonly applied are the
four following types of materials: ferromagnetic
(e.g. iron), paramagnetic (air), diamagnetic
(copper) and ferrimagnetic (ferrite).
The paramagnets and diamagnets are normally
perceived as “non-magnetic” because they all
behave similarly to free space, and their magnetic
properties are very poor – the relative
permeability is negligibly close to 1. In magnetic
circuits they represent very high reluctance,
being an analogy to insulation in electric circuits.
However, they have one massive advantage of
being completely linear magnetically and they are
quite frequently used in precise equipment,
where any non-linearity is simply unacceptable:
calibrating solenoids, Helmholtz coils, Rogowski
belts, etc. “Non-magnetic” here means prosaically
that they would not “stick” to a fridge magnet.
On the other hand, the ferromagnets and
ferrimagnets are “magnetic”. They are highly non-
linear – the relative permeability can vary from
106 to 1, and they exhibit saturation, so the range
of magnetic field over which they can be used is
limited. However, their ability to
amplify/concentrate the magnetic flux allows
construction of much more efficient magnetic
circuits, which help in drastically reducing the
copper losses. Such materials are commonly
referred to as “magnetic” and they would “stick”
to a permanent magnet, which itself must be
either ferri- or ferromagnetic. If heated over
certain limit (Curie for ferro- and Néel
temperature for ferrimagnets) they lose their
magnetic properties, but once cooled they regain
their previous magnetic characteristics (provided
that the metallurgical structure was not affected
in the process).
6 MAGNETIC MATERIAL
Engineering properties (bottom left of fig 2)
If exposed to external magnetic field the
“magnetic” materials (i.e. ferri- and ferro-
magnetic) respond by appropriate value of the
flux density B (induction). When H is cycled, also
B cycles and a hysteresis or BH loop can be
plotted – see below. The loop has a few
characteristic points like saturation, remanence
(BR), coercivity (HC), etc. The latter value is a
basis for another type of classification.
Magnetically soft materials exhibit HC lower than
around 1 kA/m (but this is by no means a strict
limit). The two main parameters are high
permeability and low magnetic loss, often
referred to as “iron loss” regardless of the actual
type of metal used. Soft MM allow very efficient
energy conversion (for example in transformers,
autotransformers and DC-DC converters), high
mechanical forces (electrical machines, actuators,
reed switches), good magnetic shielding (double-
clamp earth resistance testers), high sensitivity
(all induction sensors and current transformers),
filtering of various signals (inductors, chokes,
fault-current limiters, ferrite beads) and many
other applications.
Magnetically hard materials have HC greater than
10 kA/m – they are also referred to as “permanent
magnets” or even simply as “magnets”. Once
magnetised they are quite difficult to demagnetise
and they retain the magnetisation level at the BR
point. They are used most frequently in
applications where mechanical force is required:
salient-pole machines, linear actuators, magnetic
clutches and gearboxes (watthour meters),
holding magnets, but also where a given constant
bias field is required: Hall switches, sensors, eddy
current brakes in energy meters, etc. The
maximum operating B of the hard MM is lower
they provide continuous flux generation without
the need for any power supply.
Semi-hard materials fall between the two previous
groups. If magnetised they hold the
magnetisation relatively well, but if necessary it is
not too difficult to demagnetise, or magnetise
them in the opposite direction. The main area of
application is data storage: magnetic tapes, floppy
disks, hard drives, credit cards, but also for
security purposes e.g. erasable magnetic strips in
retail or libraries.
Fig 1. Diagram shows magnetic cores expand and
contract while excited by magnetic field
The group of “special” materials shown in the
bottom of the figure shows some examples of
effects of phenomena used in very specialised
applications, but volume-wise they are far less
used than any of the three types of materials
discussed above. Some of the most interest would
be here magnetoresistive – for fast sensors of
magnetic field used for example in hard disk
reading heads, and magnetocaloric – perceived as
future of more efficient solution for refrigeration.
The magnetoelastic effect is also very interesting
because it can be either very useful or harmful.
Usefulness comes for applications in sensors of
force or torque. The MM with giant
magnetostriction (which is also a magnetoelastic
phenomenon) can be used as force actuators, for
example already employed in compact loud-
speakers. The most well known negative effect of
Fig. 2 Diagram shows interrelationship between physical, engineering and structural properties in typical
magnetic materials
magnetostriction is the inevitable acoustic
humming noise of power transformers, whose
magnetic cores expand and contract while excited
by magnetic field.
Structural properties (bottom right)
