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Advanced
Educational
Psychology

MA (Education) 1st semester

Prepared by: Zeeshan iqbal

Syllabus of ULM

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Content :
Unit # 01: Introduction to educational psychology

 Meaning and concept od psychology

 Definition of educational psychology
 Needs of educational psychology in education
 Scope of educational psychology
Unit # 02: Human growth and development

 Concept and definition

 Difference between growth and development
 Stages of the physical development
 Principles of child development
Unit # 03: Cognitive development

 Meaning and concept of cognitive development

 Theories of cognitive development (Piaget’s theory and Vygotsky’s theory)
Unit # 04: Learning

 Definition of learning
 Theories of learning
 Factors effecting learning
Unit # 05: Motivation

 Concept and definition

 Motivation techniques
 Theories of motivation
 Factors effecting motivation
Unit # 06: Individual differences

 Concept of individual differences

 Types of individual differences

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Unit no # 01 Introduction to Educational Psychology

Meaning and concept of Psychology

What is Psychology?
History:
The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means
‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.
According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin
and destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed
and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.
In the 18th century, psychology was understood as the ‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892)
defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind ‘ is also quite
ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.

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Modern definition :
Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884)
defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined
psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there are three levels of
consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was
not accepted by some.

Thus psychology first lost its soul, then its mind and then its consciousness. At present only its
behaviour exists. William McDugall (1905) defined psychology as the “Science of Behaviour”,
W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science of
behavior.
Behaviour generally means overt activities which can observed and measured scientifically. But
one’s behaviour is always influenced by his experiences. So when we study one’s behaviour we
must also study his experiences.
Psychology should, therefore, be defined as a “science of behaviour and experiences on
human beings” (B.F. Skinner)
According to Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human
relationship’”.

What is Educational Psychology?

Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are
applied in the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour in educational
setting.
According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human
beings in educational situations”.
Thus educational psychology is a behavioural science with two main references– human
behaviour and education.
In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational Psychology is the science of Education”.
Education by all means is an attempt to mould and shape the behaviour of the pupil. It aims to
produce desirable changes in him for the all-round development of his personality.
The essential knowledge and skill to do this job satisfactorily is supplied by Educational
Psychology. In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand

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the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which
they learn and their social relationships.”
In this way, the work of the Educational Psychologists resembles with that of an Engineer, who
is a technical expert. The Engineer supplies all the knowledge and skill essential for the
accomplishment of the job satisfactorily… for example, construction of a bridge.
In the same way Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education,
supplies all the information, principles and techniques essential for understanding the
behaviour of the pupil in response to educational environment and desired modification of his
behaviour to bring an all-round development of his personality.
In this way, it is quite reasonable to call Educational Psychology as a science and technology of
Education.

Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of

teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of
improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching
methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child
relationships etc.
In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students
learn more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?”

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can
summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways:
1. Educational Psychology is a science. (Science is a branch of study concerned with
observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs
certain objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of
understanding, explaining, predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science,
educational psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It
also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour.
2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his
investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner
as physicist or the biologist.

3. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist,

economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and
their sociability.

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 4. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics
deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as
they operate. Educational psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it
ought to be. So it is a positive science.
5.  Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological
principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of
psychology, it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of
psychology it is parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educational
psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical
psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology.
6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new
and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists
get better insight into the child’s nature and behaviour.
7. W.A. Kelly (1941) listed the nature of Educational Psychology as follows:

a) To give a knowledge of the nature of the child

b) To give understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education
c) To give understanding of the scientific methods and procedures which have been used
in arriving at the facts and principles of educational psychology
d) To present the principles and techniques of learning and teaching
e) To give training in methods of measuring abilities and achievement in school subjects
f) To give a knowledge of the growth and development of children
g) To assist in the better adjustment of children and to help them to prevent
maladjustment
h) To study the educational significance and control of emotions and
i) To give an understanding of the principles and techniques of correct training.

Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While
general science deals with behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational
psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in educational sphere only.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field.
The following factors will indicate the scope of educational psychology:
1. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the
learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him
well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual

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 differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious
behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each
stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.
2. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning
experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner,
so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction
3. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are
to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of
learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting,
perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of
learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.
4. Learning Situation or Environment. Here we deal with the environmental factors and
learning which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like
classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and
evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth
functioning of the teaching-learning process.
5.  The Teacher: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning
process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing
thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts,
motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential
personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as
to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher.
6. It studies Human Behaviour in educational situations: Psychology is the study of
behaviour, and education deals with the modification of behaviour; hence, educational
psychology pervades the whole field of education.
7. It studies the Growth and Development of the child. How a child passes through the
various stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in
the study of educational psychology.
8. Heredity and Environment: To what extent Heredity and Environment contribute
towards the growth of the individual, and how this knowledge can be made use of for
bringing about the optimum development of the child; form a salient feature of the
scope of educational psychology.
9. Personality: Educational psychology deals with the Nature and Development of the
Personality of an individual. In fact, education has been defined as the all-round
development of the personality of an individual; personality development also implies a
well-adjusted personality.
10. It studies Individual Difference: Every individual differs from every other individual. It is
one of the fundamental facts of human nature which have been brought to light by
educational psychology. This one fact has revolutionised the concept and process of
education.

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 11. Intelligence and its Measurements: It studies the nature Intelligence and its
Measurement. This is of utmost importance for a teacher.
12. It Provides Guidance and Counselling: Education is nothing but providing guidance to
the growing child.
We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than general
psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual in a general
way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational
setting.

Importance of Educational Psychology:

A teacher acts as a philosopher and a guide to the students. He must know the growth
and development of the child and his requirements at different levels. Educational
psychology helps the teacher to study the ability, interests, intelligence, needs and
adopt different techniques of teaching for effective communication. The utility of
educational psychology for the teachers has been emphasized in both theory and
practices of teaching and learning.
The importance of educational psychology for a teacher can be divided into two aspects
i.e.:
1. To study teaching and learning situations.
2. Application of teaching and learning principles.

1. To study teaching and learning situations

Educational psychology contributes a lot for increasing the teaching efficiency of
the teacher in different areas mentioned below:-
a. Individual difference
K9 A teacher has to deal carefully with a group of students in class room
situation. As there, are wide variations in different abilities among the
students. Therefore it is very essential to understand the individual
difference of students regarding their ability, interests, attitudes & need at
different levels of growth and development.
b. To learn class room problems
A well developed theory of class room teaching and learning is helpful for
transacting the content to the students effectively, which includes class-
room climate and the teaching competence which are required for
effective communication and presentation of content. A teacher must
know the appropriate principles of teaching-learning, different approaches
to teaching for better result of teaching-learning process.
c. Awareness of effective methods of teaching
The method of teaching is based on the developmental characteristic of
the students. For example History is taught effectively to small children

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 with the help of story telling method because small children like stories. So
the classroom teaching depends on the teachers’ knowledge about the
interest of students and methods of teaching for the students of different
age-groups.
d. Curriculum development
The course of study of particular degree or diploma is prepared by
teachers. Knowledge of psychology is helpful in developing curricular of
different levels of students in different subjects. The developmental
characteristics and needs of the students are also taken into account in
the formulation of curriculum.
e. To study mental health of students
In the process of teaching & learning activities in the classroom, mental
health of the teacher and the taught plays significant role. As the mental
condition influence directly the achievement of students. The mental
health of teacher and students must be normal or healthy. There are
different causes of mental illness of the teacher and the taught. It should
be known to the teachers to regulate teaching – learning process.
f. Guidance to the students
A teacher has to play different roles in school as guide, philosopher, and
leader. Guidance is a type of assistance to the students to solve their
problems by themselves. The knowledge of psychology enables the
teacher to provide necessary educational and vocational guidance to the
students of different age groups.
g. Measuring learning outcomes
Teacher has to perform two important activities in classroom such as
teaching and testing. The testing activities help in measuring learning
outcomes of the students to judge their improvement and effectiveness of
teaching-learning process.

