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Thumb Rule For Process Engineer 1587027778 PDF
Thumb Rule For Process Engineer 1587027778 PDF
Thumb Rule For Process Engineer 1587027778 PDF
FOR
PROCESS ENGINEERS
Revised 8/2002
Edited by H. R. Hunt
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 SEPARATION ...................................................................................................................1-1
F. Condensers ................................................................................................................................................................2-16
L. Cooling Towers.........................................................................................................................................................2-18
M. Insulation ...................................................................................................................................................................2-19
1
O. Miscellaneous Plant Systems ................................................................................................................................2-21
P. Method For Feasibility Study Sizing of Gas Plant Gas/Gas shell & Tube Heat Exchanger: .............2-24
3 TREATING.........................................................................................................................3-1
A. Dehydration................................................................................................................................................................. 3-1
4 FLUID FLOW.....................................................................................................................4-1
5 FRACTIONATION.............................................................................................................5-1
B. Columns........................................................................................................................................................................ 5-1
6 COMBUSTION ..................................................................................................................6-1
2
A. Flare............................................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
J. General:........................................................................................................................................................................ 8-5
9 REFRIGERATION ............................................................................................................9-1
3
10 MISCELLANEOUS........................................................................................................ 10-1
C. Economics ..................................................................................................................................................................10-3
D. Hydrates .....................................................................................................................................................................10-4
O. Kinetics .......................................................................................................................................................................10-6
Q. Pipeline Volume:......................................................................................................................................................10-6
V. Absolute Pressure of Atmosphere at Height ‘H’ feet above Sea Level .....................................................10-7
4
1 SEPARATION
1. Use vertical separator for high vapor to liquid ratios and for two phase separation.
2. Use horizontal separator for high liquid to vapor ratios and for three phase separation.
Vessel L/D 3 to 5.
3. Check size for both gas and liquid handling (i.e. gas superficial velocity and liquid
residence time).
4. Use 3 min liquid residence time for the hydrocarbon phase in a crude oil system.
5. Use 3 to 6 min residence time for the water phase in a crude oil system.
1. The disengaging space - the distance between the bottom of the mist elimination pad
and the inlet nozzle, should be equal to the vessel internal diameter or a minimum of
3' -0".
2. The distance between the inlet nozzle and the maximum liquid level should be equal
to one-half the vessel diameter, or a minimum of 2' -0".
1-1
Where: Vg = Vertical velocity of gas, ft/sec
AMMcfd = Actual gas volume at operating conditions, MMcfd
A = Cross Sectional Area of vessel, ft2
4. The dimension between the top tangent line of the separator and the bottom of the
mist eliminator pad should be a minimum of 1' -0".
8. Normal practice for calculating liquid retention time is to allow for the volume
contained in the shell portion of the vessel only. No credit is taken for any liquid
retention time attributable to the volume contained in the vessel head. Sump height
should be a minimum of 1' -6". to allow for liquid level control.
The following are commonly used rules of thumb for sizing Horizontal separators.
2. The maximum liquid level should provide a minimum vapor space height of 1' -3"
3. but not be substantially below the centerline of the vessel.
4. Separators designed for gas-oil- water separation should provide residence time and
separation facilities for removal of the water.
6. The volume of dished heads should not be taken into account in vessel sizing
calculations.
7. Inlet and outlet nozzles should be located as closely as possible to vessel tangent
lines.
1-2
E. Solid/Liquid Separations
1-3
G. Brown - Souders Equation For Vessel Sizing
W = C DV ( D l − DV )
D1 = 0.82 Sp. Gr. X 62.3 #/Cu. Ft. (H2 0) = 51.0 #/Cu. Ft.
W = 1100 .333(51.0 − .333)
= 1100v16.9
= 4520 #/hr./Sq. Ft.
1. The stainless steel mesh pad type mist extractor is generally less expensive than the
vane type and is adequate for most clean service applications. Similar liquid removal
efficiencies can be achieved (within certain velocity constraints) with mist particle
sizes of 10 microns and larger.
2. The pad type usually has less clean pressure drop than the vane type.
3. The vane type usually performs better than the pad type where tacky solids such as
iron sulfide are present in the flowing gas stream. The liquid flow from the mist
extractor is at right angles to the gas flow in vane type and it tends to wash solids
away better.
1-4
4. If the vane type is used in corrosive service (hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, or
oxygen with water wet gas), the vanes should be 316 stainless steel. Experience has
shown that a small amount of corrosion with carbon steel vanes roughs the surface
and solids tend to accumulate and plug the vanes rapidly.
5. For retrofit or sometimes new applications, it is possible to use a smaller dia meter
vessel for the vane type as it may be fitted in different orientations to limit the
velocity to acceptable ranges. The pad type is usually installed horizontally.
6. It is usually cheaper to retrofit vessels with the pad type as both would have to be cut
and match marked to fit through an 18” or smaller manway and reinstalled inside the
vessel. The vane type usually has boxing that must be welded together inside the
vessel while the pad type can usually be bolted.
7. The vane type may be used for small in- line applications where the pad type usually
can not.
8. If the pad type plugs with solids or hydrates, the pressure drop will likely dislodge the
mist extractor and plug downstream piping or equipment.
1-5
Separation References
1-6
2 HEAT TRANSFER SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
General design practices governing the design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers are
summarized, as follows:
Overall heat transfer coefficients suitable for feasibility design estimates are provided in
Table 1, and film coefficients are contained in Table 2.
2-1
Recommended shellside and tubeside liquid velocities for various tube materials are
summarized as follows: Permissible tubeside velocities for dry gases range from 50 to
150 feet/sec. The recommended minimum shellside liquid velocities are 1.5 feet/sec.
TUBE Velocity
Material (FT/SEC)
Maximum cooling water and tube wall temperatures to minimize fouling deposition
are 125F and 145F, respectively.
7. Mean Temperature Differences
Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) correction factors (F) for single
shellpass, multiple tubepass exchangers should be greater than 0.75 to avoid
temperature approach problems.
8. Recommended Fouling Factors
• Shellside baffle tip and average crossflow velocities should not exceed 80% of
the calculated Connors Critical Velocity in order to avoid fluidelastic instability
tube vibration.
• The vortex shedding-to-tube natural frequency ration should not exceed 0.50 to
avoid vortex shedding tube vibration.
• In exchangers flashing gas on the shellside, the turbulent buffeting- to-tube
natural frequency ratio should not exceed 0.50 to avoid turbulent buffeting tube
vibration.
2-2
• In exchangers where acoustic resonance (noise) is predicted, a triangular tube
pitch may eliminate the problem Detuning plates may also be necessary in
certain cases.
TABLE 1
OVERALL U
HOT FLUID COLD FLUID BTU/HR-FT2-F
2-3
NOTES:
TABLE 2. APPROXIMATE FILM HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS 1. Where a range of coefficients is given
LIQUIDS SHELL TUBE SIDE for liquids, the lower values are for
cooling and the higher are for heating.
Oils, 20º API
Coefficients in cooling, particularly, can
200º F average temperature 40-50 15-25
300º F average temperature 70-85 20-35 vary considerably depending upon actual
tube wall temperature.
400º average temperature 80-100 65-75
2. Tube side coefficients are based on
Oils, 30º API 3
150 º F average temperature 70-85 20-35 /4–in diameter tubes. Adjustment to
200º F average temperature 80-100 50-60 other diameters may be made by
multiplying by 0.75/actual outside
300º F average temperature 110-130 95-115
diameter. Shell side coefficients are also
400º F average temperature 130-155 120-140
Oils, 40º API based upon 3/4–in diameter. Precise
150º F average temperature 80-100 50-60 calculations would require adjustment to
other diameters. The accuracy of the
200º F average temperature 120-140 115-135
procedure does not warrant it.
300º F average temperature 150-170 140-160
400º F average temperature 180-200 175-195 3. Coefficients can vary widely under
Heavy Oils, 8-14º API any one or combination of the following:
a. Low allowable pressure drop.
300º F average temperature 20-30 10-20
b. Low pressure condensing applications,
400º F average temperature 0-50 20-30
Diesel oil 115-130 95-115 particularly where condensation is not
isothermal.
Kerosene 145-155 140-150
c. Cooling of viscous fluids particularly
Heavy naphtha 145-155 130-140
Light naphtha180 180 with high coefficient coolants and large
Gasoline 200 200 LMTDs.
d. Condensing with wide condensing
Light hydrocarbons 250 250
temperature ranges — 100º F and larger.
Alcohols, most organic solvents 200 200
Water, ammonia 700 700 e. Boiling, where light vapor is generated
Brine, 75% water 500 500 from viscous fluid.
f. Conditions where the relative flow
Shell or tube sides quantities on shell and tube sides are
VAPORS 10 psig 50 psig 100 psig 300 psig 500 psig vastly different (usually evidenced by
Light hydrocarbons 25 60 100 170 200 difference in temperature rise or fall on
Medium HCs, organic sol. 25 70 105 180 220 shell and tube sides ).
