1.

Required Pressure
The total pressure required at the beginning of a pipeline, for a specified flow rate, consists of
three distinct components:
1- Pressure drop due to friction ( Pf ¿ .
2- The static elevation difference ( Pelev ).
3- The delivery pressure required ( Pdel ).
Preq =P f + Pelev + Pdel
4- After getting the total frictional head loss, add 20%- 25% for safety.

1.1 Terminal Fittings pressure (delivery head)

Check with the client. Check the table below. Assume a delivery head of minimum 15 m or
30 kPa.

1.2 Static Pressure (elevation head)

The static head pressure from the point of supply to the fitting is measured vertically in
meters. For an elevated cistern/tank, it is the distance from the bottom of the storage vessel to the
point of supply demand. Do not measure from the water level in the cistern/tank as this is
constantly changing due to fluctuations in demand and supply. For elevated cisterns/tanks, this
vertical measurement will be positive head in meters. Where the static head is being provided
from an external water main or low level pumping system, the vertical distance from the water
main or pump set outlet to the points of supply will be a negative head; this negative head will
have to be overcome by the external water main or pumping system in order to ensure discharge
at the point of supply. Should the termination supply point be below the pumps or water main
then the vertical distance measured will be positive head pressure in metres.
 The static elevation difference ( Pelev ) is obtained as:

h elev =helev del −helev tank

1.3 Frictional Head Loss

Frictional losses are divided into two categories. Major losses due pipe size and length.
Minor losses due different components of the pipeline system.

1.3.1 Major Losses

1.3.1.1 Modified Colebrook Equation

To calculate the frictional head loss, its needed first to calculate the Reynolds number:

ρv D 1
ℜ=
μ

Where ρ is water density equals to 997 kg/m 3 and v is the water velocity in pipes (m/s)
and μ is the water dynamic viscosity equals to 0.487 ×10−3 N . s /m2. The friction factor is very
important in the analysis and is calculated as:

1.11
ε
1
√f
6.9 D
=−1.8 log ℜ + 1 ( ( ))
3.7

Where ε is the pipe roughness equal to 0.007 mm for PPR pipes.

Pressure loss is expressed as :

L ρV2
∆ P L =f
D1 2

And Head loss is expressed as:

L V 2 ∆ PL
h L =f =
D1 2 g ρg

It has to be noted that frictional head loss has to be calculated for each pipe segment.
1.3.1.2 Hazen Williams Equation
 Hazen Williams equation can be used to get the frictional head loss, pipe diameter, flow
rate or flow velocity using one of the following equations, Where C h for PPR is equal to 140-
150.

1.3.1.3 Swamee and Jain Equation

1.3.2 Minor Losses
Minor losses are due three main resources. The first is pipe joints, second is pipe
sudden expansion of contraction, and third is valves.
 2. Flow rates
The amount of water that a pipe can convey in a given time depends upon:
— the cross-sectional area of the pipe
— the velocity of the water.
Therefore the flow rate is given by:
Q=V × A
The system design pressure should be that required for the proper functioning of all taps
and outlets. Check with the manufacturer for the minimum required working pressure for all
tapware selected. Provide pressure reduction valves (PRVs) or pressure reducing stations within
the system where pressures are expected to exceed 65 m head. PRVs should have a maximum
reduction ratio of 2:1. It should be noted that PRVs must not be located on a domestic hot
water pipe that forms part of a circulation circuit.

It should be noted that water velocity should be in the range of 1-1.5 m/s as shown in the table
below.

It is essential that the term ‘flow pressure’ (or dynamic pressure) be thoroughly
understood and not confused with static pressure. Flow pressure is that pressure that exists at a
point in the system when water is flowing at that point. It is always less than the static pressure.
To have flow, some of the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and additional energy
is used in overcoming friction. This results in a flow pressure that is less than the static pressure.
 When a manufacturer lists the minimum pressure required for the proper operation of a
fitting (e.g. ‘2 bar’), it is the flow pressure requirement that is being indicated, that is the pressure
remaining with the fitting and the rest of the system operating at the same time. The fitting will
not function at peak efficiency (if at all) if the system has been designed such that only a static
pressure of 2 bar exists at the inlet to the fitting prior to operation.

3. Pipline Systems (Pipe Networks)

The analysis of piping networks, no matter how complex they are, is based on two simple
principles:

1. Conservation of mass throughout the system must be satisfied. This is done by requiring the
total flow into a junction to be equal to the total flow out of the junction for all junctions in the
system. Also, the flow rate must remain constant in pipes connected in series regardless of the

changes in diameters.

2. Pressure drop (and thus head loss) between two junctions must be the same for all paths
between the two junctions. This is because pressure is a point function and it cannot have two
values at a specified point. In practice this rule is used by requiring that the algebraic sum of
head losses in a loop (for all loops) be equal to zero. (A head loss is taken to be positive for
flow in the clockwise direction and negative for flow in the counterclockwise direction.)

Therefore, the analysis of piping networks is very similar to the analysis of electric circuits, with
flow rate corresponding to electric current and pressure corresponding to electric potential.
However, the situation is much more complex here since, unlike the electrical resistance, the
“flow resistance” is a highly nonlinear function. Therefore, the analysis of piping networks
requires the simultaneous solution of a system of nonlinear equations. The analysis of such
systems is beyond the scope of this introductory text.

3.1 Series Connection

The first method in the analysis of the series connected pipes is by calculating the friction
head loss in each section and then adding them together to obtain the overall frictional head loss.
If any valve or fitting is inserted, its resulted head loss has to be taken into consideration.
 Another common method to calculate for the frictional head loss in series pipeline network is
called the equivalent length method in which different pipe lengths and diameters friction loss
are accounted for using a base equivalent pipe length and diameter.

For the pipes in above, the equivalent length is obtained with reference to the first pipe
section as the base as follows:

D1 5
Le 2=L2 ( )
D2
+ Le 2 valvles∧fittings

And the equivalent length of the third pipe section is obtained as follows:

D1 5
Le 3=L3 ( )
D3
+ Le3 valvles∧fittings

The total equivalent length is obtained as follows:

 D1 5 5
D
Let =L1 + L2 ( ) ( )
D2
+ L3 1
D3

If the system contains any fitting or valves, the equivalent length for each should be added to
the total equivalent length of the system. After that, obtain the friction factor and friction head
loss using the base diameter (D1) and Let

3.2 Parallel Connection

Parallel pipeline network analysis depends on the fluid mechanics law that pressure at a point
will have a single value. So, points A and B should have the same pressure values. Hence,
the same pressure drop. So:

0.5 2.5
Q 1 L2 D1
=
Q 2 L1( )( ) D2

¿ Q=Q 1 +Q 2

And the equivalent length will have the same pressure drop for each branch as follows:

L e Q e 2 L1 Q 1 2 L2 Q 2 2

( ) ( ) ( )
De D2e
=
D1 D21
=
D2 D 22

We assume that Le equals to L1, which results in:

0.4
Q
D e =D 1 ( )
Q1

In another format of the equation:

D1.852
e D1.852 D1.852
= 4.87 = 24.87
1
4.87
Qe Q1 Q2

And,

0.4
De Qe
=
D1 Q1 ( )
…………………..