The structural properties are again related only to
ferri- and ferromagnets. “Structure” means here
either crystallographic configuration of atoms
within the MM or the physical size and shape of
the given MM used in a magnetic core. The
crystallographic structure can be split into four
groups.
Amorphous state is achieved when liquid metal is
quenched so quickly (more than 1000 oC per
second), that the atoms are “frozen” in their
position as there is no time to order into crystals.
Amorphous MM are isotropic (the same magnetic
properties in all direction) and the manufacturing
process produces thin ribbons or wires resulting
in very low magnetic losses. For that reason the
commercially available iron-based amorphous
ribbon is more and more used for transformer
cores, as it helps to lower substantially the
running costs of transformers (more popular in
US than in Europe).
Polycrystalline structure is the most common, as
during the relatively slow cooling from liquid
state gives rise to numerous crystals, which then
grow until the whole available volume is
consumed. The overall properties are normally
isotropic, but special mechanical, thermal and
magnetic treatment can help in achieving much
better magnetic properties along a given
direction. Such process is employed for example
for grain-oriented electrical steel, which is the
main building material for transformer cores in
the world.
Monocrystal is a single grain, which grew over the
whole volume of the material. Such structure is
very difficult and expensive to grow, but its
magnetic properties are very good. Simply due to
the costs involved the monocrystals are rarely
used in engineering applications.
Nanocrystalline MMs are similar to polycrystalline,
but the grains are small enough to be shorter
than the so-called magnetic exchange coupling
inside the material. This gives rise to lower
coercivity as well as higher and more stable
permeability. Despite their higher cost the
nanocrystals are more and more frequently used
in high-frequency applications, because they can
yield similar performance with a smaller volume
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
of material, which leads to miniaturisation of
devices. Also, the temperature stability of
nanocrystals is superior.
In terms of physical sizes and shapes the
magnetic materials are available in forms
depending on the manufacturing process. Most
commonly these are thin laminations (0.23 mm
to 1.0 mm) or ribbons (below 100 µm), which
then have to be wound, or stamped/slit/cut and
packed into final magnetic core. Ferrite and
powder cores are sintered into ready-made
components or core shapes (up to a few
centimetres or even larger). Sensors often utilise
thin wires (µm range) or films sputtered (nm
range) on a substrate. The novel nano-sized
materials (nm range) are mostly used for very
specialised sensor or biological applications, and
high-volumes are not yet available commercially.
Summary
Depending on application there is an abundance
of magnetic materials to choose from, but of
course there are certain fixed limitations resulting
from physics, for instance: highest known
saturation induction = 2.43 T in Co-Fe alloy,
highest permeability = 106 in Ni-Fe alloy, lowest
coercivity = 0.1 A/m in Co-based amorphous
ribbon, highest coercivity = 1100 kA/m in
neodymium magnets, lowest losses –
nanocrystalline ribbons, and so on. On top of
these there are almost always cost restrictions,
but wisely chosen material could save time and
money during manufacturing, increasing the
sensitivity or operating range of the new
generation of an instrument, achieving better
energy efficiency and longer battery operation
and shrink the volume required on a printed
circuit board. Of course magnetics is sometimes
the ONLY method in which a given task can be
achieved, for example to generate a thousand
amperes from a battery, to measure leakage
current without breaking the circuit or to detect
the location of a cable from a few metres away.
Megger’s design teams are researching many of
these techniques for incorporating into new
generations of electrical test and measurement
equipment.
Dr Stan Zurek studied for his first degree in electrical
engineering at Czestochowa University of Technology,
Poland, and has recently completed a doctorate in
applied magnetics at Cardiff University, Wales. He is
the author and co-author of over 50 technical papers
published in scientific journals and international
conferences in the area of soft magnetic materials.
Dr Zurek is currently a design engineer at Megger’s
Dover, England site.
 ELECTRICAL
The industry’s recognised information tool TESTER
Matz Öhlén M.Sc., E.E.
Marketing and Sales Manager The ultimate tool for detecting
Power transformers are invariably designed to design. Finally, a construction-based comparison
withstand the mechanical forces they are likely to
experience during transport and as a result of in-
service faults. However, it is by no means
unknown for the forces to exceed acceptable
transformer faults
can be used in some circumstances, when
comparing measurements between windings in
the same transformer.