Light inorganic vapors 14 30 60 100 120 g. Wide temperature ranges with liquids
Air 13 25 50 85 100 (may be partly in streamline flow).
Ammonia 14 30 55 95 110
Steam 15 30 50 90 135
Hydrogen — 100% 40 105 190 350 420
Hydrogen — 75% (by volume) 35 80 150 280 340
Hydrogen — 50% (by volume) 30 70 130 240 310
Hydrogen — 25% (by volume) 25 55 100 180 270
VAPORS CONDENSING Shell or tube sides
Steam 1,500
Steam, 10% non-condensables 600
Steam, 20% non-condensables 400
Steam, 40% non-condensables 220
Pure light hydrocarbons 250-300
Mixed light hydrocarbons 175-250
Gasoline 150-220
Gasoline-steam mixtures 200
Medium hydrocarbons 100
Medium hydrocarbons with steam 125
Pure organic solvents 250
Ammonia 600
LIQUIDS BOILING
Water 1,500
Water solutions, 50% water or more 600
Light hydrocarbons 300
Medium hydrocarbons 200
Freon 400
Ammonia 700
Propane 400
Butane 400
Amines, alcohols 300
Glycols 200
Benzene, tolune 200
2-4
TABLE 3
EXCHANGER FOULING
SERVICE (HR-FT2-F/BTU)
LESS 125 F GREATER 125F
COOLING TOWER WATER 0.001 0.002
BRACKISH WATER 0.002 0.003
SEA WATER 0.0005 0.001
BOILER FEEDWATER 0.001
CONDENSATE 0.0005
STEAM 0.0005
COMPRESSED AIR 0.001
NATURAL GAS & LPG GAS 0.001 - 0.002
ACID GASES 0.002 - 0.003
REFORMER FEED-EFFLUENT GAS 0.0015
HYDROCRACKER FEED-EFFLUENT GAS 0.002
HDS FEED-EFFLUENT GAS 0.002
MEA AND DEA SOLUTIONS 0.002
DEG AND TEG SOLUTIONS 0.002
HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS 0.002
PROPANE AND BUTANE 0.001
GASOLINE 0.002
KEROSENE, NAPTHA, & LIGHT DISTILLATES 0.002 - 0.003
LIGHT GAS OIL 0.002 - 0.003
HEAVY GAS OIL 0.003 - 0.005
HEAVY FUEL OIL 0.005 - 0.007
VACUUM TOWER BOTTOMS 0.010
NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS 0.005
Single shellpass, TEMA “E” shells are preferred for most single-phase and
condensing applications. Two shellpass, TEMA “F” shells with two tubepass
bundles are preferred when pure counterflow conditions and maximum mean
temperature difference (MTD) are required. “F” shell exchangers should be
specified with welded longbaffles or “ Lamiflex” longbaffles seals. Bundle should
may also be utilized to minimize longbaffle leakage. TEMA “G” and “H” split- flow
shells are preferred only for horizontal shellside thermosiphon reboilers. Divided-
flow TEMA “J” shells with RODbaffle tube bundles are preferred for low pressure-
drop, single-phase and condensing services. TEMA “K” shells are used exclusively
for horizontal, kettle reboilers.
10. Return Head Types
Fixed tubesheet exchangers are preferred for services where thermal expansion,
shellside mechanical cleaning, and tube bundle removal are not concerns. U-tube
2-5
and floating head bundles are required when thermal expansion, shellside
mechanical cleaning, and tube bundle removal provisions must be made. Fixed
tubesheet exchangers should be considered if shellside-to-tubeside inlet temperature
differences are less than 100F. Fixed tubesheet exchangers having shell expansion
joints should be avoided. U-tube and floating head exchangers are required when
fixed tubesheet units cannot meet above requirements, with U-tube bundles being
preferred over floating head bundles if tubeside mechanical cleaning is not required.
Split-ring floating head bundles are preferred over pull-through floating head
bundles in general refinery service because of higher thermal performance and lower
cost. Outside packed floating head exchangers are not recommended.
11. Shellside Baffle Types
The preferred tube size for shell-and-tube heat exchangers in medium to heavy
tubeside fouling service (.001 hr-ft2 -F/Btu or greater) is 1.00 inch O.D. For light
tubeside fouling services (less than .001 hr- ft2 -F/Btu), 0.750 inch O.D. tubes are
preferred. Generally 30 or 60 degree triangular layouts are preferred for clean,
single-phase services (<.001 hr- ft2 -F/Btu) in which chemical cleaning maybe used.
For medium or heavy fouling services (> .001 hr-ft2 -F/Btu) in which mechanical
cleaning is required, 90 square or 45 rotated square layouts are preferred. Minimum
TEMA tube pitch-to-diameter ratio is 1.25. For kettle and internal reboiler services
and all RODbaffle exchangers, 90 square layout is required.
13. Recommended Material
2-6
recommended for low temperature services (below - 150F). Monel tubes are
recommended for HF acid-containing streams above 160F, while Titanium tubes are
recommended for brackish and sea water services. Welded, fully killed carbon steel
(ASTM A-214) should be avoided in low pH water soluble hydrocarbons, furfural,
phenol, sulfuric acid, amine service, HF alkylation, and in final overhead crude
tower coolers. Seamless carbon steel tubes (A-179) should be used where welded
tubes are not permitted. Duplex 2205 tubes should be used instead of austenitic
stainless tubes in high chloride services. The table below contains recommended
tube wall thicknesses.
Wall Wall
Material ¾ Inch OD Thickness 1 Inch OD Thickness
Carbon Steel 14 BWG avg wall .083 12 BWG avg wall .109
Nickel Base Alloy 16 BWG avg wall .065 14 BWG avg wall .083
Ferrous Alloy Steel 16 BWG avg wall .065 14 BWG avg wall .083
Baffles, Tie Rods, & Spacers : should be constructed of minimum quality material
compatible with tube and tubesheet material.
Tube Sheets: must be compatible with service conditions. In services requiring
welded tube-to-tubesheet joints, strength welds a re preferred over seal welds.
Shell & Channels : must be compatible with service conditions. Specify TEMA “A”
type heads when access to the tube ends is desirable or when frequent tubeside
cleaning is expected.
Direct question about material suitability should be directed to Engineering
Materials and Services.
U-tube exchangers having bundle diameters greater than 36 inches should have U-
bend tube supports. I designing a new U-tube exchanger, it is preferred to specify a
full support baffle at the U-bend tangent, and avoid flowing through the U-bend
entirely.
Momentum criteria (pv2 ) above whic h shellside impingement plates and annular
distributors and tubeside solid distributor plates should be used are summarized in
Table 4. Impingement rods can be utilized in lieu of a solid impingement plate. Rod
2-7
diameter should be identical to the tube O.D. Perforated impingement plates should
not be used.
Internal reboilers, consisting of multi- tubepass, U-tube bundles, should be used for
relatively-clean, moderate-viscosity fluids, in small surface-area applications, where
periodic column shutdown for cleaning may be tolerated.
Internal Reboiler Recommended Design Practices
• Tube Bundle shall be U-Tube Type
• Tubes Shall be Oriented on 90 Degree Square Pitch
• Minimum Clearance Between Tubes Shall be 0.25 inches
• Tube Bundle Diameter Shall Not Exceed 36 Inches
• Use Two Bundles Side-by-Side in Column for Large Area Requirements
• Limit Design Heat Flux < 0.7 Maximum Heat Flux
2-8
TABLE 4
NOZZLES FLUID MAXIMUM (Pv 2 )
(LB/FT 2_SEC2)_
SHELLSIDE CLEAN, NON-
NOZZLES CORROSIVE, NON- 1500
ABRASIVE SINGLE-
PHASE GAS, VAPOR,
LIQUID
2-9
3. Kettle Reboilers
2-10
• Limit Design Heat Flux < 70% of Maximum Nucleate Boiling Heat Flux Pr < 0.2
• Consider inlet tubeside distribution baffles for cases where two-phase process
streams enter exchanger
2-11
subcooling requirements, as shown in the logic diagram Fig. 3 at the end of this
section.
2-12
• Double Segmental Plate Baffles and RODbaffles Preferred
Horizontal tubeside condensers are preferred for kettle and horizontal shellside
thermosiphon reboilers and in corrosive services where the condensing medium
requires special metallurgy. Multiple tubepass tubeside condensers should be
avoided because of potential liquid-dropout and inerts accumulation in floating head
channels.
