Design Against CREEP

Siraj Ahmed
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANIT Bhopal
 Contents
• Introduction
• Creep Test
• Presentation of Creep Data
• Stress Rupture Test
• Time to Rupture
• Creep under Bi-Axial Stresses
• Parameter Methods
• Larson-Miller Parameter
• Sherby-Dorn Parameter
• Manson-Haferd Parameter
• Stress Relaxation
• Creep Resistant Alloys
rupture is a burst, split, or break

fracture is the act of breaking, or something that

has broken
 Mechanisms / Methods by which a can Material can FAIL

Elastic
deformation Creep Chemical / Physical
Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Fracture degradation
Slip
Microstructural
changes
Wear

Twinning
Erosion
Phase
transformations
Grain growth

Particle
coarsening

Failure can be considered as change in desired performance-which could

involve changes in properties and/or shape and size
In materials science, a slip system describes the set of symmetrically
identical slip planes and associated family of slip directions for
which dislocation motion can easily occur and lead to plastic
deformation.

An external force makes parts of the crystal lattice glide along each
other, changing the material's geometry.

Slip occurs on close-packed planes (those containing the greatest

number of atoms per area), and in close-packed directions (most atoms
per length).

Magnitude and direction of slip are represented by the Burgers vector.

Crystal twinning occurs when two
separate crystals share some of the
same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical
manner. The result is an intergrowth of two
separate crystals in a variety of specific
configurations. A twin boundary or composition
surface separates the two crystals.
Burgers vector, named after Dutch Physicist
Jan Burgers, is a vector, often denoted b, that
represents the magnitude and direction of the
lattice distortion resulting from a dislocation in
a crystal lattice.
 Tension / Compression

Modes
of Torsion
Deformation

Bending
 Mode I
Modes
of Mode II
Fracture
Mode III
The Tensile Stress-Strain Curve

Tensile specimen

Gauge Length → L0

Initial cross sectional area → A0

Engineering Stress (s) and Engineering Strain (e)

P L
s= e=
A0 L0
0 → initial

Subscript
i → instantaneous
True Stress () and True Strain ()

P
=
Ai

L0 + L
L
dL L
= = ln = ln = ln(1 +  e )
L0
L L0 L0
 Due to collective motion
Yield point of many dislocations

Necking begins X
UTS

 →
s →

e →  →
Elastic region
Usually expressed as (for plastic)
Elastic + Plastic region

 plastic = K
X Fracture n
plastic
UTS- Ultimate Tensile Strength
Variables in plastic deformation  ,  , , T
 = K n
 

K → strength coefficient
n → strain / work hardening coefficient
◘ Cu and brass (n ~ 0.5) can be given large plastic strain more
easily as compared to steels with n ~ 0.15

 = A m
 
A → a constant
m → index of strain rate sensitivity
◘ If m = 0  stress is independent of strain rate (stress-strain
curve would be same for all strain rates)
◘ m ~ 0.2 for common metals
◘ If m  (0.4, 0.9) the material may exhibit superplastic behaviour
◘ m = 1 → material behaves like a viscous liquid (Newtonian flow)
 Plastic Deformation in Crystalline Materials

Slip Twinning Phase Transformation Creep Mechanisms

(Dislocation
motion)

Grain boundary sliding

Dislocation climb

Vacancy diffusion

+ Other Mechanisms
 Creep
Progressive deformation under constant load or stress at elevated temperature

• Time dependant permanent deformation

• At constant stress, strain continues to increase

• High (elevated) Temperature and Irreversible

Deformation

• Creep become significant at 0.4 Tm (melting

temperature)
 Creep

Stress

Strain

Time
 Introduction
Creep
progressive (time dependent) deformation of material
under constant load (constant stress)
under high or elevated temperature