limits in the case of severe events, or when ageing
has led to a reduction in strength of the
insulation. Frequency response analysis (FRAX) is
a powerful tool for determining whether a
transformer has been damaged by problems of
this type.
Electrically, a transformer is made up of multiple
capacitances, inductances and resistances. It is, in
effect, a very complex circuit that produces a
unique “fingerprint” when test signals are injected
over a range of frequencies and the results
plotted as a curve. In particular, the capacitances
in the transformer are affected by the distance
between conductors. Movement in the windings
will, therefore, alter the capacitances and change
the shape of the curve.
The sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA)
test technique for transformers is based on
comparisons between measured curves, which
allow variations to be detected. An SFRA test
involves multiple sweeps and reveals whether the
mechanical or electrical integrity of the
transformer has been compromised.
Normally, SFRA tests are used to capture a
“fingerprint” reference curve for each winding
when the transformer is new or when it is known
to be in good condition. These curves are
subsequently used as the basis for comparisons
during maintenance or when problems are
suspected.
The best way to use SFRA testing is to take
regular measurements on the same transformer
over a period time, and to compare the results.
However, it is also possible to use type-based
comparisons between transformers with the same
Comparative tests are typically performed before
and after transportation, after severe through
faults, before and after overhaul, and as a
diagnostic aid if problems are suspected. A single
SFRA test can detect winding problems that
would otherwise require multiple tests with
various kinds of test equipment, as well as
problems that cannot be detected at all by tests
of other kinds.
As a general guide, magnetisation and other
problems relating to the core alter the shape of
the SFRA curve at the lowest frequencies, up to
around 10 kHz. Medium frequencies, from 10 kHz
to 100 kHz represent axial or radial movements
in the windings, and high frequencies above
100 kHz correspond to problems involving the
cables from the windings to bushings and tap
changers. In modern SFRA test sets, built-in
analytical tools simplify comparisons between
curves.
SFRA curve shown in red. With the core ground FRAX-101 detects problems such as:
The diagram shows an example of the type of connected, the green curve was produced. The n Broken clamping structures
results SFRA can provide. It represents a single- problem was clearly revealed by changes at
n Core connection problems
phase transformer where, after an overhaul, the frequencies between 1 kHz and 10 kHz, and
core ground was accidently left unconnected. In noticeable changes can also be seen in the 10 n Core movements
this condition, the transformer produced the kHz to 200 kHz range.
n Faulty core grounds
SFRA testing offers a fast and cost-effective way of n Hoop buckling
determining if a transformer has been damaged n Loosened clamping structures
and whether it is safe to energise. In addition, if
n Partial winding collapse
there is a problem the test results provide
valuable information that can be used to help n Shorted turns and open windings
n
decide on appropriate further action. Winding deformations and displacements
For mission critical transformers, an SFRA
fingerprint reference measurement is therefore a For more information on PAX products visit
sound investment as it will make analysis easier www.paxdiagnostics.com
and more reliable should a problem occur.