Vertical TEMA E shell downflow tubeside condensers are preferred for high
pressure, wide condensing range, corrosive fluids, where single-phase fluids are used
as cooling medium.
2-13
D. Heat Transfer Units conversions Table 5
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
LENGTH mm 0.039370 in SPECIFIC kj/kg C 0.23885 Btu/lb F
m 3.2808 ft HEAT kcal/kg C 1.0000 Btu/lb F
in 0.083333 ft Btu/lg F 4.1868 kj/kg C
in 25.400 mm THERMAL W/m C 0.57779 Btu/hr ft F
ft 12.000 in CONDUCTIVITY cals/s cm C 241.91 Btu/hr ft F
ft 0.30480 m Btu/hr ft2F/in 0.083333 Btu/hr ft F
AREA m2 10.764 ft 2 Btu/hr ft F 1.7307 W/m C
cm2 0.15500 in 2 kcal/hr m C 0.67197 Btu/hr ft F
in 2 0.0069444 ft 2 W/cm C 57.779 Btu/hr ft F
m2 / m 3.2808 ft 2/ ft DYNAMIC Pa s 2419.1 lb/hr ft
ft 2 /ft 0.30480 m2 / m VISCOSITY cP 2.4191 lb/hr ft
ft 2 0.092903 m2 kg/hr m 0.67197 lb/hr ft
VOLUME m3 35.315 ft 3 lb/s ft 3600.0 lb/hr ft
In 3 0.00057870 ft 3 lbf s/ft 2 115827.0 lb/hr ft
ft 3 0.028317 m3 lb/hr 0.00041338 Pa s
gal 0.13368 ft 3 lb/hr ft 0.41388 cP
gal (IMP) 1.2009 gal (US) KIMEMATIC m2 /s 38750.0 ft 2 /hr
2
litter 0.26417 gal (US) VISCOSITY cSt 0.038750 ft /hr
MASS kg 2.2046 gal m2 /s 10000.0 Stokes
lb 0.45359 kg ENERGY kj 0.94782 Btu
FORCE N 0.22481 lbf KWhr 3412.1 Btu
kp 2.2046 lbf kcal 3.9683 Btu
lbf 32.1740 lb ft/s 2 ft lbf 0.0012851 Btu
kp 9.80665 N hp hr 2544.4 Btu
PRESSURE Pa 0.0040218 in of water Btu 1.0551 kj
kPa 4.0218 in of water Btu 0.0002931 kWhr
kPa 0.14504 lbf/in 2 Btu 0.25200 k cal
kp/m2 0.039441 in of water J 0.00027778 W hr
mm of water 0.09370 in of water POWER W 3.4121 Btu/hr
in of water 0.24864 kPa kcal/hr 3.9683 Btu/hr
in of water 0.036063 lbf/in 2 ft lbf/hr 0.0012851 Btu/hr
in of water 0.0024539 atmospheres Hp 2544.4 Btu/hr
VELOCITY m/s 3.2808 ft/s Btu/hr 0.29307 W
m/min 3.2808 ft/min Btu/hr 0.25200 kcal/hr
mi/hr 1.4667 ft/s HEAT FLUX W/m2 0.31700 Btu/hr ft 2
ft/s 0.30480 m/s Kcal/hr m2 0.36867 Btu/hr ft 2
ft/min 0.016667 ft/s W/cm2 3170.0 Btu/hr ft 2
MASS kg/s 7936.6 lb/hr Cal/s cm2 13272.0 Btu/hr ft 2
FLOW Btu/hr ft 2 3.1546 W/m2
Btu/hr ft 2 2.7125 kcal/hr m2
MASS kg/hr 2,2046 lb/hr THERMAL m2 C/W 5.6783 hr ft 2 F/Bt
2-14
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
FLOW lb/s 3600.0 lb/hr RESISTANCE hr m2 C/kj 20.442 hr ft 2 F/Bt
lb/hr 0.45359 kg/hr hr m2 C/kcal 4.8824 hr ft 2 F/Bt
VOLUME m3 /s 2118.9 ft 3 /min s cm2 C/kcal 0.00013562 hr ft 2 F/Bt
FLOW ft 3 /s 60.000 ft 3 /min Cm2 C/W 0.00056783 hr ft 2 F/Bt
ft 3/ min 0.00047195 m3 /s hr ft 2 F/Btu 0.17611 m2 C/W
MASS kg/s m2 737.34 lb/hr ft 2 hr ft 2 F/Btu 0.20482 hr m2 C/W
VELOCITY kg/hr m2 020482 lb/hr ft 2 HEAT W/m2 C 0.17611 Btu/hr ft 2 F
lb/s ft 2 3600.0 lb/hr ft 2 TRANSFER kj/hr m2 C 0.048919 Btu/hr ft 2 F
lb/hr ft 2 4.8824 kg/hr m2 COEFFICIENT kcal/hr m2 C 0.20482 Btu/hr ft 2 F
DENSITY kg/m3 0.062428 lb/ft 3 cal/s cm2 C 7373.4 Btu/hr ft 2 F
g/cm3 62.428 lb/ft 3 W/cm2 C 1761.1 Btu/hr ft 2 F
lb/in 3 1728.0 lb/ft 3 Btu/hr ft 2 F 5.6783 W/m2 C
lb/ft 3 16.018 kg/m3 Btu/hr ft 2 4.8824 kcal/hr m2 C
2-15
E. Heat Exchangers (General)
3. For preliminary design for cooling water systems, use a cooling water temperature
rise of 15° to 20° F through the heat exchangers. In most cases a process stream
temperature approach of 10° F to the cold water to the exchanger is reasonable.
4. If flow through the exchanger is not countercurrent, hot fluid outlet temperature
should be greater than cold fluid outlet temperature.
F. Condensers
1. Be aware when condensing pure components such as propane that the limiting
temperature occurs when the desuperheating stops and condensing starts.
2. For water cooling, try to cool no further than a 10° F approach to the warm cooling
water leaving the condenser. Use 4 to 8 ft/sec velocity for water through the tubes.
Restrict cooling water return temperature to maximum of 125° F.
3. For water cooled propane condenser design, generally use 10° F temperature rise on
cooling water through the exchanger.
G. Reboilers and Chillers
1. Many failures occur because the pressure on the condensate return header is higher
than the low pressure steam at the reboiler.
2. About 50° F delta T is all that can profitably be used. Limit the approach
temperature of the gas to the refrigerant in gas chillers to 10° F. Less than 10° F delta
T requires excess exchanger surface area.
3. Usually design reboilers for a conservative heat flux of 8,000 to 12,000 BTU/ft2 and
reduce pressure of steam to prevent film boiling.
2-16
Attempting to vaporize more fluid may result in problems with the thermosiphon
flow.
H. Sizing Plate Heat Exchangers
1. For aluminum plate fin reboilers, methanol may tend to accumulate in the reboiler
and eventually log off the exchanger limiting thermosiphon flow. It can usually be
cleared if a drain is provided on the lower header of the exchanger.
3. For Aluminum Plate Fin Core- in-Shell evaporator heat exchange design use a 2 to 4
degree temperature approach to shell side evaporating fluid temperature. Use a
maximum evaporation of 25% of the thermosiphon circulated fluid in the evaporator
when preparing preliminary core specifications.
2. Normally design for 40° F approach to inlet air temperature if no cooling water used
(20° F Minimum).
3. Forced draft units are preferred over over induced draft units.
6. Hot air recirculation can be a problem, especially in hot weather. Consider air
recirculation when locating air Cooled Exchangers.
§ Locate coolers away from taller buildings or structures, especially downwind
of the cooler.
§ Do not locate coolers downwind of other heat generating equipment: i.e.
furnaces, boilers, etc.
2-17
§ Mount coolers high enough from the ground to avoid high inlet air approach
velocities. Consider mounting them on pipe lanes or provide at lease ½ a fan
diameter clearance between the ground and the plenum.
§ Locate large banks of coolers with the banks long axis perpendicular to the
prevailing summer wind direction.
§ Do not mix forced and induc ed draft coolers in close proximity and do not
locate coolers of different heights in close proximity.
K. Fired Heaters
1. Maximum recommended heat flux for a direct fired Triethylene Glycol regenerator
in a TEG Dehydration Unit is 8000 BTU/ft2 of fire tube surface area. The
recommended heat flux for maximum fire tube life is 6000 BTU/ft2 .
2. For most process heaters, assume a thermal efficiency of 75 to 80% when calculating
fuel requirements.
Where: % Thermal Efficiency = (Heat Transferred/Heat Released)*100.
A. Fired heaters for organic heat transfer fluids are usually designed with average
radiant heat fluxes ranging from 5000 to 12,000 BTU/hr-sq ft. Actual allowable
heat flux is usually limited by fluid maximum allowable film temperature. Film
temperature is dependent on:
B. If too high film temperature results, too much fluid is vaporized and the heat
transfer surface is blanketed with vapors. The heat transfer coefficient is rapidly
reduced and dangerously high surface temperatures can develop resulting severe
fluid degradation and mechanical fa ilure.
