Sedimentary Basins of India

Sedimentary Basins of India
The sedimentary basins of India, onland and offshore up to the 200m isobath, have an areal
extent of about 1.79 million sq. km. So far, 26 basins have been recognized and they have
been divided into four categories based on their degree of prospectivity as presently known.
In the deep waters beyond the 200m isobath, the sedimentary area has been estimated to
be about 1.35 million sq. km. The total thus works out to 3.14 million sq. km.
Over the last twelve years, there have been significant forward steps in exploring the
hydrocarbon potential of the sedimentary basins of India. The unexplored area has come
down to 15% which was 50% in 1995-96.
Credit for this achievement goes in large measure to the surveys carried out by DGH in
unexplored/poorly explored areas of the country including Deepwaters off west coast, east
coast and in Andaman sea and acreages awarded for exploration under NELPs. Concerned
efforts are continuously being done to reduce the unexplored area further.
On the basis of prospectivity basins have been categorised as follows:
Category-I : Proven Commerical Productivity
Basin Name Onland Area Offshore Area Total
Assam-Arakan 116000 - 116000
Cambay 51000 2500 53500
Cauvery 25000 30000 55000
Krishna-Godawari Offshore 28000 24000 52000
Mumbai Offshore - 116000 116000
Rajasthan 126000 - 126000
Category-II : Identified Prospectivity
Kutch 35000 13000 48000
Mahanadi-Nec 55000 14000 69000
Andaman-Nicobar 6000 41000 47000
Category-III : Prospective Basins
Bengal 57000 32000 89000

Ganga Valley 186000 - 186000
Himalyan Foreland 30000 - 30000
Kerla-Konkan Lakshdweep - 94000 94000
Saurashtra 52000 28000 80000
Vindhyan 162000 - 162000
Purnea - - 0
Category-IV : Potentially Prospective
Bastar 5000 - 5000
Bhima Kaladgi 8500 - 8500
Chhattisgarh 32000 - 32000
Cuddapah 39000 - 39000
Deccan Syneclise 273000 - 273000
Karewa 3700 - 3700
Narmada 17000 - 17000
Pranhita Godavari 15000 - 15000
Satpura-S.Rewa-Damodar 46000 - 46000
Spiti Zanskar 22000 - 22000

ASSAM-ARAKAN BASIN
1 Basin Introduction: The Assam-Arakan Basin is situated in the northeastern part of

India categorized as category-I basin. The basin covers an area of 116000 Sq.Km. Major
tectonic elements of the basin are:-
• Assam Shelf
• Naga Schuppen belt
• Assam-Arakan Fold belt.
Oil exploration in India commenced with the discovery of the Digboi oilfield in Upper Assam
more than 100 years ago, when, based on surface oil shows, a well was drilled on an
exposed anticline, associated with the Naga thrust. Other significant milestones in oil
exploration in Upper Assam were the discoveries of the Nahorkatiya, Moran and Rudrasagar
oil fields in 1953, 1956 and 1960, respectively. Subsequently, more than 100 oil and gas
fields, including Jorajan, Kumchai, Hapjan, Shalmari, Lakwa, Lakhmani, Geleki, Amguri,
Charali, Borholla, Khoraghat, Baghjan, Dirok etc. have been discovered.
Bulk of the oil and gas, discovered in Upper Assam till late 1980s, has been found in the
Barail Group of Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene age and the Tipam Group of Upper
Miocene age. During the last decade, oil and gas accumulations have been discovered
within the Langpar and Lakadong formations of Paleocene to Lower Eocene age in several
structures like Dikom, Kathaloni, Tengakhat, Tamulikhat, Shalmari, Baghjan, Panidihing, etc.
In the Borholla oil field, oil occurs in fractured granitic basement rock of Precambrian age.
The oilfields, discovered so far, are situated mainly in the areas south and southeast of the
Brahmaputra river and a few in the thrust belts, associated with Naga-Patkai hills. However,
the area to the north of the Brahmaputra river up to the Eastern Himalayan foothills has
remained poorly explored. In the Naga Schuppen zone, apart from the Digboi oil field, two
more major oil fields, namely, the Kharsang field, having oil accumulations in Upper Miocene
to Pliocene reservoirs and the Champang field, having oil accumulations in fractured granitic
basement rock of Precambrian age, have been discovered.
In the Khoraghat and Nambar fields situated in southeastern part of the Dhansiri Valley, oil
occurs in the Bokabil Formation (Middle Miocene) which is not developed towards north in
the Brahmaputra valley. In some of the exploratory wells, drilled in the southwestern part of
the Dhansiri valley, good shows of oil have been observed in Eocene and Oligocene sands.
2 Tectonic History: The Assam-Arakan sedimentary Basin is a shelf–slope–basinal

system. The shelf part of the basin spreads over the Brahmaputra valley and the Dhansiri
valley, the latter lying between the Mikir hills and the Naga foothills. From the Digboi, the
shelf runs westward to the southern slope of the Shillong plateau. The shelf-to-basinal slope,
i.e., the hinge zone lies below the Naga schuppen belt. The basinal (geosynclinal) part is
occupied by the Cachar, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur fold belts.
The shelf part rests on Precambrian granitic basement, whereas the basinal part lies on
transitional to oceanic crust. The area within the Upper Assam shelf, having high petroleum
potential, measures approximately 56000 sq km and contains about 7000m thick sediments
of mostly Tertiary period, and the area in the basinal part with moderate to high hydrocarbon
potential measures about 60,000 sq km and contains more than 10,000m thick sediments of
mostly Tertiary period.
The major structural elements of the Assam–Arakan Basin and the salient features of each
element are briefly described as following.
2.1 Upper Assam Shelf:-

• Southerly to southeasterly moving thrust sheets of younger (Miocene to Plio-
Pleistocene) sedimentary rocks in the Assam Himalayan foothills.
• The Himalayan Foredeep zone north of the Brahmaputra river lies in the northern
periphery of the foredeep is overridden by the southerly moving thrust sheets of
younger sedimentary rocks.
• The Brahmaputra-Arch, running along the southeastern side of the Brahmaputra river
in Upper Assam.
• The southeastern slope of the Upper Assam Shelf, southeast of the Brahmaputra
arch, having local structural highs and lows, upto the Naga thrust, and extending 8 to
10 km beneath the Naga schuppen belt . This element contains most of the oil fields
of the Upper Assam Shelf.
• The Shillong Plateau and Mikir hills Uplift, composed mostly of Precambrian granitic
and metamorphic rocks. The southern slope of the Shillong Plateau exposes
Gondwana, Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks.
2.2 Shelf To Basinal Slope To Basinal Area:-