Most of the metallic materials at room temperature show very

small creep rate

Creep behavior becomes significant at a temperature of about

0.4 Tm and above, where Tm is the melting point temperature in
Kelvin scale

Example: Gas turbine engines, furnaces, thermal and nuclear

power plant components and steam turbines the deformation
caused by creep can be very significant and become major design
consideration
Effect of Temperature
Motion of a dislocation can be assisted by thermal energy

Q 
− 
 = Ae  kT  Q

d
 = → Strain rate
dt Equilibrium positions of a dislocation

Motion of dislocations by pure thermal activation is random

▪ vd → velocity of the dislocations

 =  d b vd ▪ d → density of mobile/glissile dislocations
▪ b → |b|
 High-temperature behaviour of materials

▪ Increased vacancy concentration

▪ High diffusion rate → diffusion controlled processes become important
▪ Phase transformations can occur
▪ Grain related:
◘ boundary weakening
◘ boundary migration
◘ recrystallization / growth
▪ Dislocation related:
◘ climb
◘ new slip systems can become active
◘ change of slip system
▪ Overaging of precipitate particles and particle coarsening
▪ Enhanced oxidation and intergranular penetration of oxygen
CREEP : Permanent deformation of a material under load as a function of time

❑ Appreciable only at T > 0.4 Tm

 Mechanisms of Creep
• High rates of diffusion permit reshaping of
crystals to relieve stress
• Diffusion significant at both grain boundaries
and in the bulk
• High energy and weak bonds allow
dislocations to “climb” around structures that
pin them at lower temperature
Mechanisms of Creep
 Creep Test
• constant temperature
• constant load conditions
• Readings are recorded at periodic intervals of
extension against time.
• control temperature accurately

Creep testing can be carried out as per

BS 3500 (1969) standard
 Creep Test
Specimen: Cross-section: Circular or Rectangular
Loading: tensile in nature

Creep Testing Machine Features:

• Means for applying and maintaining a constant tensile load

• Furnace is capable of keeping temperature constant with
±2%

• Means for accurate measurement of test-piece extension,

mirror type and capable of measuring extension up to
10-4 mm
Creep Testing Machine
Creep Characteristic Curve

Time to
Rupture
 Creep Behaviour
Primary Stage
• Movement of dislocation is very rapid
• Any barrier to movement caused by
work-hardening being overcome by the
recovery process at a decreasing rate
• Initial creep strain rate is high but it rapidly
decreases to a constant value
 Creep Behaviour
Secondary Stage: Steady State
Work-hardening process of dislocation climb
and cross-slip shows straight line relationship

Slope of curve or
secondary creep rate
d s
s =
dt
 Creep Behaviour
Time period during secondary creep stage is
very large in comparison to primary and
tertiary stages

Secondary creep stage and secondary creep

rate which are of prime importance to the
design engineer for components in high
temperature applications
 Creep Behaviour
Tertiary Stage
Formation of internal voids
Necking in the test piece
causing the stress to increase and rapid fracture (Rupture)
results

• Shape of the creep curve for any material will depend upon
the temperature and stress level of the test

• With increase in temperature, the creep rate increases

because the softening processes such as dislocation climb
can take place more easily

• being diffusion controlled and hence a thermally activated

process at micro-structure level
Stages of creep

I ▪ Creep rate decreases with time

▪ Effect of work hardening more than recovery

II ▪ Stage of minimum creep rate → constant

▪ Work hardening and recovery balanced

III ▪ Absent (/delayed very much) in constant stress tests

▪ Necking of specimen start
▪ specimen failure processes set in
Creep Mechanisms of crystalline materials

Cross-slip

Dislocation climb
Creep
Vacancy diffusion

Grain boundary sliding

Cross-slip
❑ In the low temperature of creep → screw dislocations can cross-slip
(by thermal activation) and can give rise to plastic strain [as f(t)]
Dislocation climb
❑ Edge dislocations piled up against an obstacle can climb to another slip
plane and cause plastic deformation
❑ Rate controlling is due to the diffusion of vacancies
❑ In response to the applied stress vacancies preferentially move from
surfaces/interfaces of specimen transverse to the stress axis to
surfaces/interfaces parallel to the stress axis→ causing elongation
❑ This process like dislocation creep is controlled by the diffusion of
vacancies