Testing on T-T earthing systems

Kerry Burdett
Technical Support Advisor

The T-T system uses an earthed neutral at the supply transformer
and an earth electrode at the user’s installation. The electricity
supplier provides no earth conductor therefore an electrode is
used. The earth electrode is connected to the main earth terminal
of the installation. T-T systems are often found in remote locations
such as rural villages, caravan sites and temporary supplies from
generators in applications such as fair grounds.
T-T systems must have an RCD (residual current device) fitted for As a general rule, the distance between electrodes should be at
protection. Due to the resistance of the earth, a potential least the depth of the electrodes e.g., 1 m depth, 1 m distance
difference can be present on the earth which can cause problems between them. (see fig.3)
when testing RCDs. If the potential rises above 50 V, it is unsafe to
continue with the test and the test equipment should prohibit the
testing procedure. To resolve this problem, the earth path needs
to be improved, often by putting in another electrode.

To test an RCD on a circuit with a high resistance, connect the

RCD tester across the RCD to the phase and neutral conductors,
the leakage current is then flowing through the test instrument so
the RCD will still detect the imbalance of the current flowing (see
Fig.2).
Fig.3 B is less than A
In some locations, the electricity supplier will not connect the
installation to the supply unless the earth electrode has been
tested.

To do this a dedicated earth tester would be required. Or following

connection to the supply an earth loop impedance tester
(normally known as a loop tester) can be used. In conclusion,
testing on T-T earthing systems offers its own particular problems
as a result of the local earth electrode that has to be used.

Although more difficult to make the connections, this is still a valid Other earthing systems such as TN-S and TN-C-S do not require a
method for testing an RCD. An additional earth electrode cannot local earth electrode and so do not have the resultant problems
just be put in the ground wherever convenient. Testing will need with high resistance earth connections.
to take place to ensure the resistance areas do not cross over. If
they meet, a lower resistance result will be measured rather than
Fig.1 A T-T earth system (reproduced by kind the true resistance value. (see Fig.4) For more detailed information on earth
permission of the IEE) resistance testing see the Megger publication
‘Getting Down to Earth’ the practical guide to
The IEE recommended figure for external loop impedance (Ze) earth testing available at
for a T-T system is up to 200 Ω although current standards define www.Megger.com/DET.
a higher maximum value. Due to Ohm’s law, this means low fault
currents can be expected when you have a high resistance or
impedance.
For example:
Ze = 200 Ω V= 230 V
PFC = 230/200 = 1.15 A Fig 4 B is greater than A

