Dividing by zero with Λ

A. Bali

July 4, 2020 − July 31, 2020

1 General
1.1 λ : the core constant of Λ

When we define C the set of complex numbers, we first define the core
constant i as a root for the polynomial x 7→ x2 + 1. Here, Λ is defined using
λ the root for the polynomial x 7→ 0x − 1. In other words, 0λ = 1. In fact,
Λ = {a + bλ : a, b ∈ C}.

1.2 Addition and substraction

Assuming a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, then if a 6= −b, aλ + bλ = (a + b)λ, and

otherwise we can say that aλ + bλ = aλ − aλ = 0. If a = 0 or b = 0, aλ + bλ
should give 1 + bλ, 1 + aλ or 2.

2 Multiplication
2.1 Non-associativity

Because (0 · 0) · λ = 0λ = 1, and that 0 · (0λ) = 0 · 1 = 0, multiplication

in Λ is forcefully not generally associative.

2.2 Non-distributivity

Because (0+0)·λ = 0λ = 1 and that 0·λ+0·λ = 1+1 = 2, multiplication

in Λ is forcefully not generally distributive over addition.

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2.3 Multiplication of scalar numbers

For all complex numbers a and b, we say that a(bλ) = b(aλ), and since
it also doesn’t lead to any contradiction, we can let multiplication be com-
mutative :

• a·b=b·a

• a · (bλ) = (bλ) · a, and :

– If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, we say that a(bλ) = (ab)λ.

– If a 6= 0 and b = 0, we have a(0λ) = a · 1 = a.
– If a = 0 and b 6= 0, we have a(bλ) = b(aλ) = b(0λ) = b.
– If a = b = 0, we have 0(0λ) = 0 · 1 = 0.

• (aλ)(bλ) = (bλ)(aλ), and :

– If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, we say that (aλ)(bλ) = (ab)λ.

– If a 6= 0 and b = 0, we have (aλ)(0λ) = (aλ) · 1 = aλ.
– If a = 0 and b 6= 0, we have (0λ)(bλ) = 1 · (bλ) = bλ.
– If a = b = 0, we have (0λ)(0λ) = 1 · 1 = 1.

2.4 General multiplication

For all complex a, b, c, d such that :

• a 6= 0 and c 6= 0, we have (a+bλ)(c+dλ) = ac+a(dλ)+(bλ)c+(bλ)(dλ).

The previous subsection helps us giving values to this considering
whether a, b, c or d are equal to 0 or not, as well as if some addi-
tive components cancel out each other or not.

• If a = 0 and c 6= 0, then (a + bλ)(c + dλ) = (bλ)c + (bλ)(dλ).

• If a 6= 0 and c = 0, then (a + bλ)(c + dλ) = a(dλ) + (bλ)(dλ).

• If a = b = 0, then (a + bλ)(c + dλ) = (bλ)(dλ).

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 3 Exponential

For all z ∈ C, we have :

X zk
exp z = 1 +
k!
k≥1

From this, we will define exp(bλ) for all b ∈ C with this formula :
X (bλ)k
exp(bλ) = 1 +
k!
k≥1

We get that exp(bλ) = e if b = 0, and because for all b 6= 0, (bλ)(bλ) =

(b2 )λ and by recursion, we have (bλ)n = bn λ for all n ≥ 1, so for all b 6= 0,
and because both bk and 1/(k!) are non-zero for all k ≥ 1, we have :
X bk λ X bk
exp(bλ) = 1 + =1+λ = 1 + λ(eb − 1)
k! k!
k≥1 k≥1

Therefore, for all complex numbers a and b, we have :

 a
e (1 + λ(eb − 1)) b 6= 0
exp(a + bλ) =
ea+1 b=0
One good thing about this definition is that it satisfies the property that
for all complex numbers z ∈ Λ, we still have exp(z) exp(−z) = 1.
To prove this, for z ∈ Λ such that z = a + bλ for a, b ∈ C, we first find
out that if b = 0, we have exp(a + 1) exp(−(a + 1)) = exp(a + 1 − a − 1) =
exp(0) = 1. If b 6= 0, and if we color parts of the equations which are always
nonzero, we have :
exp(a + bλ) exp(−(a + bλ)) = 6 e a (1 + λ(eb − 1)) 6 e−a (1 + λ(e−b − 1))
= (1 + λ(eb − 1))(1 + λ(e−b − 1))
= 1 + λ(e − 1) + λ(eb − 1) + λ(eb − 1)(e−b − 1)
−b