• The Naga Schuppen Zone, occurring between the Naga and the Disang thrusts. In
this shelf–slope–basinal architecture, the hinge zone, at and across which the Upper
Cretaceous-Eocene shelf facies changes over to basinal facies, is envisaged to lie
below the Naga schuppen belt. The Kharsang, Digboi and Champang oil fields are
located in this element.
• The Assam-Arakan Fold Belt This fold belt may be divided into two zones bounded
by prominent thrusts, viz, (i) the Naga fold zone, lying in between the Disang and
Tapu thrusts and having exposures of Disang shales and Barail sediments, and (ii)
the central flysch zone, lying between the Tapu thrust and Changrang – Zunki thrust
and having exposures of mainly Disang shales.
• The Zunki Schuppen belt, containing mostly older Disang shales (Upper
Cretaceous) & occurring between the Zunki and Moya thrusts.
• The Ophiolite Complex, occurring in between the Moya and the Eastern thrust.
Disang shales, occurring in association with ophiolites, are somewhat
metamorphosed here.
• The Naga Metamorphic Complex, east of the Eastern thrust. The metamorphic
complex occurs mostly to the east of the Indo-Myanmar international border.
3 Stratigraphy: Sedimentary sequences ranging in age from Late Mesozoic to

Cenozoic are exposed in the Assam-Arakan Basin. The sequences can be divided into shelf
facies and basinal (geosynclinal) facies. The shelf facies occur in Garo hills, Khasi-Jaintia
hills, parts of North Cachar hills and Mikir hills, and below the alluvial cover in Upper Assam,
Bengal and Bangladesh. The basinal facies occur in the Patkai range, Naga Hills, parts of
North Cachar hills, Manipur, Surma valley, Tripura, Chittagong hills of Bangladesh and Chin
hills of Myanmar (Burma). The generalized stratigraphic succession is given below.
4 Geological History: The Assam-Arakan basin witnessed two major phases of
tectonic development. It developed as a composite shelf-slope-basinal system under a
passive margin setup during the period from Early Cretaceous to the close of Oligocene.
During the post- Oligocene time, however, different parts of the mega basin witnessed
different evolutionary trends, mostly under compressive tectonic forces.
During Middle to Late Cretaceous, when the Indian plate was moving northward, a number
of horst and graben features developed on the granitic crust in the southern slope of the
Shillong Plateau and Dhansiri valley. In these grabens, a sequence of sandstones, shales
and subordinate limestone towards top, assigned to the Khasi Group, was deposited in the
southern slope of the Shillong Plateau, and a sequence of sandstone and shale, assigned to
the Dergaon Group, was deposited in the Dhansiri valley. Presence of pelagic fauna
indicates that these sediments were deposited in shallow shelf to open marine conditions
during Maestrichtian to Early Paleocene time. During this time, the basinal area to the east
and southeast witnessed deposition of Lower Disang shales, radiolarian cherts and
subordinate limestones in the distal deeper part of a marginal downwarp, i.e., tilted broad
shelf adjacent to ocean basin. The limestones with negligible impurities were, perhaps,
deposited on sea mounds.
The Indo-Burmese trench system that developed during the oblique subduction of the Indian
plate below the Burmese plate became the locus of deposition of Upper Disang shales under
deep marine conditions. The formation of the trench system was, possibly, initiated in the
northeastern part and gradually progressed southward. The closing of the trench system
was also initiated in the northeast and then gradually progressed southward. The Andaman
trench, which has been receiving mostly argillaceous sediments since, possibly, Upper
Cretaceous-Paleocene, is the southward extension of the Indo – Burmese trench system.
During Paleocene, there was a marine transgression on the southern edge of the Shillong
Plateau, depositing sediments of the Therria Formation consisting of limestone, sandstone
and shale. The Lakadang Formation (Early Eocene) comprising limestone and coal bearing
sandstones was deposited in shallow marine to lagoonal conditions, while the overlying Tura
Sandstone Formation (Early Eocene) was deposited under fluvio-deltaic environment. The
Tura Formation is extensively developed in the Upper Assam Shelf and is oil bearing in
Borholla, Champang and Nahorkatiya oil fields.
During Eocene to Oligocene, due to the rise of the peripheral arc system (rise of the
basement ridge) consequent upon the active oblique subduction of the Indian plate, the
intervening sea became progressively narrower southward. During this period, the Assam
Shelf was being evolved in a passive margin tectonic setting and under shallow marine to
brackish water sedimentation conditions.
Following the deposition of the Tura Sandstone, there was a wide spread marine
transgression in which the Sylhet Limestone (Middle Eocene) was deposited almost all over
the Upper Assam Shelf. Towards the close of Middle Eocene, limestone deposition ceased
because of an increase in the influx of finer clastics in the shelf. These clastics, making the
lower part of the Kopili Formation, were deposited in open marine conditions during Late
Eocene, when marine transgression was waning out. Further increase in the clastic influx in
the stable shelf during Late Eocene to Early Oligocene resulted in marine regression with the
deposition of the upper part of the Kopili Formation, consisting of shales, siltstone and
subordinate sandstones, in shallow marine to pro-delta environments. In the North Bank of
the Brahmaputra river, however, environmental conditions were deltaic with the deposition of
sandstones with minor shales and siltstones.
East of the hinge zone, i.e., in the basinal area, Upper Disang shales, which are lateral
facies equivalent of the Sylhet and Kopili formations, were deposited in deep water basinal
conditions. During shallowing of the sea in the basinal area, the succeeding sediments of the
Barail Group were deposited under environments ranging from moderately deep marine to
deltaic.
Following completion of collision and subduction of the oceanic part of the Indian plate
during Late Oligocene (to Early Miocene?) when the continental part of the Indian plate
seems to have come close to Tibetan and Myanmar (Burmese) plates, there was upliftment
and erosion all over the shelf and in a major part of the basinal area. This event was
followed by a pronounced south to southeastward tilt of the basin, mostly the geosynclinal
part, which was, perhaps, caused by subduction related tectonic loading. This foredeep was