C. High surface temperatures may also cause the fluid to carbonize forming carbon
scale on the heat transfer surface which may lead to over heating and tube metal
failure.
D. All other things being equal, any organic heat transfer fluid degrades in
proportion to its temperature. Operation at approximately 100° F below vendors
maximum recommended bulk fluid operation temperature may extend the life of
the fluid by 10 times.
L. Cooling Towers
2-18
1. The evaporation rate on a cooling tower is dependent on the amount of water being
cooled and the temperature differential. For each 10° F temperature drop across the
tower, 1% of the recirculation rate is evaporated. In other words, 0.001 times the
circulation rate in gpm times the temperature drop equals the evaporation rate in
gpm.
Evaporation Losses are usually 0.85 to 1.25% of the tower circulation rate. An
evaporation loss of 1% of tower circulation per each 10 degrees F temperature drop
across the tower can be assumed for estimating purposes.
Thickness – inches
T (Process Temperature) – ° F
The first table below contains recommended insulation conductivities for insulating
materials. The second table contain conductivities for various materials.
2-19
Representative Conductivities of Pipe Insulation (Btu/hr·ft·F)
Insulation temperature
100º F 200º F 300º F 400º F 500º F 600º F
38º C (93º C) (149º C) (204º C) (260º C) (316º C)
1. For thermosiphon reboiler and side reboiler designs for demethanizer columns, limit
the vaporization of the reboiled liquid stream to a maximum of about 35% by
volume. Attempting to vaporize more fluid may result in problems with
thermosiphon flow.
2-20
2. For aluminum plate fin reboilers, methanol may tend to accumulate in the reboiler
and eventually log off the exchanger limiting thermosiphon flow. It can usually be
cleared if a drain is provided on the lower header of the exchanger.
1. Cooling Water Systems – For Preliminary design for cooling water systems, use a
cooling water temperature rise of 15 to 20° F through the heat exchangers. In most
cases a process stream temperature approach of 10 ° F to the cold water to the
exchanger is reasonable.
2. For Aluminum Plate Fin Core in Shell evaporator heat exchanger design use a 2 to
4 degree temperature approach to shell side evaporating fluid temperature. Use a
maximum evaporation of 25% of the thermosiphon circulated fluid in the
evaporator when preparing preliminary core specifications.
2-21
2-22
5. Typical material emissivities for radiation heat transfer problems
Material Emissivity
Aluminum Polished 0.040
Oxidized 0.11-0.19
Iron Polished 0.14-0.38
Polished cast 0.21
New cast 0.435
Rusted 0.685
Steel Polished 0.52-0.56
Oxidized 0.79
Rough plate 0.94-0.97
Brick 0.93
Refractory Poor 0.65-0.75
Good 0.80-0.90
Paint Black matte 0.91
Black lacquer 0.80-0.95
White lacquer 0.80-0.95
Aluminum 0.27-0.67
2-23
P. Method For Feasibility Study Sizing of Gas Plant Gas/Gas shell & Tube Heat
Exchanger:
1. From the process simulator output for the process, determine the required UA rate
for the gas/gas exchanger.
Assume U = 60 BTU/Hr Ft °F
A = UA = UA
U 60
Go to a Tube Count Table and read the number of tubes required for the Area A and
unit diameter and/or number of units.
2. Number of ¾” tubes
2-24
Start
Surface
Yes
A>150 ft2
Q Recovery
No
@ T > 1000F
No
Q Removed
No
@ T> 140F Yes
Yes
Exotic
Yes
Alloy Q Recovery
Economical Yes
Yes
No
Close dT
T > 350F No
Approach Yes
P > 200 psi
No No
Vibration
Yes Low dP
No
Figure 1
Heat Exchanger Selection
2-25
Start
Relatively
Fouling Fluid Fouling
Clean
Service Characteristics
Service
Extent Low to
Viscosity
of Fouling Moderately
Heavy Low To
Moderately
High
Very
Very
Pressure High
Heavy
Area
Required
Less Than Greater Than
Atmospheric Atmospheric
Small To
Large
Moderate
Vertical
Kettle
Thermosyphon Kettle
Reboiler
Internal Reboiler
(Finned Tubes)
Horizontal Reboiler
Pump-Through Pump-Through
Thermosyphon Horizontal
Reboiler Pump-Through Reboiler
Vertical Thermosyphon
Reboiler
Kettle Thermosyphon
(Critical
Reboiler
Operations)
(Finned Tubes)
Figure 2
Reboiler Selection
2-26
Start
Corrosive
High Yes
Pressure
No
Mechanical ShellSide
Yes Cleaning Tubeside No Condensation No
Coolant Required
Change Design
To Reduce Yes
Condensing dP
Very Allowable
Low Condensate dP
Allowable
Very
Med-High Condensing Low
Yes dP
Low
Medium
Use Large
Low Yes Diameter Shear
Tubes No Control
Temperature At Exit
(dP/P) > 0.1
Cross Yes
Large
Yes
Condensing
No
Range
Boiling
Bioling
Yes
Coolant
Coolant No
Yes
No
No No
Internal/ Large
Large Yes Subcooling
Yes No Kettle
Subcooling
Reboiler Yes
Yes No
No
Figure 3
Condenser Selection
2-27
HEAT TRANSFER REFERENCES
Tabork, J. et. al, Heat Exchangers, Theory & Practice, McGraw-Hill, 1981
Phillips Eng. Std. 10.44-2, Shell & Tube Process Design Criteria
Phillips Eng. Std. 15.18-4, Shell & Tube Mechanical Design Criteria
Phillips Engineering Standard 15.18-2, Air Cooled Heat Exchanger Mechanical Design Criteria
Phillips Engineering Standard 25.04-85, General Design, shell and Tube Heat Exchangers,
Mechanical Fabrication Requirements
Perry, R. H., Chemical Engineers Handbook, Section 11, 4th Ed. 1963
Premises for Design & Specification of Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers, 1992
Gas Processors Suppliers Association Engineering Data Book, Tenth Edition, 1987; Volume I,
Sections 8, 9, & 10
API Standard 660, Fifth Edition (to be issued in 1993), Shell- And-Tube Head Exchanger for
General Refinery Services
API Standard 661, Third Edition, April 1992, Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger for General Refinery
Services
“Quick Calculation of Cooling Tower Blowdown and Makeup”, Chemical Engineering, July 7,
1975, pg 110
“Designing a Near Optimum Cooling- Water System”, Chemical Engineering, April 21, 1980-
pg 118-125)
2-28
HEAT TRANSFER REFERENCES (CONTINUED)
The Randall Corporation process group used this method for preliminary estimates and reports
close match to their final design
“Organic Fluids for High Temperature Heat-Transfer Systems” W. F. Seifert, and L. L. Jackson,
Chemical Engineering, October 30, 1972, pg 95-104
2-29
3 TREATING
A. Dehydration
1. Dehydrate gas to 60% of the saturation water content at the conditions of lowest
saturation.
B. If the acid gas feed is less than 30% H2 S then flame stability in the reaction
furnace is a potential problem. Minimum temperature for effective operation is
1700° F.
D. SRU steam production will be approximately 6700 lbs of steam per long ton of
sulfur produced.
F. Sulfur fog is caused by too much cooling capacity. Sulfur mist can be caused by
excessive velocity in the condenser.
H. Mass velocity in waste heat exchanger and sulfur condenser tubes should be 2-6
lbs/sec-ft2 .
I. Space velocity through catalyst beds should be 700-1000 SCFH of gas per cubic
foot of catalyst. Lean streams, lower value and rich streams, higher value.
J. Sulfation of catalyst caused by SO3 . Oxygen combines with SO2 to form SO3
which is chemisorbed on alumina surface.
L. Liquid sulfur solidifies at 246° F and becomes very viscous above 320-350° F
2. Glycol Dehydration
3-1
a. TEG – Dew point depression ranges 80-140° F. Degree of dehydration which can
be obtained depends on amount of water removed from glycol in the reboiler &
circulation rate. Minimum circulation rate to assure good glycol gas contact is
approx. 2 gal. glycol for each pound of water to be removed. Max is ≈ 7 gal. and
standard is ≈ 3 gal.
c. Glycol will absorb ≈ 1 scf of gas/gallon of glycol. Glycol contactor – For best
scrubbing of overhead gas install “Mist Pad” on the face of “Vane Type” mist
extractor.
d. Estimate total reboiler duty from 2000 BTU/US gal of TEG circulation rate. Note
that the use of glycol/glycol heat exchangers will reduce the total reboiler duty.