2. Application of teaching and learning principles.

a. Objectives of Education.
Education is a purposive attempt to bring about desirable changes in the
students behaviour. The objectives of education are realized in terms of
behavioural changes among the students. Teachers have to create the
learning conditions to provide knowledge and experiences to the students
for the changes of behaviour. They have to relate teaching to learning by
appropriate method of teaching.
b. Use of Audio-Visual aids in teaching
The teacher can take the help of scientific devices. The Topic of
presentation in the classroom can be made interesting by involving more
students’ participation. Television is a more popular device as compared
to radio, because television it provides both audio and visual experience.
Many difficult concepts can be made easy and interesting by the use of

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 audio-visual teaching aids. The knowledge of psychology is necessary to
plan and teaching aids appropriately.
c. Co-curricular activities
Education is to have all-round development of the child. The curricular
exercise develops only cognitive aspects of j the child. Therefore other
activities like games, sports scouting, girls guiding, debates, cultural
programmes are essential along with curricular activities for whole some
development of the child.
d. Preparation of time table
The Class-room teaching of various subjects is organized by perfectly
arranged time table. Knowledge preparation of time-table needs
thoroughly psychology. As the difficulty subjects like mathematics and
science are placed in the first I periods and other subjects like history,
geography are usually | taught in the last periods.
e. Democratic administration
The school and class room administration should also be impartial and
democratic. It should provide freedom of expression to the students to
explore their innate power. The students problems are to be solved
sympathetically through mutual discussion and understanding.

The study of educational psychology is thus very useful for teachers for planning,
organizing and evaluating the teaching learning activities in the class

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Unit no # 02
Human growth and development

Definition, Meaning and concept of Growth & Development in Child

Definition of growth and development

Growth
Growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or parts of a child.
Development
Development is progressive acquisition of various skills (abilities) such as head support,
speaking, learning, expressing the feelings and relating with other people. Growth and
development go together but at different rates.
Difference between growth and development
Growth and development in education has specific meanings and both are relates to each
other. The following comparison will clarify the differences between growth and development.
Growth

 It is indicative i.e. increase in body, size, weight etc.

 It is quantitative progress
 It is physical change
 It is external in nature stops at certain stage
 It is physical progress
Development

 It is not indicative
 It qualitative progress
 It is psychological change
 It is internal in nature
 It is continuous process
 It is cognitive progress

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 (Same topic)
Difference Between Growth and Development
Growth
1. Growth refers to increase in physical aspects of the organisation,
2. Growth is structural.
3. Growth is quantitative.
4. Growth is cellular.
5. Growth stops when the organisation reaches the stage of maturity.
6. Growth involves body changes.
7. Growth influences the process of development, but not always.

Development
1. Development refers to overall changes in the whole of the organism.
2. Development is functional.
3. Development is qualitative.
4. Development is organizational.
5. Development is a life long process.
6. Development  involves changes from origin to maturity.
7. Development occurs without growth.

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Importance of assessing growth and development
The assessment of growth and development is very helpful in finding out the state of health
and nutrition of a child. Continuous normal growth and development indicate a good state of
health and nutrition of a child. Abnormal growth or growth failure is a symptom of disease.
Hence, measurement of growth is an essential component of the physical examination.

Stages of Growth and Development in Child (Introduction)

Growth and development goes side by side, and both have profound effects upon each other.
When a child is born, passes through various stages and ultimately a whole picture of a person
emerges. The following are the stages of growth and development through which every
children passes:
1. Infancy: (From Birth to 2 Years)
Common features of infancy are:
A child jumps, walk and learn to talk. A child starts learning about simple, social
concepts. The body growth is accelerated.

2. Early Childhood (2-6 Years)

The common features of this stage are:
Infancy features are strengthened. Physical growth occurs like, expansion of muscles,
speed in body actions, changes occur in respiration, blood pressure develops etc.
Language skill is developed and learns new words. New concepts about social relations
develop. Memory increases. They ask questions about the environment. Socially he/she
develops new friends, and wants social approval of his/her actions. Emotional
development starts to develop.