the site of deposition of the Surma Group of sediments under shallow marine (lower part) to
brackish water (upper part) environments. Continued indentation by the Indian plate caused
westward propagation of tectonic forces, which in turn caused development of a decollement
thrust at the base of the Upper Disang shales, and a number of synthetic thrust faults. These
lateral tectonic movements were accompanied by upliftment and total withdrawal of the sea,
heralding the onset of continental sedimentation (the Tipam Sandstone Formation) on the
Assam Shelf as well as on the earlier basinal area. Presence of radiolarian chert and
ophiolite fragments in the lower part of the Tipam Sandstone in many of the Dhansiri Valley
and Upper Assam wells suggest that a certain fraction of the sediments making the lower
part of the Tipam Formation came from the rising Barail Range towards east (Barail
sediments in the Barail Range are reported to contain volcanogenic particles) or from the
Ophiolite belt.
Towards the end of the Tipam Sandstone deposition, there developed a series of N-S to NE-
SW trending compressive structures in the basinal area. During the growth of these
structures, the Girujan Clay Formation was deposited in the synclinal lows (structural basins)
in Cachar area as indicated by seismic and well data from the Katakhal syncline of Cachar
area where the Girujan Clay Formation is named as the Govindpur Formation. The Girujan
Formation in the eastern & northeastern parts of the shelf also was deposited in structural
lows. The most prominent structural depression was formed in Kumchai – Manabhum area
in front of the Mishmi uplift, where the Girujan Clay Formation attains a thickness of about
2300m.
The development of the frontal foredeep in front of the rising Himalaya, during Mio-Pliocene
and later times, due to tectonic loading by thrust slices was filled with coarser sediments.
During this time, sedimentation in the Surma basin (including Sylhet trough) and the Kohima
synclinorium took place in intermontane basins, depositing the arenaceous Lower Dupitila
sediments over a post–Girujan unconformity and the argillaceous Upper Dupitilas over a
post-Lower Dupitila unconformity. During Pleistocene time, there was the last major folding
movement and further upliftment of the Barail Range, the Central Disang uplift, the Mishmi
Hills and the Himalaya. The Dihing boulder conglomerates, shed by the rising mountains
were deposited at the feet/toes of the rising mountains. The Dhekiajuli Formation, consisting
of mostly soft sandstones, was deposited at the mountain fronts in the Upper Assam Shelf
and in areas now overridden by younger Naga thrust.
5 Petroleum System: All the oil and gas fields, discovered till date in the Upper Assam
shelf, are situated mostly on the southeastern slope of the Brahmaputra arch, and almost all
the major oil fields like Nahorkatiya, Lakwa, Lakhmani, Geleki, Dikom Kathaloni etc. lie in a
belt bordering the Naga thrust. In the Dhansiri valley also, oil fields like the Borholla and
Khoraghat and Nambar lie in the same belt. In the Naga Schuppen belt, oil accumulations in
the Lakshmijan and the Champang oil fields occur in that zone of the shelf which is
overridden by the Naga thrust. In the Digboi and Kharsang oil fields, oil occurs in Tipam
Sandstone and Girujan Clay formations, respectively, overlying the Naga thrust.
5.1 Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation:- The important source rock
sequences occur within the argillaceous Kopili Formation and in the Coal-Shale Unit of the
Barail Group. The average TOC of shales within the Sylhet Formation is about 0.60%, in the
Kopili Formation, about 2.5% and in the Barail Coal-Shale Unit, about 3.8%. The average
TOC ranges of different formations (shale samples) are as follows.
Formation Average TOC Range Remarks
Barail (shales) 2.5% to 4.5% Excellent source potential
Kopili (shales) 1% to 3% Excellent source potential
Sylhet Limestone ~ 0.61% Poor source potential
Basal Sandstone ~ 0.62% Poor source potential
Organic matter richness of shales increases towards the Naga thrust. In both Kopilis and
Barails, the organic matter is terrestrial type-III with varying contributions of Type-II.
Barail Coal-Shale Unit in the Schuppen belt also form important source rock sequence. In
the Naga fold belt, in addition to above, Disang shales also possess excellent source rock
characteristics with TOC around 4% and VRo varying from 0.69% to 1.94%.
Geochemical analysis of exposed sediments from the Schuppen belt show a TOC range of
0.64-1.20% for Barail shales. The dominant organic matter type is structured terrestrial.
Presence of amorphous (upto 60%) and extractable organic matter (upto 55%) indicates a
fairly good liquid hydrocarbon generating potential. Organic matter is mainly humic and
sapropelic. TAI of 2.6 to 2.75 and VRo of 0.57 to 0.67% show that the sediments are
thermally mature and within oil window. In the subthrust, the source sequences occur at
greater depths and, therefore, should be in a higher state of thermal maturity. It is expected
that the source sequences within the Kopili and Barail formations in the subthrust would be
at the peak oil generating state.
5.2 Reservoir Facies:- Barring the Borholla and Champang oil fields of the Dhansiri
valley and the adjacent schuppen zone respectively, where oil occurs in fractured granitic
basement rock (Precambrian) and Tura sandstones (Upper Paleocene/ Lower Eocene), oil
in the Upper Assam Shelf and schuppen belt occurs in sandstone reservoirs ranging in age
from Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene to Mio-Pliocene. However, the major accumulations
occur in Upper Paleocene + Lower Eocene, Oligocene (Barail Formation) and Miocene
(Tipam Sandstone) sandstones. The major oil fields, where oil occurs in Upper Paleocene
and Lower Eocene sandstone reservoirs are Tengakhat, Dikom, Kothaloni, Baghjan and in
Oligocene sandstone reservoirs (Barail Formation), are Nahorkatiya, Hapjan, Shalmari,
Geleki, Lakwa, and Rudrasagar etc. Oil reserves in Kopili sandstones (Upper Eocene) are
found mainly in the Geleki field. Most of the oil in the Tipam Sandstone is found in the
Lakwa-Lakhmani and Geleki fields. In the Kumchai and Kharsang fields of Arunachal
Pradesh, oil occurs in the Girujan Formation of Mio-Pliocene age. Recently gas has been
discovered in the sandstone reservoir of Dirok structure within Girujan Formation. The
Girujan Clay being floodplain deposits, the reservoir sands are generally lenticular and