DETECTING TRANSFORMER FAULTS 7

 ELECTRICAL
The industry’s recognised information tool TESTER
Training Update

Q&A
This month in our regular look at questions
Allen Joyce
Training Manager

FROM BELGIUM TO CROATIA,

answered regularly by the Megger Technical
Support Group, we turn our attention to the hot
topic of frequency response analysis (FRA).
Q. Is there something we can do to assess the
condition of a transformer relatively quickly, after
a short-circuit fault, before returning it to service?
The only tests I have heard of sound quite long
winded and time consuming.
A. There is a technique called frequency response
analysis (FRA). FRA is like a whole body scan of a
transformer. It looks at the transformer as a single
system.
A variable frequency is applied to the transformer
resulting in a trace, showing how the transformer
reacted to the frequencies applied. This is the
transformer’s ‘fingerprint’.
This ‘fingerprint’ can be compared to a previously
measured ‘fingerprint’ trace. If the traces are the
same, then nothing within the transformer has
changed, the transformer is as healthy as it was
and can be safely reconnected to the system.
If a difference is seen then there may be a
problem with the transformer and further
investigation would be required utilising some of
the other available test methods to pinpoint the
problem.
VIETNAM AND BEYOND
Where can the person responsible for the
electrical discipline of his company go to receive
up to date knowledge on testing a wide range of
test equipment? There is an almost endless array
of products used in electrical testing throughout
the industrial world.
The best way to train might be to keep traditional
classroom training to a minimum and put the
emphasis on practical exercises that had been
developed specifically to help delegates
familiarise themselves with commonly
encountered testing methods, applications and
instruments.
The Megger Technology Centre in Dover, England
has approached this issue by making available a
range of product based courses and applications
biased structured demonstrations to show
delegates how to use modern test instruments
and demonstrate how each test function is used
to ‘enhance’ the test results obtained from the
equipment.
This was brought home during a recent seminar
that ‘opened up’ these disciplines to a worldwide
audience, attended by delegates from around the
world. Specialists from Megger’s Technical
Support Team in Dover, England and from the
company’s development and manufacturing
operations in Philadelphia and Texas provided this
five-day event focused on in-depth training.
By having a hands on approach throughout, only
a fraction of the seminar took the form of
traditional classroom training, the emphasis being
placed firmly on practical exercises that had been
developed specifically to help delegates
familiarise themselves with commonly
encountered testing methods, applications and
instruments.
To give delegates confidence that they had fully
understood the training, and to help them retain Training is fundamental to understanding. Regular technical
what they had learned, each session included training will keep your staff properly equipped to predict and
manage equipment maintenance and failure.
written tests which focused on applications and
testing techniques covered in the particular
session. This combination of activities ensured instruments offered for transformer testing. Using
new products featuring PowerDB On-Board, they
that the delegates derived maximum possible
were able to perform and record results quickly
benefit from their participation.
by applying the products to custom built
One specific session was given over to cable fault
location (CFL), with a full day being devoted to demonstration kit built specifically for this
the subject. After a short but detailed theoretical purpose. Results could then be analysed to prove
slot based on a logical approach to CFL, delegates the effectiveness of the testing techniques used.
had a step-by-step practical exercise aimed at Several types of insulation diagnostic testing were
removing the mystique that sometimes surrounds demonstrated in depth, along with the individual
the subject. The removal of a lot of the stigma benefits of PI, DD and other diagnostic methods.
associated with CFL methods surprised some of Delegates particularly learned about the safety
the delegates. importance of the “guard terminal’ connection.
To complement the theoretical training, every At the end of the seminar, delegates received a
delegate was involved in a practical exercise, folder with notes, datasheets and other training
using Megger’s latest cable fault test products and materials to reinforce the practical training they
getting hands-on experience of using the new had received.
PFL40A CFL module and the CFL40A vehicle- If this mixture of practical and theoretical training
mounted test set. appeals to you, call Alan.Purton@megger.com to
In addition to cable fault location, delegates also arrange training either at your premises or at one
received detailed training on many test of Megger’s dedicated training centres around the
world.

FRA is a fast (1 hr) test giving a picture of the Megger Dover training courses dates 2009:
health of the transformer as a whole. If there are
no changes you can reconnect the transformer
January courses Dates May courses Dates September courses Dates
quickly, saving time and money.
I day course I day course I day course
It does however require a reference trace. Ideally, 17th Edition testing 7th 17th Edition testing 6th 17th Edition testing 10th
FRA would be performed as part of the 2 day course 2 day course Insulation testing 8th/9th
commissioning of the transformer to gain the Insulation testing 5th/6th Insulation testing 4th/5th 2 day course
reference trace. Tan delta testing 27th/28th Earth electrode testing 12th/13th Earth electrode testing 15th/16th
3 day course Transformer testing 19th/20th Relay testing transmission 21st/22nd
Most in service transformers were commissioned Cable fault location 14th-16th Relay testing industrial 25th/26th Relay testing differential 17th/18th
many years ago but running the test today, as part Battery testing 28th/29th
of planned maintenance procedures is an February courses Dates October courses Dates
alternative way to gain a reference trace, I day course June courses Dates I day courses
providing the transformer is functioning in a PAT testing 11th I day course PAT testing 7th
satisfactory manner. These traces should then be 2 day course PAT testing 10th 2 day course
retained along with the connection conditions of Earth electrode testing 17th/18th 2 day course Relay testing transmission 19th/20th
the transformer for future comparison. Relay testing industrial 19th/20th Relay testing differential 17th/18th Tan delta testing 21st/22nd
Transformer testing 24th/25th 3 day course
The FRAX101 Frequency Response Analyser Battery testing 26th/27th July courses Dates Cable fault location 14th-16th
complies with most common operating standard I day course
at 10 V, although it can test at lower voltages if March courses Dates 17th Edition testing 8th November courses Dates
previous tests had been done at a non standard I day course 2 day courses I day courses
voltage. It has the highest frequency response 17th Edition testing 3rd Insulation testing 6th/7th 17th Edition testing 11th
and can sweep either from low frequency to high, 2 day course Relay testing transmission 21st/22nd 2 day course
or in the reverse direction, depending on what Insulation testing 4th/5th Tan delta testing 28th/29th Insulation testing 9th/10th
was done in the original finger-printing. Relay testing differential 18th/19th 3 day course Earth electrode testing 16th/17th
Cable fault location 15th-17th Relay testing industrial 18th/19th
And of course as these outages rarely occur on April courses Dates Transformer testing 24th/25th
pleasant summer’s days, FRAX can be left I day course August courses Dates Battery testing 26th/27th
connected to the transformer while you retire out PAT testing 8th I day course
of the weather to operate the unit and collect the 2 day course PAT testing 5th December courses Dates
data on your computer using Bluetooth® Insulation testing 5th/6th 2 day course I day course
protocols. Relay testing transmission 21st/22nd Relay testing industrial 24th/25th PAT testing 9th
Tan delta testing 28th/29th Transformer testing 18th/19th 2 day course
If you have any questions that you would like to ask 3 day course Battery testing 27th/28th Relay testing differential 15th/16th
Megger’s TSG, please give them a call on Cable fault location 15th-17th
+44 (0) 1304 502102 or email uksales@megger.com
If you are interested in any of these course, please contact Alan Purton on +44 (0) 1304 502153 or email alan.purton@megger.com