3. Adolescence (12-19 Years)

This is the period of adulthood and to some extend of maturity, physically and socially.
This is called the spring, romantic, and the period of “storm & stress”. The development
and growth vary from culture to culture and environment factors that influence a
person at this stage. Some basic characteristics of this stage are as follows:
a. Physical Growth
Here children are active, and sharp. They are keen observers. They give more
attention to body – beauty and strength. Boys love strength and play the games,
where power is shown.
b. Mental or Intellectual Development
They think in abstraction. They can anticipate the future needs and plan for that.
The children ability to solve complex problems increase. They try to understand
complicated issues, and to solve the complex problems. They develop the
communicative abilities and talk for hours. Confidence is developed which make

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 them to make decisions about future.Moral concepts are developed and know
that what is morally and socially good and wrong.3.
c. Emotional Development
Here the adolescent period is not rational but emotional. That’s why it is called
the period of stress and storm. They are entering a new stage, which therefore,
want emotional adjustment. Emotional disturbance is produced when they don’t
adjust to new situation or role for which they are suppose to be.

Stages of Human Development

Social, physical, emotional, cognitive and cultural changes take place throughout the lifespan of an
individual. There is a general sequence of development which is fixed, however the rate of development
can sometimes differ depending on many factors. There are key needs which must be met and
consequences if they are not.

Infancy 0-5 Years

At this stage the infant is highly dependant. From the moment a child is born they begin to develop
physically. The baby’s senses begin to develop; he is able to focus on objects, learns to hold the weight
of his head up and attempts to pull himself up holding onto the edge of a chair or table. He then learns
to crawl and with lots of encouragement finally learns to walk. Through interaction with parents, family,
friends and other children they learn to socialise, play and communicate. With much needed stimulation
and play, babies and young children learn. They begin to recognise and memorise faces, characters,
objects and songs. With communication, consistency and encouragement they learn speech and are
taught routines and behaviour, such as bed-time and toilet training. To develop emotionally, a baby
needs love, affection and consistent care.

Bowlby’s attachment theory, as later complimented by Rutter, suggests that from birth a child requires a
consistent attachment and bonding with at least one main caregiver. With a sense of safety, belonging
and being cared for unconditionally the child learns trust and views the world as a safe place to be. For
this reason it is important to avoid broken attachments. If the child’s parents are uncaring, unreliable,
are inconsistent with their care or if circumstances cause the attachment to be broken completely, the
child may be unable to develop to their full potential. Without an adequate, loving attachment the
infant may not be able to develop a loving relationship in future and without a trusting relationship with
the main caregiver, they will develop mistrust. They may become apprehensive, withdrawn and
suspicious around people.

Childhood 5-12 years

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As the child reaches school age they have increasing physical independence. They now begin to learn
new skills such as running, skipping, ball games and cycling. They have progressed socially and have the
ability to choose their own friends, find their own interests and make their own decisions about which
activities they take part in. They begin to develop an understanding of others needs and wants and learn
to share and take turns. They can begin to develop emotional attachments to individuals other than
family members which can develop if stimulated. Cognitively the child begins school education and
begins to develop an understanding of authority and following rules.

At this stage of a child’s development they should be able to learn initiative without taking on too much
guilt. Initiative means they should be allowed a certain amount of responsibility and the freedom to
learn new skills; they can only achieve this by the parents allowing and encouraging their child to try

outside ideas and to allow them to use their imagination. The child must not be treated to feel too much
guilt over their behaviour or feel ridiculed; this can lead them to become over sensitive and they can feel
guilty about their feelings. On the other hand too much initiative and too little guilt can create a ruthless
individual; they may not contemplate or care about the consequences of their actions.

Erikson also states a child must develop a capacity for industry without excessive inferiority. The child
must learn to understand the difference between imagination and reality with the guidance of parents
and teachers. The child should learn the feeling of success and be praised and encouraged, without this
they may develop an inferiority complex; they may become scared of failure and not able to attempt
and learn new skills.