 

Flow of vacancies
 Secondary Stage
Arrhenius Equation
secondary creep rate
d s
s = = Ae − H / RT
dt

H activation energy of creep of material

R universal gas constant
T absolute temperature
A constant depending upon stress,
temperature and metallurgical parameters
of the material
 Secondary Creep Rate
Increases with increasing stress
Power Law Equation
 s =  n

and n are constants,

n varies from 3 to 8

Combined Equation,
 s = K e
 n − H / RT
 Effect of Increasing Stress or
Temperature on Creep Curve

Shortening
of
secondary
creep stage
and earlier
onset of
tertiary
creep
 Effect of stress

Strain () →
Elastic strains
 →

Increasing stress
0 increases

 → 0
 0   0''
'
0 t →
 Effect of temperature

Strain () →
E↓ as T↑
 →

Increasing T

0 increases 0
 →
t →
0  0'  0''

As decrease in E with temperature is usually small the 0 increase is also small

 Example
The blades in a steam turbine are 250 mm long
and elastically extend in operation by 0.025 mm.
If the initial clearance between the blade tip and
the housing of turbine is 0.075 mm. It is required
that the final clearance be not less than 0.025
mm between the tip of blades and housing of the
turbine, calculate:
(i) Maximum percentage creep strain that can be
allowed in the blade.
(ii) Minimum creep strain rate if the blades are to
operate for 10,000 hours before replacement.
 Solution
Permissible Creep Strain = Initial Clearance –
(Final Clearance + Elastic Extension)
=0.075 - (0.025+0.025) = 0.025 mm

0.025(100)
Maximum percentage Creep Strain = 250
= 0.01 %

0.01
Minimum Creep Rate = 10000
= 1.0 x 10-6 per hour.
s

Example
Secondary creep strain rate data was recorded for lead
specimens during creep testing at a constant stress level of
1.3 N/mm2

Temperature Minimum Creep

Rate
0C 0K s-1

33 306 8.71 x 10-5

29 302 4.98 x 10-5
27 300 3.42 x 10-5

Determine the activation energy for lead under creep

deformation following Arrhenius Equation. Take Molar gas
constant R as 8.314 J/mol oK.
0K (1/T)X

 = Ae − H / RT
l n  s
10-3 s

306 3.27 8.71 x 10-5 -9.3485

302 3.31 4.98 x 10-5 -9.9156
300 3.33 3.42 x 10-5 -10.2833

From the plotted graph,

slope = 15.48 x 103
H = slope x R
= 15.48 (103) 8.314
= 1.25 KJ/mol.
 Example
At constant temperature of 6000 C and
constant axial tensile load of 8.9 KN creep test
is performed on a steel bar for ten years
duration. The bar is of cross-sectional area
2500 mm2 and length 1500 mm. Determine
the elongation at the end of the creep test
using the relationship  =  for 6000C,
s
n

=26 x 10-12 h-1 N/mm2 and n = 6.

 Solution

Applied stress σ = P 8900

= = 3.56 N/mm2
A 2500

Duration of test = 10 x 365 x 24 = 87600 hours


Creep strain s = t  n
= 87600 x 26 x 10-12x3.566
= 4.637 x 10-3
Total Elongation =  s l = 4.637 x 10-3 x 1500 mm
= 6.96 mm
 Example
Creep tests carried out on an alloy steel at 6000 C and
following results are observed:
Stress, Minimum Creep Rate,
kN/m2 % per 10000 h
10.2 0.4
13.8 1.2
25.5 10
A rod, 150 mm long and 625 mm2 in cross-section,
made of similar steel and operating at 6000C, is not to
creep more than 3.2 mm in 10000 hours. Calculate the
maximum axial load which can be applied.
 Solution