somewhat erratic in distribution. In the Khoraghat oil field of Dhansiri valley, oil occurs in
sandstone reservoirs within the Bokabil Formation (Middle Miocene). In the North Cachar
area of Assam, potential reservoir rocks are expected to be fractured granitic basement rock
(Precambrian)and sandstones in the Tura (Paleocene), Kopili (Upper Eocene), Renji
(Oligocene), Bhuban and Bokabil (Middle Miocene) formations.
5.3 Cap Rock and Entrapment:- There are three well developed regional cap rocks
within the Tertiary sedimentary succession, the lower one, occurring in the Upper Eocene is
the argillaceous Kopili Formation, the middle one is the Barail Coal-Shale Unit and the upper
one, overlying the Tipam Sandstone is the Girujan Clay. Most of the oil accumulations,
discovered till date in the Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene, Oligocene (Barail) and Miocene
(Tipam Sandstone) reservoirs, occur in structural combination (fold + fault) traps developed
by compressive forces during Mio- Pliocene and later times. Most of these hydrocarbon
traps, particularly those developed in post- Barail sediments, orient parallel to the Naga
thrust. Faults associated with these traps in the southeasterly sloping shelf zone in the
Brahmaputra and Dhansiri valleys have NE-SW to NNE-SSW orientation. Most of the
prominent faults continue upward into post-Tipam sediments, and the rest die out in the
lower part of the Tipam Formation. Some of the prominent faults, particularly those near the
Naga thrust, are reverse faults, e.g., one at the northeastern flank of the Geleki structure,
another at the northern flank of the Rudrasagar structure. It may be mentioned that oil,
generated in the Kopili and Barail source beds, accumulated in post-Barail sediments by
vertical migration through such prominent faults. Oil within the Kopili Formation (composed
predominantly of shales with subordinate sandstone) occurs in strati-structural combination
traps, as in the Geleki field. Oil within the Girujan Clay Formation as in the Kumchai and
Kharsang fields also occurs in combination traps, but here the control of lithology on
accumulation is more than that of structure. In the Borholla field of the Dhansiri valley and
Champang field of the neighbouring schuppen belt, oil reserves occur in structurally
controlled subtle trap in fractured basement rocks. Oil accumulations within the Bokabil
Formation (Middle Miocene) in the Khoraghat and Nambar fields of the Dhansiri valley, occur
in structural combination traps.
5.3.1 A Comprehensive Petroleum System events of Assam basin-
5.4 Hydrocarbon Potential:- The Brahmaputra Valley part of the Upper Assam Shelf
south of latitude 27° 30', where active exploration for hydrocarbons has been continuing for
about half a century, seems to have reached the middle stage of exploration maturity. But,
the Dhansiri Valley shelf, areas north of Lat. 27° 30' and the Naga Schuppen belt are still in
the early stage of exploration maturity. In the North Cachar area, exploration by deep drilling
is yet to be initiated. Whatsoever, in view of what has been narrated on Upper Assam and
Nagaland oil fields, and source, reservoir and cap rocks, and entrapment mechanism, the
Brahmaputra valley still holds a large quantity of ‘yet-to-find’ oil, and Tinsukia-Sadiya area
which partly falls in the Mishmi Depression; the Dhansiri valley and the Schuppen belt
possess high hydrocarbon potential worth pursuing intensive exploration. The
prognosticated resource base of the Upper Assam shelf and the Naga schuppen belt is
roughly 3180 MMt, of which about 27% has been converted into inplace geological reserves.
It is envisaged that the undiscovered oil would continue to be found in structural, strati-
structural and subtle traps in areas mostly bordering the Naga thrust and in the Naga
Schuppen belt.
6 Petroleum Plays
Sl.
Plays Formation Major Field
No.
Mio-
1 Girujan Kharsang, Kumchai, Dirok
Pliocene
2 Miocene Tipam Hapjan, Digboi, Geleki, Charali
Naharkatiya, Lakwa-Lakhmani, Rudrasagar,
3 Oligocene Barail Demulgaon, Sonari, Amguri, Hapjan,
Shalmari, Kusijan, Laiplinggaon, Geleki
Mid-Upper
4 Kopili Geleki
Eocene
Lower Dikom, Kathaloni, Baghjan, Panidihing,
5 Lakadong+Therria
Eocene Tamulikhat, Tengakhat
Fractured Granatic
6 Archean Borhola, Champang
Basement
CAMBAY BASIN
1 Basin Introduction: The Cambay rift Basin, a rich Petroleum Province of India, is a
narrow, elongated rift graben, extending from Surat in the south to Sanchor in the north. In
the north, the basin narrows, but tectonically continues beyond Sanchor to pass into the
Barmer Basin of Rajasthan. On the southern side, the basin merges with the Bombay
Offshore Basin in the Arabian Sea. The basin is roughly limited by latitudes 21˚ 00' and 25˚
00' N and longitudes 71˚ 30' and 73˚ 30' E.
1.1 Category of the basin:- Proved
1.2 Area:- The total area of the basin is about 53,500 sq. km.
1.3 Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness:- The evolution of the Cambay basin
began following the extensive outpour of Deccan Basalts (Deccan Trap) during late
cretaceous covering large tracts of western and central India. It’s a narrow half graben
trending roughly NNW-SSE filled with Tertiary sediments with rifting due to extensional
tectonics. Seismic and drilled well data indicate a thickness of about 8 km of Tertiary
sediments resting over the Deccan volcanics.
1.4 Major Discoveries, Total Seismic coverage, 2D/3D and exploratory wells
drilled:- A total of 12,937 gravity and magnetic stations were measured by the ONGC in the
entire Cambay Basin. The Bouguer anomaly map has helped in identification of the major
structural highs and lows in the basin. The magnetic anomaly map also depicts the broad
structural configuration of the basin. A total of more than 30,688 LKM of conventional data
has been acquired.
The total volume of seismic reflection data acquired from the Cambay Basin is of the order of
104113 LKM (2D) and 7895 sq. km (3D). In 1958, ONGC drilled its first exploratory well on
Lunej structure near Cambay. This turned out to be a discovery well, which produced oil and
gas. The discovery of oil in Ankleshwar structure in 1960 gave boost to the exploration in the
Cambay Basin. More than 2318 exploratory wells have been drilled in Cambay Basin. Out of
244 prospects drilled, 97 are oil and gas bearing.
1.5 Exploration Status:-
PEL AREAS ‘P’ ML AREA ‘M’ TOTAL AREAS ‘T’ UNEXPLORED AREAS ‘U’ = T – ( P+M )
2 2 2 2
15,838.04 km 5,083.62 km 53,500 km 32578.34 km
1.6 Fields of Cambay Basin:-
Field Area(Sq Km) Field Area(Sq Km)
Lohar-ONGC 8.29 Gandhar Ext. - II (Denwa) 54.30