Adolescence 13-20 years

During adolescence the individual goes through a rapid growth spurt. Puberty begins and many
developmental changes take place; boys begin to develop more defined muscle tone, start to grow hair
over their body and their voice breaks and becomes deeper; girls become more curvaceous and they
begin their menstrual period-both sexes become extremely hormonal which can lead to mood swings
affecting their social and emotional life. They may be concerned that they are not developing as quickly
as their peers causing emotional stress. Teens begin to develop and explore their personality and self
image. Dependant on their culture they may develop physical relationships and experiment with drugs
and alcohol. They experience and develop new social skills as they attend higher education and may
leave the family home to attend college or university. The brain continues to develop until late
adolescence. Cognitively this can be a very turbulent time with the pressure of exams and choosing their
career.

As adolescents go through new life experiences and learn to deal with their emotions, they begin to take
responsibility for themselves, reflect on their experience of life so far and create their own identity.
Teens often rebel against the authority which has governed them up until this point; they break the
rules and resist against their parent’s wishes. Their behaviour and attitudes change, they experiment
with style and clothing and even begin to speak differently as they struggle to find their true self. They
have a need to discover their own identity and to been seen in a positive way by others. Erikson’s theory
states that the individual must discover his own identity and without the freedom to do so may struggle
to fit in and socialise. If this development is not made, for example if adults in the adolescent’s life do

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not allow them the freedom to express themselves, they may find it difficult to take on responsibilities
and develop a sense of right from wrong. Should the parents push them to conform to their views; the
individual will experience role confusion.

Adulthood 21-65 years

As the individual reaches young adulthood, they reach their peak physical fitness, have an increase in
stamina and should have developed a balance of good health and lifestyle. They may have their own
children and have begun to settle down. They have generally decided and have settled down into their
chosen field of profession and work to develop and improve their education and skills. They now take on
many more responsibilities such as a mortgage, providing a stable and secure base for their family or
they may experience stress within the workplace. Emotionally they may have experience of death and
bereavement. They have more intimate relationships and may decide to marry; their role within the
family changes and they begin to build social networks.

According to Maslow, to achieve fulfilment an individual has key needs which must be met in order to
reach their full potential, this is know as a ‘hierarchy of needs’. The bottom of the pyramid shows
physiological needs such as shelter, food, warmth, stimulation and rest. The next level states safety
needs which are required; protection from disease and illness. Maslow states that in order to move up
the pyramid, each stage of requirements must be met. For example, without food and shelter an
individual cannot be safe against disease and in turn cannot move up to the next step of the pyramid
which is love and belongingness, followed by self-esteem. In adult life in our culture it is expected that
an individual will be provided with their physiological needs and can live in safety. If they do not receive
the love and affection they need; trust and acceptance and a feeling of belongingness they may not have
self-esteem. Without respect and love from others they cannot respect and love themselves.

Older Adulthood 65+ years

As the adult enters into the last stage of their life, they may begin to physically grow frail and can often
suffer with mental illness. Older adults’ eyesight and hearing often begins to fail as they age. Socially the
older generation tend to follow other interests and after retirement have time to lead a full social life.
However, the older generation can become more isolated due to family issues or health reasons such as
hearing or sight difficulties. Emotionally they can become withdrawn feeling themselves as a burden to
their society, family and friends. They may begin to contemplate their lives and have negative feelings
such as regret or guilt; however they may feel fulfilled, proud of their accomplishments and their family.
An older adult has wisdom and experience although they may find it difficult to grasp and understand
new technology and develop new skills. These disabilities are often due to ill health or memory loss.

According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, at that top of the pyramid the individual has a need for
esteem; self-esteem and the esteem they receive from others. They require a level of respect for
themselves and from others; with the needs met they feel self confident and valuable. Without esteem
they can feel inferior and worthless. If all the needs of the pyramid have been met, the older adult
reaches self-actualisation; a feeling that they have lived a life of purpose. Without the other needs of the
pyramid being met they may struggle to reach this level.

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Child Development Principles
Child development refers to the way a child grows and learns. There are four areas, or domains, of child
development:

1. Physical:
The development and growth of the child’s body, muscles, and senses.
2. Social:
how the child relates, plays and talks to others.
3. Emotional
 The child’s awareness of self, how the child feels about himself, expression of feelings and how
he helps care for himself.
4. Cognitive
The way children think, reason, solve problems, and understand and use language.