3.2(100)
percentage creep stain = 150
= 2.13% per 10000 h

Secondary creep strain s =  n or l n  s = l n  + nl n

l n l n  s
2.3224 -0.9163
2.6247 0.1823
3.2387 2.3026
 Solution
For creep strain rate 2.13 percent, l n  s = 0.7561

From graph, ln σ = 2.78

σ = 16.12 KN/m2
Then load = 16120 (625) 10-6
= 10 N
 Presentation of Creep Data

• In high temperature applications, to determine at

specified value of stress level whether the creep
strain over the period of expected life of the
component is tolerable or not

• To determine such combinations of high stress

level, creep strain rate, high temperature and
design life period of components a family of curves
are plotted from the experimental data of creep test
and presented in useful forms
Isometric Stress-Time Diagram
Isometric Strain–Time Diagram

1   2   3   4
Isochronous Stress–Temperature
Diagram
Stress – Temperature Curves
 Stress-Rupture Test
• fracture may be expected to take a very long
time
• creep test is usually terminated during steady
state of creep to produce a sufficiently
accurate value of the secondary creep rate
• when life is important design parameter, then
test is carried out upto destruction and this
kind of test is known as a stress rupture test
 Creep Rupture Method
• When rupture (catastrophic failure) is the only
concern (eg boiler tubes) a simpler method
will do

• Maps of time to rupture as a function of stress

and temperature are used to determine the
expected life
 Stress Rupture Curve
(Applied stress vs. time to rupture)
 Stress-Rupture Test
• Loads are higher thus time of test is shorter
• principal information obtained is time to
failure
• Figure shows time to rupture against stress on
a log-log basis, and often a straight line results
for each temperature
• Any change in slope of this stress-rupture line
may be due to change in the mechanism of
creep rupture within the material
Stress-Rupture Test
 Time to Rupture
• Creep tests in which a stress is applied and
load is kept constant until failure takes place
by separation are very common source of data
• Rupture is understood to be fracture such that
the specimen under axial tension necks down
to zero cross-sectional area
• In some situations failure is assumed to be
taken place even of the area of cross-section is
not reduced to zero
 Time to Rupture
true strain  =
L dL
L0 L

Strain rate d 1 dL
 = =
dt L dt

During creep deformation volume remains constant

d(AL) =0 dL
=−
dA
L A
1 dL 1 dA
=−
L dt A dt
1 dA
 = −
A dt
 Time to Rupture
Arrhenius Equation s = K n e − H / RT
n
P 1 dA
K   e − H / RT = −
 A A dt

KP n e − H / RT dt = − A n −1 dA
for original conditions of cross sectional area of specimen
A0 to final Af from time t = 0 to tr (At rupture Af = 0)
tr Af
 dt = 
n − H / RT
KP e − An −1dA
0 A0 H
RT
e
for calculating time to rupture
tr =
for the given values of temperature
stress level and material constants nK n
 Creep under Bi-Axial Stresses

equivalent stress
1
 e = ( xx2 +  yy2 −  xx yy + 3 xy2 ) 2
 Creep under Bi-Axial Stresses
Equivalent Strain rate  = K n
e e

H
RT
e
Time to rupture t r =
nK e
n
 Example
For an alloy steel with 2.25 percent Cr and 1.0 percent Mo,
two sets of creep data are recorded:

(a) At stress level 165 MPa, rupture occurs after 0.1 hr at

temperature 615 0C and rupture occurs after 10 hr at 490
0C.

(b) At temperature level 615 0C rupture occurs after 0.1 hr

at stress 70 MPa and rupture occurs after 100 hr at stress
32 MPa.