= 1 + λ(e−b − 1) + λ(eb − 1) + λ(2 − e−b − eb )

= 1 + λ(e−b − 1) + λ(eb − 1)−λ((e−b − 1) + (eb − 1))
= 1 + λ(e−b − 1) + λ(eb − 1)−λ(e−b − 1)−λ(eb − 1)
= 1 + λ(e−b − 1)−λ(e−b − 1) + λ(eb − 1)−λ(eb − 1)
= 1

Therefore, for all z ∈ Λ, exp(z) exp(−z) = 1. This also allows us to

define division in a large part of the Λ set − the part being Im(exp).

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 4 Division
4.1 For a 6= 0, b 6= −a and b 6= 0

For all z ∈ Λ such that z = a + bλ with a > 0, b > −a and b 6= 0, we

have z ∈ Im(exp). In fact, we have :

exp(log(a) + log(b/a + 1)λ) = a(1 + λb/a) = a + bλ

Therefore, for all such z ∈ Λ such that z = a + bλ with a > 0, b > −a

and b 6= 0, we have :
  
1/(a + bλ) = exp(− log a − log(b/a + 1)λ)  1 1 1 1
=⇒ = + − λ
= 1/a · (1 + λ(1/(b/a + 1) − 1))  a + bλ a a+b a

Obviously, if z ∈ Λ such that z = a + bλ with a < 0, b > −a and b 6= 0,

we have z ∈ Im(-exp), and we can use :
     
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=− =− − + − λ = + − λ
a + bλ −a − bλ a −a − b −a a a+b a

Overall, we can show that this formula works for all a 6= 0, b 6= −a and
b 6= 0. Indeed, we have :
       
(a + bλ) a1 + a+b1
− a1 λ = 1 + ab λ + a+ba
− 1 λ + a+b b
− ab λ
   
= 1 + ab λ + a+bb
− ab λ + a+b a
−1 λ
   
b a
= 1 + a+b λ + a+b −1 λ
   
a a
= 1 + 1 − a+b λ + a+b −1 λ
= 1

Therefore, for all z ∈ Λ such that z = a + bλ, a 6= 0, b 6= −a and b 6= 0,

we have :  
1 1 1 1
= + − λ
a + bλ a a+b a

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4.1.1 1/(a/b) = b/a

For all nonzero a, b, c, d ∈ C such that b 6= −a and c 6= −d,

  
a+bλ 1 1 1
c+dλ = (a + bλ) + −
 c c+d  c 
a a a b b
= c + c+d − c + c λ + c+d − cb
 
a a+b a
= c + c+d − c λ

Using this formula, we also have :

 
c + dλ c c+d c
= + − λ
a + bλ a a+b a
We want to show that 1/((c + dλ)/(a + bλ)) = (a + bλ)/(c + dλ).
 
1 a 1 a
c
+ c+d − ac )
= c + c + c+d − c − c λ
a ( a+b a ( a+b a ) 
a 1 a
= c + c+d − c λ
 a+b 
a a+b a
= c + c+d − c λ
a+bλ
= c+dλ 

4.2 For all other complex a and b

Despite solving the problem of division by zero, some other division

problems arise :

• 0 + 0λ = 1 is its own multiplicative inverse.

• a + 0λ = a + 1, so its multiplicative inverse is 1/(a + 1) if a 6= −1, and

λ otherwise.

• 0 + 1λ = λ’s multiplicative inverse is 0.

• If a 6= 0, a 6= 1, then 0 + aλ has no multiplicative inverse in Λ.

• If a 6= 0, a − aλ has no multiplicative inverse in Λ.

We’d therefore need to add two constants µ0 , µ1 such that, for example,
(1 − λ)µ0 = 1 and (−λ)µ1 = 1 for the two latter cases to have multiplicative
inverses.