The domains are interrelated; what happens in one domain influences development in the other
domains. The skills and knowledge that children develop early in his life are the foundation for more
advanced skills and knowledge.
Each child develops at his or her own rate. Regular developmental screening is a way to help parents
and professionals like doctors, nurses, child care providers and teachers gather information about
children’s development, identify possible concerns, and make referrals for help when needed.
Children develop in a predictable order, from simple to more complex skills. They learn by doing, and
practice new skills through play. Play is a critical opportunity for children to practice new skills.
Many factors influence child development: heredity, family, and community. Children’s early
experiences will affect them now and in the future. Children must have their basic needs met, feel safe,
and feel valued in order to develop and learn.
Understanding children’s development at different ages makes it easier for parents and caregivers to:
Know what to expect of children learn what to do to help a child develop all of his or her abilities
Learning Styles and Differences
Different children have different personalities, and likewise, children have different intelligences and
learning styles-some are visual-spatial learners, some auditory learners, some kinesthetic learners, and
some a combination. By understanding your child’s learning personality, you can tailor his environment
or teach him tips to help him succeed in school and in life

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Unit no # 03
Cognitive Development

Cognitive Development Definition. ‫) عملی ترقی‬

Cognitive development is the study of childhood neurological and psychological development.

Specifically, cognitive development is assessed based on the level of conception, perception,
information processing, and language as an indicator of brain development. It is generally
recognized that cognitive development progresses with age, as human awareness and
understanding of the world increases from infancy to childhood, and then again into
adolescence. The process of cognitive development was first described by Jean Piaget, in his
Theory of Cognitive Development.

Theories of Cognitive Development

1. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
2. Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

1. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

The Theory of Cognitive Development was established by Jean Piaget, and describes the
development of cognition with age. While many aspects of the original theory of cognitive
development have since been refuted, the objective characteristics associated with cognitive
development remain valid. Such factors include the progression from the early perceptions and
realization of object permanence during infancy, to the development of logic and cause-and-
effect relationships during childhood, and finally the creation of abstract thought during
adolescence. Recent theories in cogitative development have extended Piaget’s original theory
by using current scientific approaches in neuroscience and psychology. Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development involves the following distinct components:

Schemas: Blocks of knowledge gained through experiences and interacting with the local
environment.
Assimilation: Applying new information into existing schemas.
Adaptation: The ability to build on previous experiences and knowledge.
Equilibration: When most new experiences fit within an existing schema. Cognitive progression
occurs when information does not fit within an existing schema and poses a challenge.

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Four distinct stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational stages). Stages of Cognitive Development

The field of cognitive development was established by Jean Piaget, with his theory of cognitive
development, involving the following four distinct stages:

Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of cognitive development and lasts from birth to two
years of age. This stage is characterized by reflexive actions which lack logical thought processes
and involve interacting with the environment based on a specific goal. There are six distinct
substages of the sensorimotor stage, reflecting the rapid brain development that occurs during
the first two years of life. The end of the sensorimotor stage ends when children begin to
mentally consider reality, and the preoperational stage begins. The six substages are as follows:

1. Birth to one-month old

This stage is characterized by innate reflexes which are used to interact with the environment.
These reflexes include, sucking, gripping, and touching.

2. One to four-months of age

This stage is an extension of the reflexes exhibited in newborn infants by repeating reflexive
behaviors in response to pleasure experienced by the action. This stage is also characterized by
“assimilation” and “accommodation” as a process of adaptation to the local environment.
Assimilation involves responding to a novel stimulus consistent with previous reflexive
experiences. For example, a new object introduced to an infant may be reflexively pulled into
their mouth. Accommodation occurs when the infant is required to modify their response to a
new object. For example, to place a novel object into their mouth, the infant may need to open
their mouth wider.

3. Five to eight months of age

From the age of five to eight months, infants begin to recreate pleasurable experiences and
form habits as a result. At this age, multitasking is not yet possible, and infants are easily
distracted by other stimuli in the environment. Children within this age range enjoy toys that
engage their intuitive nature by reacting to their actions (e.g., jack-in-the-box or toys with
buttons that make sounds in response to pressure).