Determine the general relationship for time to rupture and

stress.
 Solution

tr =
e RT H nK= B
=A
nK 0n R

A
ln t r = − ln( B n )
T

A
ln(0.1) = − ln( B n )
888

A
ln(100) = − ln( B n )
763

A = 1.62(10 4 )

A 1.62(10 4 )
= = 17.61
T 650 + 273

ln(0.1) = 17.61 − ln B − n ln(70)

A 1.62 (104 )
ln(100) = 17.61 − ln B − n ln(32) eT
e 888
3.56(10 7 )
tr = = =
n = 8.82 and B = 2.34 B n
2.34 e
8.82
 e8.82
 Parametric Methods
• method of extrapolation to know the creep
behaviour
• parameter methods are evolved for
accelerated creep tests
• test is carried out at a higher temperature
than that used in practice and results are
extrapolated to predict creep-life or creep-
strain at a lower temperature of usage
 Larson-Miller Parameter
• based on the Arrhenius Equation
H
log10 t r = log10 G + 0.4343
RT
tr time to rupture
G material constant
T absolute temperature
R universal gas constant
H activation energy for creep which is stress
dependent
 Larson-Miller Parameter

m
log10 t r + C =
T
m is a function of stress
P1 = f ( )
parameter is defined
P1 = T (log10 t r + C ) 1
constant C is intercept when log10 t r plotted again T
ferrous materials C varies from 15 to 30
Larson-Miller Parameter
 Sherby-Dorn Parameter
function of stress

P2 = f ( )


P2 = log10 t r −
T
 Example
Nimonic 90 turbine blades tested for different
stress level and temperature are lives are
recorded as below:
Stress (MN/m2) Temperature (0C) (0K) Life (h)
180 750 1023 3000
180 800 1073 500
300 700 973 5235
350 650 923 23820

Plot a master curve for Larsen-Miller parameter

and predict the life of a blade for a stress level
of 250 N/mm2 at temperature of 750 oC.
 Solution

P = T (log10 t r + C )
1023 (log10 3000 + C) = 1073 (log10 500 + C)
C = 30.44
P1 = 1023 (log10 3000 + 30.44) = 39333
P2 = 1073 (log10 500 + 30.44) = 39333
P3 = 973 (log10 5235 + 30.44) = 37950
P4 = 923 (log10 23820 + 30.44) = 37398
when stress equals 250 N/mm2
38525 = 1023 (log10 tr + 30.44)
tr = 1365 hours
 Manson-Haferd Parameter
• For a material under different stress and
temperature conditions, a family of lines was
obtained which intercepted at a point when
log tr was plotted against T
T − Ta
P =
log10 tr − log10 ta

P = f ( )
 Stress Relaxation
Time-dependent decrease in stress under
constant strain conditions under high
temperature

Example
cylinder-head bolts
rivets in pressure vessels
 Stress Relaxation

i = e − c
d i d c
=−
dt dt

i =
E d i 1 d
=
dt E dt d c
− = −  n 1 d
dt = −  n

E dt
 Stress Relaxation
d
 n
= − E  dt

1
− = − E t + C
( n − 1) n −1

C is constant of integration, consider t = 0, when σ =

1 constants  and n
C=− n −1
( n − 1) i 1 1
depend
on temperature
= + E (n − 1)t
 n −1
i n −1 and nature of
material
 Example
The secondary creep rate for steel is given by
 s =  n A steel bolt is clamping two rigid
plates together at a temperature of 10000C.
The value of n = 3.0 and s 
 = 0 . 7 X 10 −9 −1
h for
constant stress level of 28 N/mm2. Determine
the remaining stress in the steel bolt after
9000 h if the initially tightened stress level was
70 N/mm2. Take E = 200x103 N/mm2.
 Solution
0.7 X 10 −9 =  ( 28) 3
 = 3.18 X 10 −14