Failure to carry out insulation tests changed world history

Nick Hilditch
Group Marketing Services Manager
One of the most tragic campaigns of the Second
World War, which resulted in the deaths of
literally millions of soldiers and civilians, was the
Battle for Stalingrad. Its turning point was
reached in November 1942 after a titanic struggle
between the armies of Germany and its allies and
the Soviet forces. At this point, the Soviet Union
launched Operation Uranus to encircle the
German forces in the Stalingrad area by
simultaneous attacks on the relatively weakly
defended flanking Rumanian Fourth (to the
northwest) and Third (to the southwest) Armies.
The offensive started on November 19th.
Russian armour immediately penetrated the
weakly held area between the Rumanian Third
Army and the Italian Army and within a day, the
Rumanians were surrounded. Rumanian
resistance to the initial onslaught was remarkably
effective given the offensive strength of the Soviet
forces engaged compared to the defensive
capabilities of Rumanian units, which lacked any
means of countering Soviet tank attacks. They
held on for a full day before collapsing under the
weight of the Soviet assault.
Only the German 22nd Panzer Division was
available to block the inevitable breakthrough.
Unfortunately for the Germans, over the long
Russian summer, field mice had nested in the
hulls of the Panzer tanks, and the insulation on
the electrical cables had been eaten through. Out
of 104 tanks nominally available, only 42 were
combat ready. The German tanks were unable to
properly deploy, and the Soviet army broke
through.
The story got worldwide coverage through TASS,
the Soviet news agency. It was announced in the
exaggerated reporting style of the time that
fanatical Soviet mice had intervened decisively in
the Battle for Stalingrad.
The German Sixth Army was quickly encircled
and two months later, it was destroyed.
Subsequently the Soviet armies fought their way
across eastern and central Europe against strong
German resistance to eventually defeat Germany,
and world affairs were changed for the next 50
years.
There were many events leading to the disastrous
German defeat, but arguably, things may have
ended differently had there been some protection
against rodent damage on the tanks’ cable
insulation, and if the maintenance crews had
carried out a schedule of regular insulation tests.
In most cases, failure to schedule regular
insulation tests will not have such far reaching
consequences as it had for the Germans in 1942,
but next time someone asks you why you have to
spend time checking cables, you could remind
them of the possible costs if you do not.
Further reading:
There are many excellent sources on the battle
for Stalingrad and its repurcussions. These three
books are very readable, and give a good
explanation of the challenges faced by both sides:
Barbarossa: The Russian German Conflict 1941-
1945 – Alan Clark
Enemy at the Gates: The battle for Stalingrad –
William Craig
Stalingrad – Antony Beevor

8 TRAINING UPDATE