4. Eight to twelve months

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At this age, infants begin to understand “object permanence”, which means that the infant
comprehends that just because an object is out of sight, it still exists. This is significant because
it means that the infant must form a mental image of the object. Infants also begin to
differentiate between an object and the activity associated with that object. Infants also begin
to display particular behaviors to elicit a known reaction.

5. Twelve to eighteen months

Infants during this developmental stage will engage in similar actions with slight deviations. For
example, infants may throw a ball, and then throw a spoon, and then throw their food to gauge
the consequence of that action.

6. Eighteen to twenty-four months

During this final sensorimotor phase, infants begin to pretend during their play and develop
symbolic thought. The imagination begins to develop and actions are a result of intelligence
rather than habit. This means that infants begin to apply the knowledge that they have learned
within the first twentyfour months of life to novel situations.

Preoperational Stage

The preoperational stage ranges from two years to approximately six or seven years of age.
During this stage, children have not yet developed the ability to acknowledge that others may
have different experiences and engage in more complex pretend play.

Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage ranges from the age of six or seven to approximately twelve or
thirteen. This stage is characterized by conservation, which involves the ability to discern
whether two quantities are equivalent (e.g., the ability to recognize two equal amounts of
water, one in a short glass and one in a tall glass as seen below).

Formal Operational Period

This stage occurs during adolescence, and is characterized by the application of logic to abstract
thought. The ability to perform abstract thought is also applied to future goals and aspirations.
Such thought processes progress from early operational thought involving fantasies to the late
formal operational stage which transforms fantasies into realistic thoughts and obtainable
goals.

Examples of Cognitive Development

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Visual Perception

Some of the first cognitive developments that develops during the sensorimotor stage is depth,
color, and motion perception. It remains debatable as to when these skills fully develop, and
what specific experiences during early life help to develop visual perception.

Neurological Development

Another example of cognitive development is the neurological development which occurs in

the brain. Such development is characterized by the neuroplasticity of the brain, which involves
brain repair following injury and the ability of the brain to adapt to new environmental and
physiological conditions. Another component of neurological development is the interaction
between cultural experiences and the formation of neurological connections in the brain. For
example, MRI studies have revealed that different neural pathways are used to perform the
same task for individuals form different cultural backgrounds.

Language Development

One of the best-studied examples of cognitive development is language development. While

some theories propose that language development is a genetically inherited skill common to all
humans, others argue that social interactions are essential to language development. Most
scientists recognize that language is influenced by the complex interaction between genetics
and the environment. Language development can be further characterized into distinct process
of learning, including the development of language sounds, organizing these sounds, forming
the basic linguistic units (e.g., root words, tone, etc.), syntax (e.g., grammatically correct
sentence patterns), the meaning of certain words or phrases, and the relationship between
statements. Another aspect of cognitive development is bilingualism. Recent research indicates
that bilingualism acts on the executive function of the brain because the selection of a
particular language is an active process.

Quiz
1. A two-year old boy calls a woman with short hair a “boy”. This is an example of: A.
Equilibration
B. Assimilation
C. Adaptation
D. Sensorimotor development
Answer to Question #1
B is correct. The child is applying the schema that boys have short hair to his new experience
with a woman with short hair.

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 2. The father of the boy in question 1 above tells the boy that some women can have short
hair too. Other traits also distinguish between males and females, such as clothing,
make-up, size, and facial hair. The next time the little boy sees a woman with short hair,
he refers to her as a “lady”. This is an example of:
A. Adaptation
B. Equilibration
C. Assimilation
D. Accumulation
Answer to Question #2
A is correct. The boy has adapted to a previous experience of a woman with short hair and
adjusted his schema

Same topic
Piaget’s theory of of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development states that our cognitive abilities develop through four specific
stages.

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study of child
development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively
construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them. Piaget was interested in
the development of “thinking” and how it relates to development throughout childhood. His theory of
four stages of cognitive development, first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of the most famous
and widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day.