3. Trouble shooting
Black, viscous solution indicates that heavy hydrocarbons have been carried over
with the gas. Sweet, burnt sugar smell accompanied by low pH and a dark, clear
solution signals that thermal degradation is occurring.
B. Amine Treating
2. Max acid gas pickup not more than 0.35 mols/mol of MEA. Normal value around
0.3.
3. Amine treating processes tend to be troubled by the same problems regardless of the
type amine used.
3-2
4. Typical MEA losses due to entrainment:
Absorber: 1.0 #/mmscf
Still: 2.5 #/mmscf
10. Lean amine can contain 0.05 to 0.08 mols total acid gas and still meet specs.
11. CO2 and H2S gases appreciably increase total water content and dehydration
requirements of gas streams.
12. Recommended maximum ranges for amine strength and acid gas loadings that have
proven historically to adequately address corrosion concerns are:
13. Recommended loading in the lean circuit to minimize acid gas flashing are:
* These loadings should be easily achieved with a 1.0-2.0 M/M stripper reflux ratio.
14. Recommended Minimum Water Quality Standards for Make- up Water fo r Amine
Plants:
3-3
Total Dissolved Solids <100 ppm
Total Hardness <3 grains/gal
Chlorides <2 ppm
Sodium <3 ppm
Potassium <3 ppm
Iron <10 ppm
Minimum Maximum
Liquid L/D 3:1 5:1
Gas L/D 2:1 4:1
3-4
4. Min. Velocity: Liquid: 60 sec contact time, or
0.01 psi/ft ∆ p (liquid).
Gas: 3.5 sec (gas)
5. Mol Sieve – Draining bed leaves approx. 25 vol% of total bed volume on bed as
sponged liquid.
6. Alumina – Draining bed leaves approx. 0.048 gals. per pound of alumina on bed as
sponged liquid.
3-5
1. Vessels
a. Amine contactor, flash tank, stripper, surge tank, accumulator, inlet scrubber, and
outlet scrubber shall be carbon steel and stress relieved with corrosion allowances
as shown in 1.C.
*Corrosion allowance applies to shell side exchangers with water cooling in the
tubes.
2. Heat Exchangers
3. Pumps
a. The amine circulation and stripper reflux pumps shall be carbon steel with 316
stainless trim.
4. Piping
3-6
a. Piping should be carbon steel. The weld and heat affected zone of piping
containing H2 S and H2 0, with or without amine, shall have hardness no greater
than Brinnell hardness number 235.
b. Velocities in the rich and lean solution piping should be limited to 2-3 ft/sec. for
MEA solution, and to 7 ft/sec. for DEA solution.
c. Piping from the letdown valve to the flash tank and from the letdown valve to the
stripper should be 304 stainless with the letdown valves of 316 stainless.
5. An inert gas blanket should be maintained on the fresh amine storage and amine surge
to prevent oxygen contact with the amine.
When the C0 2 /H2 S ratio is greater than 20, the following exceptions to the above
requirements should be used.
7. The exchanger tubes in the reboiler, stripper overhead condenser, lean-rich cross
exchanger, and amine cooler should be 304 stainless. Those exchangers with water in
the 304 stainless tubes should have a minimum water flowrate of 5 ft/sec. Limit
amine velocity in tubes to 5 ft/sec.
8. The stripper vessel head and shell down through the top 3 trays should be 304
stainless clad or solid 304 stainless.
9. The stripper overhead piping from the stripper to the accumulator should be 304
stainless. The reflux piping from the accumulator back to the stripper can be either
thin wall 304 stainless or carbon steel with 1/16” corrosion allowance.
10. The vapor line from the reboiler to the stripper should be 304 stainless.
I. H2S Gas Toxicity
ppm gr./100scf
10 0.65 Can smell. Safe for 12 hr. exp.
100 6.48 Kills sense of smell in 2-15 min.
200 12.96 Kills sense of smell quickly. Stings eyes & throat.
500 32.96 Loses sense of reasoning & balance
Respiratory paralysis in 30-40 min
700 45.36 Breathing will stop & death result if not rescued promptly. Immed.
artificial resuscitation.
1000 64.80 Unconscious at once. Permanent brain damage or death may result
unless rescued promptly.
J. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants
Feed gas to LNG plants should be treated to provide a maximum CO2 content in feed gas
to liquefaction unit of 100 ppmv.
3-7
K. Gas Treating Iron Sponge
1. Any natural gas stream used for feed to a gas liquefaction plant will likely
contain measurable amounts of mercury.
2. Elemental mercury amalgamates (forms an alloy) with the surface layer of the
aluminum being corroded.
3. It is probable that liquid water must be present for the corrosion or attack to
occur. It follows that the temperature of the system must be above 32° F for
the corrosion to take place.
5. It is not known at what levels of mercury in the inlet gas problems may occur.
However, it is likely most of the mercury entering with the feed in a cryogenic
LNG plant with no liquid draws will remain within the plant equipment until
defrost. A number of studies associated with the Skikda failure have
suggested a threshold mercury content of 0.01 micrograms/Nm3 which should
not be exceeded at the inlet to the cryogenic plant.
6. Mercury can exist in the feed gas co-currently with H2 S as evidenced from an
LNG plant feed gas in Sumatra, Indonesia which contains 200 to 330
micrograms/Nm3 mercury and 60 to 70 ppm of H2 S.
3-8
7. Mercury is more soluble in heavier liquid hydrocarbons than the lighter
hydrocarbons. (For instance solubility of mercury in propane is about ½ the
solubility in hexane). Mercury in an LNG plant should concentrate in the
heavier liquid phases such as a hydrocarbon draws for heavies removal or
fractionation.
8. There is more risk of mercury induced failure on the cycle gas (refrigerant)
side of the exchangers, and more risk in general with a mixed refrigerant plant
than a cascade cycle since a cascade system uses no refrigerant heavier than
propane. (This assumes refrigerants are derived from the mercury
contaminated feed gas).
10. The pipeline system feeding the LNG plant is an excellent trap as mercury
tends to be absorbed by the pipe metal. The initial mercury front progress
towards the plant slowly until pipeline saturation is reached. This is a good
reason to test the plant feed gas at least annually.
B. Treating Systems:
Mercury Removal with sulfur Impregnated Ca rbon:
Following are Vendor provided design rules of thumb for mercury removal beds:
3. Maximum temperature is 150° F. Above this the sulfur impregnate is boiled off.
4. C02 and other sulfur compounds do not effect the beds performance.
5. Water vapor or free water present in the gas stream being treated will reduce the
mercury removal capacity of the beds as much as 75%.
6. Liquid hydrocarbons will rapidly deplete the bed mercury removal capacity as the
liquids dissolve the sulfur impregnated on the carbon.
7. L/D (actual carbon bed height to vessel diameter) ratios of 1.0 to 1.5 are preferred
for charcoal beds to prevent channeling. Minimum acceptable L/D is about 0.6.
8. Mercury removal efficiency is better for dry gas than for water saturated gas.
3-9
10. Maximum attainable mercury removal efficiency is not effected by inlet mercury
content or inlet gas pressure.
11. Can be designed to remove feed gas mercury down to less than 1 nanogram/Nm3
(0.001 microgram/Nm3 ).
12. Vendors report that bed capacity is not affected if the bed becomes saturated with
gas phase heavy end hydrocarbons (as long as no free liquid is allowed to contact
the bed). In fact vendors often presaturate the beds with hydrocarbons for
ethylene service to prevent high temperatures resulting from initial adsorption in
beds at start- up.
3-10
TREATING REFERENCES
Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol. 4, Gas and Liquid Sweetening, Campbell Petroleum
Series, 1982
Gas Purification, Kohl & Riesenfeld, Fourth Edition 1985 Gulf Publishing Company
Oil & Gas Journal, Dec 1, 1980, pg 135-138 “Liquid – Liquid contractors need careful attention”
3-11
4 FLUID FLOW
A. Misc.
3. Vortex Breaker
4-1
(Psi/100 FT) (FT/Sec)
Pump Suction 0.4 2.0 – 4.0
Pump Discharge 1.5 – 3.0 7.0 - 10.0
To Reboiler --- 3.0 – 5.0
Gravity Flow 0.4 ---
Water --- 2.5 – 9.0 **
High Viscosity to 200 CP
Pump Suction 0.5 – 1.0 0.25 – 0.5
Pump Discharge 10.0 – 1.0 1.0 – 1.5
** Water with high CO2 , seawater, etc requires lower maximum velocities, linings, or
special material.
For preliminary vapor piping sizing, the following table may be used as a guide.