Cambay-ONGC 161 Gandhar 11.78
Umra Ext. - II 34.43 Gandhar Ext. - I 32.75

Kosamba Ext. - I 39 Gandhar Ext. - IV 36.75
Kim Ext. - I 56.11 Nada 9.85
Pakhajan Ext. - II 38.50 Malpur (Ml) 1
Olpad - Dandi Ext. - I 94.40 Umera Ext. - I 9.93
Gandhar Ext. - IX 40.91 Umera 8.44
Kural (Ml) 83.49 Dabka Ext. - III 1.15
Gandhar Ext. - VIII 7.23 Dabka 21.67
Gandhar Ext. - VII (G#155) 25.82 Dabka Ext. - II 0.56
Dabka Ext. - V (D#38) 2 Dabka Ext. - I 12.85
Nada Ext. - I 6.12 Kathana Ext. - I 16.99
Gandhar Ext. - VI (G#388) 644.47 Anklav Ext. - I 61
Kim (Ml) 18.33 Akholjuni 81.25
Dabka Ext. - IV (D#6) 1 Padra Ext. - IX 21
Olpad (A) 2.75 Padra Ext. - VIII 15.68
Kosamba 19.07 Padra Ext. - VII 7.11
Kharach 0.70 Padra Ext. - VI 83.95
Elav 10.37 Padra Ext. - V 3.58
Kudara 2.60 Padra Ext. - IV 6.37
Sanaokhurd 23.29 Padra Ext. - III 0.38
Motwana 42.21 Padra 1.25
Ankleshwar (Main) 38.98 Padra Ext. - I 8.42
Ankleshwar Ext. - I 17.43 Padra Ext. - II 14.50
Kasiyabet 5.06 Kathana 16.95
Pakhajan Ext. - I 18 Siswa 37.78
Pakhajan (Ml) 6.25 Nawagam South Ext. - III 53.71
Dahej 18.52 Kadi Ext. - IV 5.28
Dahej Ext. - I 90.90 Rupal 14.06
Gandhar Ext. - V 29.43 Nawagam South Ext. - II 43.94
Gandhar Ext. - III 235.38 Nawagam South Ext. - I 30.88
Kalol West Ml 14.53 Kalol Ext. -II 15.50

Kalol West Ext. - I 54.25 Kalol Ext. -I 159.82
Nawagam Ext. - III 56 Kalol Main 35.84
South Wamaj ML 18.29 Halisa 143.44
Gamij Ext. - II 116.22 Limbodra Ext. -I 14.96
Nadej Ext. - I 56.18 Limbodra 15.75
Gamij Ext. - III Ml 15.41 Paliyad-Kalol-Limbodra 161.48
Ahemdabad Ext. - V 17.75 Kalol North East 9.44
Nawagam Ext. - II 14.66 Wadu 15.41
Kadi Ext. - III 16.07 Rajpur 6.76
Asmali Ml 43.26 Jotana - Warosan 38.05
Raipur Ext. - I 8.70 Kadi Asjol 0.72
Ahemdabad Ext. - IV 10.21 Chandrora 1.39
Wadu Ext. - I 55.17 Langhnaj ML 17.90
Mawagam Ext. I 2077.77 Sanganpur ML 6.97
Nawagam Main 72.23 Langnaj - Wadasma 13.84
Nadej 90.18 West Mewad (ML) 13.02
Nadej East 20.92 North Sobhasan Ext. -II 23
Ahmedabad Ext. -III 34.75 East Sobhasan 22.42
Ahmedabad Ext. -II 5.98 N. Sobhasan Pt. A+B 12.05
Ahmedabad Ext. -I 17.29 South Patan 6.99
Ahmedabad - Bakrol 30.16 Joksana (ML) 9.80
Hirapur 87.92 Jotana Ext. -II 0.87
Gamij Ext. -I 81.22 Lanwa Ext. -I 2.15
Gamij 39.16 Dedana (ML) 5.44
Sanand Ext. -III 19.30 Chansama 2.81
Sanand Ext. -II 10.37 Nandasan - Langnaj 61.90
Sanand Ext. -I 18.51 Mansa 58.72
Sanand 81.36 Nandasan Ext. -I 26.39
Viraj 17.49 Linch 43.73
Wamaj 19.44 Linch Ext. -I 34.25
Motera Ext. -I 23.64 North Kadi 64.49
Motera 15.86 N. Kadi Ext. -I 20.42
Motera Ext. -II 26.02 Kadi Ext. -II 41.01

Bechraji Ext. -I 3.06 Lakshmi (CB-OS/2) 121.06
Bechraji 37.11 Modhera 12.70
Santhal 19.46 Ognaj 13.65
Jotana 39.50 Karjisan 5
North Sobhasan Ext. -I 56.85 N.Balol 27.30
Linch Ext.- II 13.35 Baola 4
Geratpur 18.31 Lohar 5
Sobhasan 35.89 Bakrol 36
Mehsana City Ext. -II 7.58 Indrora 130
Mehsana City 8.85 Wavel 9
West Sobhasan 9.60 Dholka 48
Jotana Extn. - I 57.70 Sabarmati 6
Balol 24 Matar 0
Lanwa 30 Cambay 161
CB-OS/2 201.76 Bhandut 6
Cb-On/3 7.81 Hazira 50
Cb-Onn-2000/2_Nsa/Bheema 24.25 Asjol 15
CB-ONN-2000/1 14.10 Sanganpur 4
Palej-Pramoda (CB-ON/7) 3.54 Unawa 6
Bheema (CB-ONN-2002/2) 4.03 Kanawara 6.30
NS-A (CB-ONN-2002/2) 20.22 Allora 6.85
CB-X 33.30 North Kathana 12.20
Gauri (CB-OS/2) 80.70 Dholasan 8.80
2 Tectonic History:
2.1 Type of Basin:- Intracratonic rift graben.
2.2 Different Tectonic Zones within the Basin:- The Cambay rift valley is bounded by
well demarcated basin margin step faults. Based on the cross trends the basin has been
divided into five tectonic blocks. From north to south, the blocks are:
• Sanchor – Tharad
• Mehsana – Ahmedabad
• Cambay – Tarapur
• Jambusar – Broach and
• Narmada Block.
3 Basin Evolution: The Early Tertiary sediments ranging in age from Paleocene to
Early Eocene represent syn-rift stage of deposition that was controlled by faults and
basement highs in an expanding rift system. These sediments are characterised by an
assortment of ill sorted, high energy trap derived materials. Subsidence of the basin resulted
in the accumulation of a thick sequence of euxinic black shales with subordinate coarser
clastics. The Middle Eocene witnessed a regressive phase with oscillating conditions of
deposition and development of deltaic sequences in the entire basin. There was a regional
southward tilt of the entire rift basin during Late Eocene and it is marked by a regional
marine transgression extending far to the north upto Sanchor basin. Oligocene – Lower
Miocene marks another phase of tectonic activity with extensive deposition of coarser clastic
sediments in the central and southern blocks.
4 Generalized Statrigraphy: The formation of the Cambay Basin began following the
extensive outpour of Deccan basalts (Deccan Trap) during late Cretaceous covering large
tracts of western and central India. The NW-SE Dharwarian tectonic trends got rejuvenated
creating a narrow rift graben extending from the Arabian sea south of Hazira to beyond
Tharad in the north. Gradually, the rift valley expanded with time.
During Paleocene, the basin continued to remain as a shallow depression, receiving