Jean Piaget: Piaget’s theory of child development is still one of the most widely accepted in modern psychology.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop, they move through four distinct stages
that are characterized by differences in thought processing. In his research, he carefully observed
children and presented them with problems to solve that were related to object permanence,
reversibility, deductive reasoning, transitivity, and assimilation (described below). Each stage builds
upon knowledge learned in the previous stage. Piaget’s four stages correspond with the age of the
children and are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development includes four
stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Sensorimotor Stage
The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think” by
manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing, touching,
tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a
music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket and pulling it back out, or throwing an object to
see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the
understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000).
For example, a child learns that even though his mother leaves the room, she has not ceased to exist;
similarly, a ball does not disappear because a bucket is placed over it.

By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred imitation. This
involves the ability to reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying it
right away, the child is able to produce a mental representation of it and repeat the behaviour later on.
By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviours after a delay of up to three months.

Preoperational Stage
The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to
represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s
arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become
a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make-believe play begin during this stage.
Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand more complex ideas.

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Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how actions will
impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of others, and they think
that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do.

Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that children’s
reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding of conservation
principles, the ability to recognize that key properties of a substance do not change even as their
physical appearance may be altered. For example, a child who understands the principles of
conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same despite the size of the
container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation and logical thinking will
believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid.

Conservation task: This video features three children completing conservation tasks. The first two
children are confronted with a classic conservation task concerning liquid volumes. The first child does
not understand conservation (the principle that even though the appearance of substances may change,
their key properties remain the same) and is likely in the preoperational stage. The second child
understands conservation, demonstrating the concrete operational stage. The third child fails to show
an understanding of conservation, and thus is likely still in the preoperational stage of cognitive
development.

Children begin to organize objects by classes and subclasses, and they can perform mathematical
operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction and
multiplication is the opposite of division. They still think in very linear ways and can only conceptualize
ideas that can be observed directly—they have not yet mastered abstract thinking (described below). By
the end of this stage, children will develop true mental operations and master the concepts of
reversibility, transitivity, and assimilation. Reversibility is the idea that something can be changed back
to its original state after it has been altered (for example, pouring water back and forth between two
differently shaped glasses and still having the same amount of water). Transitivity is the concept of
relation—for example, if A is related to B and B is related to C, then A must also be related to C. Finally,
assimilation is the absorption of new ideas, information, or experiences into a person’s existing cognitive
structure, or what they already know or understand of the world.

Piaget determined that in this stage, children are able to incorporate inductive reasoning, which involves
drawing inferences from observations in order to make a generalization. In contrast, children struggle
with deductive reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the
outcome of an event.

Formal Operational
The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood. It is characterized by the idea that
children develop the ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in the problem-
solving method of developing a hypothesis and reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can
think of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine various ideas to create new ones. By the end

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of this stage, children have developed logical and systematic thinking, are capable of deductive
reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought

As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have been
challenged by later research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of
development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler,
2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes
(Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010).

Many developmental psychologists suggest a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the
postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott,
1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is
integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see
the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in
terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.

It seems that once we reach adulthood, our problem-solving abilities change: as we attempt to solve
problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and
politics (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past
experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary
depending on the situation. Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution
to a disagreement with a coworker may not be the best solution for a disagreement with a romantic
partner.

2. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major
Impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell believed development stemmed
Directly from the child, and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic developIment, he argued
That it is the language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest

Level of cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions with adults and
More learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal
Instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge would
Be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of Vygotsky’s key concepts.

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding:

Vygotsky’s best known concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated
That children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can almost perform a task,
But not quite on their own without assistance. With the right kind of teaching, however, they

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Can accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child
stretch
Beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then
Perform the task unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary
Platforms on which construction workers stand) to this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the
Temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are
Struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a
Situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as Egocentric Speech or a
Practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point
Of view.Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems
Or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before eventually
Closing their lips and engaging in Private Speech or inner speech.

Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to
Oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or
Remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when
Communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).

Contrast with Piaget: Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction believing that
Teachers who take control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain,
2005).
Further, teachers may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and
Instead they just repeat back what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given
Opportunities to discover concepts on their own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe
Children could reach a higher cognitive level without instruction from more learned individuals.
Who is correct? Both theories certainly contribute to our understanding of how children learn.

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