Vapor Pressure Drop Velocity Total Allowable
Service (PSI/100 FT) (FT/Sec) Pressure Drop (PSI)
Tower 0.5 --- 1.0
Overhead
On Plot 0.5 --- ---
Gas
Comp. 0.3 5-150 1.5
Suct
Comp. 0.5 1y00 4.0
Disc
Steam --- 100 4.0
C. Piping
2. Fluid velocity for vapor and two-phase flows should not exceed the erosional
velocity. Estimate erosional velocity from Ve = 100/√ρ where Ve = erosional velocity
in ft/s and ρ = fluid density in lb/ft 3 .
Normal limiting velocities (highest normal design velocities) in process lines are
given by the following formula:
100
V=
ρ
Where: V is limiting design velocity in ft/sec
4-2
ρ is density in lb/ft3 at system T&P
Erosion velocity (velocity at which erosion of process line is expected) for clear
liquids is given by the following formula:
150
V e=
ρ
Where: Ve is the erosion velocity in ft/sec
ρ is density in lb/ft3 at system T&P
3. Compressible gases (i.e. HC, air, steam) can be treated as incompressible when the
pressure loss for the segment in question is less than 10% of the inlet pressure.
When rating existing liquid and/or gas piping systems, it is sometimes desirable to
determine the limiting fluid velocity for the system. This may be estimated as
follows:
a. For liquids:
48
Limiting velocity u m =
ρ
b. For gases:
kZT 2
Turbulent flow average limiting velocity u m = 148.7 ( /3 sonic velocity)
m
Where; um = Average limiting velocity, ft/sec
K = specific heat ratio
Z = Compressibility factor
T = temperature, °R
m = Molecular Weight lb/lb mol
For erosive or corrosive gases = 0.5 x um
Piping friction factor increases with operating time. As a result, the piping head loss
nearly doubles in:
4-3
a. 25 to 30 years for clean gases and light hydrocarbons.
While sizing pipelines and pumping facilities, this aspect should be duly
considered.
5. Piping Noise:
Liquid velocities above 20 to 30 ft/sec can cause noise. As a rule, a velocity head less
than 1.3 psi avoids excessive noise.
D. Physical Fan Laws
1. The following relations are characteristic of fans operating in a given system with
constant air density:
CFM 2 RPM 2
=
CFM 1 RPM 1
2
SP 2 RPM 2
=
SP1 RPM 1
3) Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies directly as the cube of the fan speed.
3
HP 2 RPM 2
=
HP 1 RPM 1
(1) Volume (CFM) varies directly as the cube of the fan speed.
4-4
3
CFM 2 DIA 2
=
CFM 1 DIA 1
(2) Static Pressure Varies directly as the square of the fan speed
2
SP 2 DIA 2
=
SP1 DIA 1
(3) Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies directly as the fifth power of size.
5
HP 2 DIA 2
=
HP 1 DIA 1
2. The following relations are characteristic of a fan of a given size delivering a constant
mass of air of varying density. (Density varies directly as absolute temperature and
inversely as the atmospheric pressure.):
a. Volume, fan speed, and total pressure vary inversely as the density.
b. Horsepower absorbed by the fan varies inversely as the square of the density.
3. Fan Horsepower varies directly as the product of the volume (ACFM) and the total
pressure (inches W.G.) divided by the constant 6370 times the total aerodynamic
efficiency.
E. Control Valves
1. Pumped Circuit
Allocating Pressure Drops to Control Valves:
In a pumped circuit, the pressure drop allocated to the control valve should be 33% of
all other friction losses in the system at pump rated flow (exclusive of the valve
pressure drop itself) or 15 psi whichever is greater.
Valid for < 750 GPM & < 150 psi pump delta p
Valid for > 300 GPM & 150 to 275 psi pump delta p
If outside these ranges, pressure drop allocated may be 25% of system dynamic losses
at pump rated head, or 15 psi whichever is greater.
4-5
2. Compressor discharge and suction lines
The pressure drop allocated to a control valve in the suction or discharge line of a
centrifugal compressor should be 5% of the suction absolute pressure, or 50% of the
system dynamic losses (exclusive of the control valve) at the compressor rated point,
whichever is larger. Also, no more than 90% of the valve Cv should be used.
In a system where tank pressure moves liquid from one vessel to another, the pressure
drop should be 10% of the lower terminal vessel pressure, or 50% of the system
dynamic losses, whichever is greater.
The above rule also applies to vapor, but in addition, the assigned Delta P should not
exceed 42% of the upstream pressure to avoid critical flow problems through the
valve.
Valves in steam lines to turbines, reboilers, and process vessels, should be allocated
10% of the design absolute pressure of the system or 5 psi, whichever is greater. The
valve should be sized for twice the normal flow rate since steam usage rates can vary
widely, especially during start-up.
For valves handling a flashing mixture, the allocated pressure drop should be equal to
0.9 times the difference in between the absolute inlet pressure and the absolute
saturation pressure if flowing temperature is more than 5° F below the saturation
temperature. If less than 5° F below the saturation temperature, the pressure drop
should not be greater than 0.06 times the absolute inlet pressure.
F. Two Phase Flow:
For the seven types of two phase flow patterns in pipes, some guidelines on liquid and
vapor superficial velocities (LSV and GSV respectively) which can be used to make
initial predictions on the type of flow pattern are given below.
1. Horizontal Pipes:
a. In DISPERSED FLOW PATTERN, nearly all the liquid is entrained as spray by
the gas. This occurs at GSV > 200 ft/sec.
b. In ANNULAR FLOW PATTERN, liquid forms a film around the inside wall of
pipe and gas flows at a high velocity as a central core. This occurs at GSV > 20
ft.sec.
c. In BUBBLE FLOW PATTERN, bubbles of gas move along at about the same
velocity as the liquid. This occurs at LSV of 5 to 15 ft/sec, and GSV of 1 to 10
ft/sec.
4-6
d. In STRATIFIED FLOW PATTERN, liquid flows along the bottom of the pipe
and gas flows over the smooth liquid gas interface. This normally occurs for
LSV< 0.5 ft/sec, and GSV of 2 to 10 ft/sec.
e. In WAVE FLOW PATTERN, the interface is disturbed by waves moving in the
direction of flow; otherwise it is similar to stratified flow pattern. This occurs for
LSV < 1 ft/sec and GSV of about 15 ft/sec.
f. In SLUG FLOW PATTERN, waves are picked up periodically in the gas stream
and form a slug which moves at much greater velocity than average liquid
velocity. Slugs can cause severe vibration due to impact on fittings such as return
bends.
g. In PLUG FLOW PATTERN, alternate plugs of liquid and gas move along the
pipe. This occurs at LSV < 2 ft/sec and GSV < 3 ft/sec.
4-7
FLUID FLOW REFERENCES
Flow of Fluids Through Values, Fittings, and Pipe, Crane, Technical Paper No. 410
Hartzell Fan Engineering Data, Bulletin A-108-E, Hartzell Fan Inc. Pigua, OH 45356
Bechtel Process Engineering methods for limiting and erosion liquid velocity
4-8
5 FRACTIONATION
2. H2 O Behaves with volatility similar to ethane but causes hydrates with light
hydrocarbons and CO2 .
5. Ethyl Behaves with a volatility less than propane. Used as stench for odorizing
Mercaptan commercial propane. In propane refrigeration systems, collects with the
oil in the propane chiller and is removed with the oil.
B. Columns
2. All light hydrocarbon distillation columns should be controlled with floating pressure.
4. Heuristic for separations: The next separation in a sequence is the one that can be
done the cheapest.
5. In large diameter (greater than 2 feet) packed distillation columns, liquid distribution
is the key element to separation efficiency.
7. For optimum economy, in terms of minimum column diameter and maximum tray
efficiency, distillation columns should be designed with 5 to 10 percent entrainment.
5-1
8. Practical limits for packed columns
9. A quick estimate of the number of trays for a given separation – double the minimum
number of stages obtained from the Fenske equation:
Dl
Bl
Log
D
hB
N min = h
Logα
The minimum reflux ratio can be calculated by the following equation, if there are no
divided keys, i.e., no components whose volatilities lie between the light and heavy
keys. Multiply the minimum reflux ratio by 1.3 to correspond to double the minimum
stages.
1 D 1 α (1 − D1 )
R min = −
α − 1 F 1 (1 − F 1)
If divided keys are present, it is probably easier to run a rigorous simulation than to
solve the short cut equations by hand.
Generally accumulators are sized based on liquid holdup time from normal liquid
level to low liquid level, where NLL is approximately the center of the vessel.
Holdup time of 8 to 10 minutes is generally acceptable, based on total overhead
condensed. Low liquid level should be 8 to 12 inches above the bottom of the vessel
or the height of the vortex breaker, if one is present. Generally reflux accumulators
should be 2 feet or greater in diameter.