deposition of fanglomerate, trap conglomerate, trapwacke and claystone facies, especially,
at the basin margin under a fluvio–swampy regime. The end of deposition of the Olpad
Formation is marked by a prominent unconformity. At places a gradational contact with the
overlying Cambay Shale has also been noticed.
During Early Eocene, a conspicuous and widespread transgression resulted in the

deposition of a thick, dark grey, fissile pyritiferous shale sequence, known as the Cambay
Shale. This shale sequence has been divided into Older and Younger Cambay Shale with an
unconformity in between. In the following period, relative subsidence of the basin continued
leading to the accumulation of the Younger Cambay Shale. The end of Cambay Shale
deposition is again marked by the development of a widespread unconformity that is present
throughout the basin.
Subsequently, there was a strong tectonic activity that resulted in the development of the
Mehsana Horst and other structural highs associated with basement faults.
Middle Eocene is marked by a regressive phase in the basin and this led to the
development of the Kalol/ Vaso delta system in the north and the Hazad delta system in the
south. Hazad and Kalol/ Vaso deltaic sands are holding large accumulations of oil.
Major transgression during Late Eocene-Early Oligocene was responsible for the
deposition of the Tarapur Shale over large area in the North Cambay Basin. The end of this
sequence is marked by a regressive phase leading to deposition of claystone, sandstone,
and shale alternations and a limestone unit of the Dadhar Formation.
The end of the Paleogene witnessed a major tectonic activity in the basin resulting in the
development of a widespread unconformity.
During Miocene The depocenters continued to subside resulting in the deposition of

enormous thickness of Miocene sediments as the Babaguru, Kand and Jhagadia formations.
Pliocene was a period of both low and high strands of the sea level, allowing the deposition
of sand and shale.
During Pleistocene to Recent, the sedimentation was mainly of fluvial type represented by
characteristic deposits of coarse sands, gravel, clays and kankar followed by finer sands and
clays, comprising Gujarat Alluvium.
Throughout the geological history, except during early syn– rift stage , the North Cambay
Basin received major clastic inputs from north and northeast, fed by the Proto–Sabarmati
and Proto–Mahi rivers. Similarly, the Proto–Narmada river system was active in the south,
supplying sediments from provenance, lying to the east.
5 Petroleum System:
5.1 Source Rock:- Thick Cambay Shale has been the main hydrocarbon source rock in
the Cambay Basin. In the northern part of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana Block, coal, which is
well developed within the deltaic sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and Mehsana fields, is also
inferred to be an important hydrocarbon source rock. The total organic carbon and
maturation studies suggest that shales of the Ankleshwar/Kalol formations also are
organically rich, thermally mature and have generated oil and gas in commercial quantities.
The same is true for the Tarapur Shale. Shales within the Miocene section in the Broach
depression might have also acted as source rocks.
5.2 Reservoir Rock:- There are a number of the reservoirs within the trapwacke
sequence of the Olpad Formation. These consist of sand size basalt fragments. Besides
this, localized sandstone reservoirs within the Cambay Shale as in the Unawa, Linch,
Mandhali, Mehsana, Sobhasan, fields, etc are also present.
5.3 Trap Rock:- The most significant factor that controlled the accumulation of
hydrocarbons in the Olpad Formation is the favorable lithological change with structural
support and short distance migration. The lithological heterogeneity gave rise to permeability
barriers, which facilitated entrapment of hydrocarbons. The associated unconformity also
helped in the development of secondary porosity.
Transgressive shales within deltaic sequences provided a good cap rock. (Fig 6:
Generalized Tectono Stratigraphy Map Showing Source rock, Reservoir Rock, and Oil and
Gas Occurrences.)
5.4 Timing of migration & Trap formation:- The peak of oil generation and migration is
understood to have taken place during Early to Middle Miocene.
6 Petroleum Plays: Structural Highs and fault closures & Stratigraphic traps
(pinchouts / wedgeouts, lenticular sands, oolitic sands, weathered trap) in Paleocene to
Miocene sequences have been proved as important plays of Cambay Basin.
6.1 Paleocene-Early Eocene Play:-

• Formations: Olpad Formation/ Lower Cambay Shale.
• Reservoir Rocks: Sand size basalt fragments & localized sandstone.
Unconformities within the Cambay Shale and between the Olpad Formation and the
Cambay Shale have played a positive role in the generation of secondary porosities.
The Olpad Formation is characterised by the development of piedmont deposits
against fault scarps and fan delta complexes.
6.2 Middle Eocene Play:-

• Formations: Upper Tharad Formation
• Reservoir Rocks: In Southern part, Hazad delta sands of Mid to Late Eocene & in
the Northern part the deltaic sequence is made up of alternations of sandstone and
shale associated with coal. Plays are also developed in many paleo-delta sequences
of Middle Eocene both in northern and southern Cambay In the Northern Cambay
Basin, two delta systems have been recognised.
6.3 Late Eocene-Oligocene Play:-

• Formations: Trapur Shale, Dadhar Formation.
• Reservoir Rocks : This sequence is observed to possess good reservoir facies in
the entire Gulf of Cambay. North of the Mahi river, a thick deltaic sequence,
developed during Oligo–Miocene, has prograded upto south Tapti area.
6.4 Miocene Play:-