1 1
= + E (n − 1)t
 n −1
i n −1

1 1 −14
= + 200(10 3
) 3 . 18 X 10 2(9000)
2 (70) 2

= 56 N/ mm2
 Example

• A chemical reaction chamber working at a

temperature of 500 0C uses steel bolts to tighten
the two parts. The test on bolt material at this
temperature resulted into strain rates of 3x10-18
per hour and 2 x10-18 per hour at 30 MPa and 25
MPa stress levels respectively. If the bolts are
tightened to a stress level 68 MPa initially,
calculate in what time the stress will be reduced
to half the value, and E = 1.7 x 105 MPa.
 Solution

 s =  n

3(10 −18 ) =  (30) n 2(10 −18 ) =  ( 25) n

n = 2.23 = 1.525 x

1 1 1 1
= + E (n − 1)t = + 1 . 7 X 10 5
X 1 . 525 X 10 − 21
X 1.23t
 n −1  i n −1 (34)1.23 (68)1.23

t = 2.32x1023 hr stress in the bolt will be 34 MPa

Effect of Elevated Temperature
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• alloys with a high resistance to creep requires
movement of dislocations are hindered
• high melting point metals like tungsten (3377 oC)
which is very difficult to machine
• molybdenum ( 2607 oC) form volatile oxides
• osmium ( 3027 oC) is very expensive
• Therefore nickel ( 1453 oC) and cobalt ( 1492 oC) are
used as alloying elements
 Creep Resistant Materials

❑ Higher operating temperatures gives better efficiency for a heat engine

High melting point → e.g. Ceramics

Dispersion hardening → ThO2 dispersed Ni (~0.9 Tm)

Creep
resistance Solid solution strengthening

Single crystal / aligned (oriented) grains

❑ Cost, fabrication ease, density etc. are other factors which determine
the final choice of a material
❑ Commonly used materials → Fe, Ni, Co base alloys
❑ Cost, fabrication ease, density etc. are other factors which determine
the final choice of a material
❑ Commonly used materials → Fe, Ni, Co base alloys
❑ Precipitation hardening (instead of dispersion hardening) is not a good
method as particles coarsen (smaller particles dissolve and larger
particles grow  interparticle separation ↑)
❑ Ni-base superalloys have Ni3(Ti,Al) precipitates which form a low
energy interface with the matrix  low driving force for coarsening
❑ Cold work cannot be used for increasing creep resistance as
recrystallization can occur which will produced strain free crystals
❑ Fine grain size is not desirable for creep resistance →
grain boundary sliding can cause creep elongation / cavitation
► Single crystals (single crystal Ti turbine blades in gas turbine
engine have been used)
► Aligned / oriented polycrystals
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• movement of dislocations are hindered to a greater extend in an alloy
rather than in a pure metal.

• Alloying elements such as chromium and cobalt are added to

produce a solid solution to make use of ‘solid-solution-
hardening’

• atomic size and valency are different for alloying elements and
parent metal.

• greater the amount of alloying element, the lower is the melting

temperature range of the alloy.

• Most creep-resisting alloys are further strengthened by

‘precipitation hardening’ which uses carbides, oxides, nickel-
titanium-aluminum and nitride particles to hinder dislocation
movement.

• Metals with a low rate of self-diffusion like face-centered-metals

such as nickel are preferred over body-centered metals.
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• Cold-working is another method of increasing the
high-temperature strength of an alloy and
hindering dislocation movement at elevated
temperature

• At room temperature the grain boundaries are

stronger than grain of material.
• strength of the boundary decreases at a faster rate
than the strength of the grain with increase in
temperature
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• There is a temperature point of ‘equi-cohesive
temperature’, below this temperature there is
trans-granular fracture and above this it is
inter- crystalline failure.
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• mechanism of creep may be different at different
temperatures
• at lower temperature, the failure is trans-
crystalline.
• at higher temperature the failure is inter-
crystalline.
• change-over point is equi-cohesive temperature
Grain boundary sliding