5-2
For a column with a partial condenser, sufficient vapor space must be left above high
level for vapor/liquid separation. This can be roughly estimated for light hydrocarbon
systems as:
Area vapor, req’d (ft 2 ) = (Vapor flow rate, ft3 /sec) /0.7
This vapor cross sectional area should be added to the total cross sectional area of the
vessel to obtain the diameter. Even if the condenser is a total condenser, the high
liquid level should be 6 to 8 inches below the top of the vessel.
The active area of a trayed column can be fairly accurately estimated. The
downcomer areas can also be reasonable estimated. (Downcomer area should never
be less than 5% of the total area of the column.) Therefore a rough estimate of the
diameter can be readily obtained.
W
Area active =
1.6 ρ v
The graph below can be used for rough estimates of tray efficiency. Use with
Caution.
5-3
5-4
FRACTIONATION REFERENCES
O’Connell, H. E.: Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 42, 741 (1946)
5-5
6 COMBUSTION
A. Flare
1. Flare tip velocities
2. Limit flare piping velocities to 0.7 MACH in laterals and to 0.5 MACH in headers.
3. Flare stacks and headers must be continuously purged.
4. Flare tips shall be provided with gas seals to reduce purge gas requirements.
5. Sound level from flare tip shall not exceed 100db for 15 minutes.
6. Limit flare radiation to adjacent flares and other equipment to 1,500 BTU/Hr/Sq.Ft.
10. Laterals and headers shall not have low places to collect liquids & corrosion products.
11. Laterals to enter headers at top and at 45 degree angle in direction of header flow.
13. PSV bypass shall have a minimum opening equal to the PSV orifice, no less than 2”.
14. Normally limit PSV back pressure to: 10% Conventional Relief Valves
30% Bellow Relief Valves
15. Estimate final temperature of gas remaining inside vessel following depressurization
to flare from mid-point between resulting temperature calculated by isenthalphic
(“JT”) and isentropic (“turboexpander”) expansion.
6-1
C. Fuel Requirements
For determining fuel requirements for process equipment, always use the net heating
value of the fuel rather than the gross heating value.
6-2
COMBUSTION REFERENCES
Steam/Its Generation, Babcock & Wilcox 161 East 42nd Street, New York, NY 10017,
Copyright-1972, thirty-eighth edition
Consult API RP t521 “Guide For Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring System” For Flare Sizing
Calculations
6-3
7 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
A. Standard Conditions
Standard conditions for the U.S. refining industry are 1 atmosphere and 60F for both
gases and liquids. Other standards apply at different international sites.
Figures are available that relate K to molecular weight, specific heat, heat of
vaporization, viscosity, and critical properties.
3. Distillation Curves
ASTM methods include: D-86, D-1160, D-2887, D-3710. The D-86 method is
the simplest and most common. A D-86 curve for distillate is below. The D-2887
and D-3710 methods are GC methods and commonly referred to as simulated
distillations or a SimDist.
7-1
D-86 Curve for Distillate
600
Vapor Temperature, F
550
500
450
400
350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Volume Distilled, %
Arabian Extra Light 0.45 ---- 570 (50% pt.) 7.00 4.6
Arabian Light 0.44 ---- 611 (50%pt.) 7.18 9.2
Arabian Heavy 0.44 ---- 733 (50% pt.) 7.43 38.4
7-2
2. Latent Heat of Vaporization at Atmospheric Pressure
7-3
3. Specific Gravity
7-4
4. Thermal Conductivity
7-5
5. Viscosity
7-6
6. Vapor Pressure
7-7
D. Physical Properties of Selected Gases/Vapors
7-8
1. Specific Heat of Gases and Vapors
7-9
2. Thermal Conductivity
7-10
7-11
3. Viscosity
7-12
E. Physical Properties Recommendations
Experience has shown that the recommended choice of physical property models
depends upon the simulator being used, process being modeled and the process
modeling objectives. Each situation has unique conditions that may or may not
require additional analysis.
For crude still and refinery applications, the Chao-Seader method with Grayson
Streed modifications is a good first choice. This method will adequately model the
typical light gas processes in the refinery as well. In Aspen, this method is known as
“GRAYSON” and should be modified to have the free water with solubility option
for unsaturated systems selected (method 2 on the Properties specification form). This
method is not accurate for streams containing ammonia and/or hydrogen sulfide.
For gas plant or LNG processes either the Soave-Redlich-Kwong or the Peng-
Robinson equation of state should be used. When using Hysys, the Peng-Robinson
method is recommended since the Hyprotech property expertise has been focused on
this method. When using Aspen, you should select the RKS-BM method, (Redlich-
Kwong equation of state with Boston-Mathias modifications), that is included in the
PPCO NGL Processing template. The template contains modifications to the property
route that improve the liquid densities and other transport properties as well as make
the method work better for hydrogen containing streams. These methods should not
be used for streams containing Helium and or high concentrations of hydrogen
without obtaining special modifications from a Phillips property specialist (e.g.
Howard Wilson).
For sour gas or sour water treatment there are special physical property packages
available. The BR&E Tsweet amine property method works well for most gas
treatment modeling. The Amsim package in Hysys can also be used for gas treatment.
These amine treatment packages have a limited range of application, but are generally
fairly easy to use and are fairly accurate.
A special electrolyte modeling package such as the sour water options in Hysys, the
OLI Prochem software or the Aspen electrolytes package should be used to model
sour water treatment. These packages are complicated and should be used with
guidance from a physical property specialist.
Hydrates and solids formation can be modeled with some other special purpose
software. Gas hydrates are generally best estimated using the hydrate program within
PVTSIM and the Multiflash program from InfoChem. Bill Parrish is a world-class
expert in gas hydrates and should be consulted anytime they are of concern. Different
7-13
programs are to be used for different types of solids prediction. For cryogenic
hydrocarbon systems, the multiphase flash program from DTH is currently the best
option, the GPA Kohn-Luks program is also usually a good option for these systems.
Dale Embry is Phillips expert on these programs. The OLI software is the best
available for prediction of chemical salt and hydrate formation. Contact Dale Embry
for more information about this program.
Separations involving other chemicals or other thermodynamic properties should be
reviewed by a physical property and/or separations specialist before any designs are
finalized.
F. Simulation Techniques for Characterization of Oils
Most of the time, data about oils are provided as some sort of curve. However, most
simulation programs are designed to work with pure components that have one value
for a property. So we take portions of the curve and treat it as though it were a pure
component. These fractions are commonly referred to as "pseudocomponents". The
number of pseudocomponents needed for accurate simulations is as much a function
of the process being simulated as the type of oil being characterized. The number of
pseudocomponents needed for an accurate simulation increases as the tightness of
separation increases and the number of unique products increases. Narrow cuts, cuts
having a boiling range of 25 to 50 F (10C to 25C) are needed at the boundaries of the
unique products, larger cuts can be used further away from the product boundaries.
For most field gas/oil separation calculations there are between one and three
relatively broad separations being performed in the butane to octane boiling range.
These simulations are well characterized by using standard components through
hexane and then using between 4 to 10 pseudocomponents with increasingly broad
boiling ranges. Often 5 cuts with the ranges of C7, C8, C9-C10, C11-C14, C15+ will
adequately model the separator performance and the oil properties.
7-14
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES REFERENCE
“Technical Data Book – Petroleum Refining”, API, Vol 1-3 (Chapter 2, Vol 1 contains
procedures for pseudo compound characterization)
7-15
8 COMPRESSORS, EXPANDERS & PUMPS
A. Reciprocating Compressors
3. For reciprocating propane compressor calculations, add 10% to the final Horsepower
calculated by conventional means and 10 °F to the final discharge temperature for
preliminary design.
B. Compressor Quickies
1. 1 lb- mole (ideal) gas occupies 379 SCF. Thus mass flow in lb/min =
MMSCFD*MW/(1440*379).
2. Least flow through a centrifugal compressor is 175 ACFM (300 m3/hr) discharge
volume.
γ −1
Z ∗ 1545 ∗T S γ P d γ
H a= ∗ ∗ − 1 γ = Cp /Cv
MW γ − 1 P s
Maximum head per impeller is 10,000 ft.
4. Discharge temperature
γ −1
P γ
Reciprocating T d =T s∗ d
Ps
γ −1
P γ ∗η p
Centrifugal T d=T s∗ d
Ps
η p = Polytropic efficiency
8-1
5. Maximum allowable discharge temperature for associated gas (i.e. gas from crude oil
wellhead separation) compression is 300 °F (150 °C).
6. “Head” for a centrifugal compressor is really energy imported to the gas. “Feet” head
is in fact ft- lb force/ft- lb mass. SI expresses it as kiloJoule/kilogram.
Other expressions such as “me ters” head (converting feet into meters) are
meaningless as they do not take the gravitational constant into account.