• Formations: Deodar Fm (Lr. Miocene), Dhima Fm (Mid Miocene), Antrol Fm (Upp.
Miocene). The Mahi River delta sequence extends further westward to Cambay area
where Miocene rocks are hydrocarbon bearing.
CAUVERY BASIN
1 Basin Introduction: The Cauvery Basin extending Extends along the East Coast of
India, bounded by - 08º - 12º 5’ North Latitude , 78º - 800 East Longitude has been under
hydrocarbon exploration since late nineteen fifties. Application of CDP seismic in 1984
considerably increased the pace of exploration resulting in the discovery of several small oil
and gas fields. The first deep well for exploration was drilled in 1964.
The Cauvery Basin covers an area of 1.5 lakh sq.km comprising onland (25,000 sq.km) and
shallow offshore areas (30,000 sq.km). In addition, there is about 95,000 sq.km of deep-
water offshore areas in the Cauvery Basin. Most of the offshore and onland basinal area is
covered by gravity, magnetic and CDP Seismic surveys. Geological map for the outcrop
terrain shows the exposed formations.
Figure showing Geological Map of Cauvery Basin
1.1 Category and Basin Type:- Cauvery basin is a pericratonic rift basin and comes
under category first. (Basins with established to commercial production.)
1.2 Basin Age & Sediment Thickness:- Result of Gondwanaland fragmentation during
drifting of India-Srilanka landmass system away from Antarctica/ Australia plate in Late
Jurassic/ Early Cretaceous.
• The basin is endowed with five to six kilometers of sediments ranging in age from
Late Jurassic to Recent (mainly thick shale, sandstone & minor limestone).
• Prognosticated resources : 700 MMT (430 MMT: onland areas and 270 MMT:
offshore)
2 Geology : The Geological history of the Cauvery Basin began with the rejuvenation
of rifting, i.e., creation of a new rift basin during Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous times.
Figure showing Tectonic Evolution Profile of Cauvery Basin
• Exploration efforts still young in Cauvery Offshore-confined mainly to land and close
to coast.
• Cretaceous fan model (New discovery in CY-OS-2) promising for future exploration.
• Discovery by RIL (Dhirubhai-35) has opened a new corridor for exploration in
Cauvery deep water
• Big size subtle features seen on GXT-DGH long offset lines at deeper levels.
2.1 Sedimentation History and Despositional Environment:- Evolution of the Cauvery

Basin is understood to have taken place through three distinct stages-
2.1.1 Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Rift Stage-:
• Initiation of rifting have begun during the Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous.
• Rift stage sediments (Shivganga and Therani formations) of Upper Gondwana affinity
are known from exposures.
• These were deposited in fluvial environments.
• The Kallakudi Limestone , younger to the Shivganga Formation, may represent an
episode of basinal deepening and paucity of clastic supply.
• In the subsurface, the Andimadam Formation, overlain by the Sattapadi Shale,
appears to mark the peak of this transgressive episode during Cenomanian.
2.1.2 Late Cretaceous-:

• Initiation of rifting have begun during the Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous.
• Rift stage sediments (Shivganga and Therani formations) of Upper Gondwana affinity
are known from exposures.
• These were deposited in fluvial environments.
• In the subsurface, the Andimadam Formation, overlain by the Sattapadi Shale,
appears to mark the peak of this transgressive episode during Cenomanian.
2.1.3 Post Cretaceous-:

• Towards the end of the Cretaceous, the basin experienced a phase of upliftment and
erosion and a gradual basinward tilt of the shelf.
• The Tertiary sequence was deposited in a general prograding environment with
gradual subsidence of the shelf.
• This sequence can be subdivided into two groups, the Nagore and Narimanam. The
Nagore Group is well developed in the south, whereas the Narimanam Group attains
its full development north of Karaikal High.
• By this time, Tertiary deltaic environment appears to have considerably progressed
eastwards.
3. Tectonic History: The Cauvery Basin is an intra-cratonic rift basin, divided into a
number of sub-parallel horsts and grabens, trending in a general NE-SW direction. The basin
came into being as a result of fragmentation of the Gondwana land during drifting of India-
Sri Lanka landmass system away from Antarctica / Australia continental plate in Late
Jurassic / Early Cretaceous. The initial rifting caused the formation of NE-SW horst-graben
features. Subsequent drifting and rotation caused the development of NW-SE cross faults.
The Cauvery Basin contains the following major tectonic elements

• Ariyalur-Pondicherry Depression
• Kumbhkonam-Madnam-Portonovo High
• Tranquebar Depression
• Karaikal High
• Nagapattinam Depression
• Vedarniyam High
• Thanjavur Depression
• Pattukuttai-Manargudi Ridge
• Mandapam Ridge
• Mannar Depression
• Vedarniyam – Tiruchirapally Fault
4 Generalized Stratigraphy: The stratigraphy is worked out from outcrop geology and
sub-surface information gathered from seismic and drilling data.
Precambrian:- Precambrian cratonic rocks comprising granites and gneisses are exposed
all along the western margin of the basin.
Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous:- Overlying the Cratonic basement along the margin of the
basin are exposures of sedimentary rocks of Gondwanic affinity identified as the Shivganga
Beds and Therani Formation. The Therani Formation contains index Gondwana plant fossils
(Ptilophyllum acutifolium). These rocks are feldspathic, gritty and kaolinitic.
Early Cretaceous:- The rocks of the Uttatur Group is made up of Kalakundi, Karai Shale
and Maruvathur Clay formations in the outcrops and the Andimadam, Sattapadi and
Bhuvanagiri formations in the sub-surface. These formations overlie the older Gondwana
rocks and basement granites and gneisses.
Andimadam Fm:- In the subsurface, the formation is developed in grabens, namely, the
Ramnad, Tanjore, Tranquebar and Ariyalur Pondicherry grabens. The lower boundary of the
formation is marked by Archaean Basement rocks, while the upper boundary is defined by
an argillaceous section. It comprises pale grey, fine to coarse grained, micaceous sandstone
and micaceous silty shale.
Sattapadi Shale:- This formation is widely distributed in the basin.It is absent in the
southeastern part of the basin. The Andimadam Formation marks its lower boundary and an
arenaceous facies of the Bhuvanagiri Formation marks its upper contact. It comprises mainly
silty shale and thin calcareous sandstone. The environment of deposition is inferred to be
marine. The age assigned is Albian-Cenomanian. This is one of the important source
sequences for HC generation.
Bhuvanagiri Fm:- The formation is developed mostly in the northern and central parts of the
basin. The formation is predominantly sandstone with minor claystone and shale. A
Cenomanian-Turonian age can be assigned to this formation. It is inferred to have been
deposited in middle shelf to upper bathyal environment.
Palk Bay Fm:- The occurrence of this formation is restricted to the Palk Bay. The lithology is
dominantly calcareous sandstone with a few bands of sandy claystone. The depositional
environment is inferred to be shallow marine in a fan delta setting.
Late Cretaceous:- The sediments in the outcrops are classified under two groups, namely,
the Trichinopoly and Ariyalur groups. The Trichinopoly and Ariyalur groups in outcrops
consist of Sandstones and Limestone formations.
Kudavasal Shale Fm:- It is present all along the eastern part of the basin. The formation
consists of shale/calcareous silty shale with occasional calcareous sandstone bands.
Nannilam Fm:- It is conformably overlain and underlain by the Porto-Novo and Kudavasal
formations respectively. The formation consists of alternations of shale, calcareous silty
shales and occasional calcareous sandstones. The formation age ranges from Santonian to
Campanion.
Porto-Novo Shale:- Predominantly developed in the northern part of the Ariyalur-

Pondicherry Sub-basin, west of Karaikal Ridge and Palk Bay Sub-basin. It is predominantly
argillaceous with minor siltstone. The age of the formation is Campanion to Maastrichtian.
Komarakshi Shale:- The formation has developed towards the eastern part of the basin. It
unconformably overlies the Bhuvanagiri/ Palk Bay Formation and underlies the
Karaikal/Kamalapuram formations. The formation consists mainly of calcareous silty shale.
The age of the formation is Coniacian to Maastrichtian.
Tertiary:- A complete sequence of Tertiary sediments is encountered in the sub-surface.