❑ At low temperatures the grain boundaries are ‘stronger’ than the crystal
interior and impede the motion of dislocations
❑ Being a higher energy region, the grain boundaries melt before the crystal
interior
❑ Above the equicohesive temperature grain boundaries are weaker than
grain and slide past one another to cause plastic deformation
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• secondary creep rate is inversely proportional
to the square of the grain size
KD
K constant
 = 2
d T
σ applied stress
D coefficient of self diffusion
d grain size
T temperature
 Creep-Resistant Alloys
• Grain boundary strengthening by introduction of
grain boundary carbide precipitates is helpful to
prevent grain boundary sliding.
• Therefore control of grain size becomes significant
for elevated temperature application
• The components with very high integrity may be
produced from a single crystal so that its strength is
significant even at elevated temperature for
Example: blades of gas turbines
 Super Alloys
• Super alloys are based on nickel (Tm 1453 oC) and
contain many other alloying elements
• These are complex in atomic structure. Some alloying
elements will enter solid solution and strengthen the
material matrix. While some alloying elements tend to
form inter-metallic compounds and carbides.
• It is possible to align crystal grains in the micro
structure in a direction of maximum direct stress such
as for centrifugal stress for the development of
directional solidifications of turbine blades made from
casting. Therefore very few grain boundaries will be
oriented normal to the direction of maximum stress.
• The viscous flow across the grain boundary at very high
temperature becomes a major factor in creep
deformation.
 Super Alloys
• stress-rupture characteristic curve for some
of alloys for high temperature applications for
1000 hours life
 Stress Rupture in Single Crystals

Advanced Materials & Processes April

CMSX-4 & CM 186 (yellow) are 1995
Single Crystals
 Single Crystal Turbine Blade
Allison AE 2100 Turboprop
engine

First Stage vane doublet

from CMSX-4 alloy

Advanced Materials & Processes

April 1995
 How Do We Deal With Creep ?

1. Reduce the effect of grain

boundaries
→ Use Single Crystals
2. Change Materials
3. Change Operating Conditions
Thanking You
 Micro Structure
• Metals and many important classes of non-
metallic solids are crystalline, i.e. the
constituent atoms are arranged in a pattern
that repeats itself periodically in three
dimensions. The actual arrangement of the
atoms is described by the crystal structure.
Defects in Crystal
 Grain Boundaries
Crystalline solids usually
consist of a large number of
randomly oriented grains
separated by grain
boundaries.

Each grain is a single crystal

and contains the defects.

When the mis-orientation

between the grains is large,
the atomic arrangement at
the boundary is complicated
and varies significantly with
angle of mis-orientation.
Slip Plane
Plastic deformation by glide of edge
and screw dislocations
Mechanical Testing
Tensile Testing
 Creep Mechanisms
By two mechanisms

1. Diffusion Creep
2. Dislocation Creep
 Creep Mechanisms
Diffusion Creep
• Diffusion creep occurs by transport of material via diffusion of
atoms within a grain. Like all diffusion processes, it is driven by a
gradient of free energy (chemical potential), created in this case by
the applied stress.

For example, an applied tensile stress creates regions of high

hydrostatic tension at the extremities of each grain, along the
loading direction. They will tend to diffuse towards such regions
and this motion will lead to elongation of the grain along the
loading direction. Since this occurs on the scale of the individual
grains, diffusion distances are shorter in fine-grained materials,
which thus tend to be more susceptible to creep.
 Creep Mechanisms
Dislocation Creep
Dislocation creep is a mechanism involving motion of
dislocations. This mechanism of creep tends to dominate at
high stresses and relatively low temperatures. Dislocations
can move by gliding in a slip plane, a process requiring little
thermal activation.

However, the rate-determining step for their motion is

often a climb process, which requires diffusion and is thus
time-dependent and favoured by higher temperatures.
Obstacles in the slip plane, such as other dislocations,
precipitates or grain boundaries, can lead to such
situations.
Strain Recovery and Strain Hardening
Quantification of Work Hardening due
to Cold Working
Percentage of Cold Work
Decrease in Ductility due to Cold Work
Influence of Cold Work