7. For centrifugal compressors, a 20% surge margin from the design operating point is
recommended, 30% is preferred. Absolute minimum acceptable is 10%.
C. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Plants
If compression ratio is increased from 8:1 to 10:1 a 5% reduction in fuel rate and a 9%
increase in brake horsepower results (assumes 1000 Btu fuel & minimum octane of 115).
Octane Number: C1-120 iC4-97.6 nC5-80.2
C2-100.7 nC4-89.1 C6-26.0
C3-98.1 iC5-61.9 C7-0.0
E. Fuel consumption
8-2
G. Gas Processing – Simulation guidelines
Turboexpander JT-valve
Lean gas 0.06 0.03
Rich gas 0.1 0.05
H. Pump sizing
= 486 .815
.805
Use 150 H.P. electric Motor Drive. Check Curve of Pump Purchased for End of
Curve H.P. Requirement.
8-3
I. Pumps
When selecting centrifugal pumps, the suction specific speed (N SS) for the pump
should be le ss than 11,000. Experience has indicated that pumps operating with
suction specific speeds above 11,000 have a much higher failure frequency.
RPMx GPM
N SS =
( NPSHR )0.75
Where: N SS = Suction specific Speed GPM = Flow
Rate in gallons per minute
NPSHR = Net positive suction head required for the pump in feet
of fluid.
Be sure to check the size and configuration of the pump suction and piping before
increasing the pump speed as it affects the pump required Net Positive Suction Head
(NPSHR) considerably. See the relation:
2
NPSHR 2 n 2
=
NPSHR 1 n 1
Where: n is pump speed in rpm and subscripts 1 & 2 indicate initial and final conditions.
3. Axial Compressors
8-4
J. General:
1. Maintenance costs for gas engine driven reciprocating compressor units is about 6
times those of gas turbine driven centrifugal compressor units.
Centrifugal = $ 5/HP Yr
About 1/3 of fuel gas BTU requirements can be considered recoverable as wasteheat
from a gas turbine for quickly preliminary estimates.
8-5
COMPRESSORS, EXPANDERS & PUMPS REFERENCE
C. C. Fletcher ROT advice for process engineers – 6/93 & Nils Nilsen – Pignone
contact July 1993
8-6
9 REFRIGERATION
A. Condensers
For water cooling with propane condensers, try to maintain no greater than a 10 °F
approach to the warm cooling water leaving the condenser. Use a velocity of 4 to 8 ft/sec
for the water through the tubes. Restrict cooling water return temperatures to a maximum
of 125 °F.
1. For design of propane refrigeration systems, suggest using a composition of 3.0 mol
% C2, 95 mol % C3 and 2 Mol % C4. Experience has indicated it is difficult and
expensive due to propane losses to maintain 99 % + propane content. The utilization
of continuous purge systems will typically result in high losses.
2. Air, which is pulled in around piston rod packing with low suction pressure of 1 to 2
psig and high valve losses) tends to accumulate in the propane accumulator vessel
vapor space after the condensers. This leads to high compressor discharge pressure
and a potentially hazardous situation. A manual purge of the accumulator vapor
space weekly will keep the air concentration down towards acceptable levels.
3. For water cooled propane condenser design, generally use 10 °F temperature rise on
cooling water through exchanger and a 10 °F approach of condensed propane out to
the warm water from the exchanger.
For gas turbine driven propane refrigeration systems, there will be approximately ½ % to
1% increase in gas load horsepower for every degree Fahrenheit increase in refrigerant
condensing temperature.
9-1
REFRIGERATION REFERENCE
9-2
10 MISCELLANEOUS
a. the layout should reflect a logical progression of the process. This should then
minimize major pip ing requirements. Other equipment with small diameter
piping, can be located where necessary e.g. glycol regeneration package.
b. Related equipment should be modularized to allow maximum hook up and
precommissioning to be achieved, e.g. compressor with associated knock out
drum and aftercooler.
c. Requirements for pump NPSH should be established e.g. export pumps.
d. Pump suction lines should have no vapor pockets and be of minimum length.
e. Systems based on gravity drainage should be identified.
f. Requirements for future equipment should be identified. to allow incorporation
into initial layout.
g. Allowances for straight piping runs should be made where appropriate e.g.
compressor suction lines, metering runs.
h. Compressor suction lines should have no liquid pockets.
i. Two phase lines should be of minimum length and with no pockets to minimize
potential slugging.
j. Two phase lines from coolers should free drain to the knock out drum.
k. Vapor lines in wet Carbon Dioxide or corrosive service should have no liquid
pockets.
l. Filter separator/KO drums located upstream of TEG contacting/acid gas treating
units should be located close to prevent hydrocarbons or millscale from entering
the contactor.
m. Flare lines should slope to the KO drum with no liquid pockets.
n. Locate control valves in bubble point liquid service so that there is no possibility
of flashing at the valve inlet.
On the assumption that a modularized concept is used, the following factors can be
used to assess deck area requirements for preliminary layout studies.
3. Seawater System:
Although Carbon Steel is fine for service in low velocity seawater at ambient
temperatures, the corrosion rate increases rapidly with temperature and agitation.
10-1
At 122 ° F (50 ° C) and above, the corrosion rate in agitated seawater is greater
than 50 mils/year.
At velocities over 15 ft/sec, turbulence may greatly accelerate the corrosion rate
by eroding away the protective film. This occurs frequently at heat exchanger
tube inlets, U bends, and piping elbows.
a. Based on Ekofisk experience, provide the following potable water quantities for
preliminary design:
1. 200 to 250 liters (53 to 66 gallons) per day per person for personnel who live
on the platform.
2. 100 to 150 liters (26 to 40 gallons) per day per person for day workers and
visitors who do not live on the platform.
10-2
Module type Area Ratio*
Wellhead Set by well pattern/drilling
requirments
Separation 0.20 – 0.40
Gas Compression 0.15 – 0.20
Water Injection 0.20 – 0.25
PowerGeneration 0.20 – 0.30
Utilities 0.15 – 0.20
*Ratio of Major Equipment footprint area to total module area.
B. Water and Steam Systems
1. Approximate break point for steam pressure at which silica becomes a problem with
vaporization and deposition on turbine blades is at 500 psig.
2. The evaporation rate on a cooling tower is dependent on the amount of water being
cooled and temperature differential. For each 10 ° F temperature drop across the
tower, 1 % of the recirculation rate is evaporated. In other words, 0.001 times the
circulation rate in gpm times the temperature drop equals the evaporation rate is gpm.
C. Economics
Installed Cost
Onshore 2.5 x (Major equipment cost)
Offshore 5.0 x (Major equipment cost)
(excludes deck and jacket costs)
10-3
[One Train} $ 2x109 per 2x106 MTY [1990 BASIS]
Note: Cost Reductions via technology offset regulatory increases.
Use 5%/Yr esc. in general costs.
MTY = Metric Tonnes/Year
D. Hydrates
3. Hydrate Control
Add a margin of 50% to calculate hydrate inhibitor injection rates.
5. Glycol inhibitor loss estimate is 1 lb/MMSCF plus 200 ppm (v) in liquid
hydrocarbon.
If the CO2 in the feed gas to the cryogenic plant is in excess of 0.25 mol %, be sure to
check for CO2 solidification in both the liquid and vapor phases immediately downstream
of the expander and in the top four stages of the demethanizer.
Instrument air – As a preliminary estimate for instrument air requirements for feasibility
study design, use 0.5 to 0.75 scfm per control instrument.
G. Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) Plants
1. For preliminary estimates of LNG plant design inlet volume for a premised LNG
delivery to ships for transport, use a 93 plant availability factor.
10-4
1. Hydrocarbon dewpoint temperature sho uld be 10 – 20 ° F below minimum operating
temperature in pipeline for the operating pressure range to prevent liquid drop out.
4. BS&W 0.5 vol% maximum ; 0.1 vol% average (sales spec to pipeline)
K. Wind Loadings
10-5
O. Kinetics
For a second order reaction in a constant volume reactor, if 95% of the reactants react in
one time, it will require 20 more time units to react 95% of the remaining reactants.
P. Storage, Vessel Capacity
In general, for vessels subject to internal pressure only, the maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP) of a process vessel can be arrived at by adding the greater of 10% or
10 to 25 psi to the maximum operating pressure.
Economic L/D ratios for pressure vessels generally fall in the 2 to 5 range where L =
shell seam length and D = inside diameter, both in feet.
S. NACE Requirements
PW = a x d x vd/(144 x g)
10-6
U. Insulation Types
P = P1 (1 – 0.00000687H)5.256
P1 = pressure at sea level – pisa
Density: W = W1 (1-0.00000687H)4.256
W1 = density of air at sea level
10-7
MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCES
10-8
ONLINE VERSION