The exposed rocks are represented by the Niniyur Formation of Paleocene age and the
Cuddalore Sandstone of Mio-Pliocene age. The sub-surface section of Tertiary rocks is
considerably thick and has been classified into two groups, the lower part is named as the
Nagaur Group and the upper part, as the Narimanam Group.
Nagore Group:- The formations of this group overlie the Ariyalur Group. The base and top
of the group is marked by pronounced unconformities. The four formations recognized in this
group are described below.
Kamalapuram Fm:- The Porto-Novo---Komarakshi Shale unconformably underlies the

formation, whereas the overlying Karaikal Shale has conformable contact. It consists of
alternations of shaly sandstones and shales.
Karaikal Shale:- The formation conformably overlies the Kamalapuram Formation. The
formation comprises shales, which are occasionally calcareous/pyritic. The age of the
formation ranges from Paleocene to Eocene.
Pandanallur Fm:- It has a restricted areal extension. It consists of claystone sandstone,
deposited in middle shelf environment. Age of the formation is Lower Eocene.
Tiruppundi Fm:- The formation is present in Pondicherry offshore, Nagapattinam Sub-

basin, and south of Palk Bay Sub-basin. The formation comprises limestone, siltstone and
sandstone. It is of Middle Eocene to Early Miocene age.
Narimanam Group:- The youngest sedimentary sequence comprising sandstone,

clay/claystone and limestone which are well recognized with distinct character is designated
as a Group. This group comprises eight formations.
Niravi Fm:- The formation unconformably overlies the Tiruppundi Formation/Karaikal Shale.
The formation consists of grey coloured, fine to medium grained, calcareous sandstone with
occasional pyrite and garnet.
Kovilkalappal Fm:- It occurs in Tanjore and Nagapattinam Sub-basins and overlies the
Niravi Formation, and underlies the Shiyali Claystone. It is argillaceous in nature with a
dominant presence of limestone.
Shiyali Claystone Fm:- It is observed to occur in Madanam and Karaikal area. The age of
the formation ranges from Oligocene to Lower Miocene.
Vanjiyur Sandstone Fm:- The formation has limited areal extent. It is predominantly
arenaceous in character and comprises dark grey, calcareous sandstone and siltstone.
Tirutaraipundi Sandstone Fm:- The formation is present in the southern part of the
Nagapattinam Sub-basin towards Palk Bay. It comprises mainly sandstones with minor
limestone.
Madanam Limestone Fm:- The formation is unconformably underlain by the Tirutaraipundi

Sandstone and Vanjiyur Sandstone. It comprises mainly limestone with minor silty clays.
Vedaranniyam Limestone Fm:- The formation occurs only in the southeastern part of the
basin. It consists of predominantly coral limestone and minor grainstone.
Tittacheri Fm:- The formation is present in a large part of the basin. It grades into the
Cuddalore Sandstone Formation near the outcrops. This consists of unconsolidated gravely
sandstone and earthy clays.The age of the formation is Lower Miocene to Pliocene.
5 Petroleum System:
5.1 Prognosticated Resources/Proved Reserve:-

• The Cauvery Basin is an established hydrocarbon province with a resource base of
700 MMT.
• 430 MMT for onland areas and 270 MMT in the offshore.
5.2 Proven / Expected Play Types:-

• Structural and combination traps in Early Cretaceous to Paleocene sequences.
• Stratigraphic traps such as pinch-outs / wedge-outs and lenticular sand bodies in
Early to Late Cretaceous sequences.
Sattapadi shale within Cretaceous– main source Kudavasal Shale within

Source
Cretaceous Basal part of Kamalapuram Fm (Paleocene).
Reservoir Andimadam, Bhuvanagiri & Nannilam Formations within Cretaceous
Kamlapuram and Niravi Formations within Paleocene Precambrian
Fractured Basement.
Sattapadi shale within Cretaceous Post unconformity shales like Kudavasal
Cap Rock
and Kamlapuram.
Entrapment Structural/ Stratigraphic, Combination traps.
Figure showing Petroleum System and Generalised Stratigraphy

KRISHNA-GODAVARI BASIN
1 Basin Introduction: Extensive deltaic plain formed by two large east coast rivers,
Krishna and Godavari in the state of Andhra Pradesh and the adjoining areas of Bay of
Bengal in which these rivers discharge their water is known as Krishna Godavari Basin. The
Krishna Godavari Basin is a proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the
east coast of India .Its onland part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part
covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up to 1000 m isobath. The basin contains about 5 km thick
sediments with several cycles of deposition, ranging in age from Late Carboniferous to
Pleistocene.
The major geomorphologic units of the Krishna Godavari basin are Upland plains, Coastal
plains, Recent Flood and Delta Plains.
The climate is hot and humid with temperature reaching up to 42 degree symbol is to be
inserted C during summer. The mean day temperature varies between 35 C and 40 C during
summer and 250C and 300C during winter.
Krishna-Godavari Basin
1.1 Geological/ Geophysical Surveys:- ONGC has carried out detailed geological
mapping in the area covering 4220 sq. km since 1959. Gravity-Magnetic surveys, in onland
part have been carried out by ONGC over an area of 19,200 sq. km. In offshore area, M/s.
Prakla Seismos and GSI acquired the gravity-magnetic data for ONGC. Below shown is the
Geological Map of Krishna-Godavari Basin.
1.2 Seismic Coverage:- Conventional single fold surveys were initiated in 1965 and
upto 1973 about 2,690 line km of data was acquired. CDP surveys commenced in 1973 and
so far about 34,642 Line Km. data with foldage varying from 6 to 48 have been acquired.
ONGC has also carried out 2,325 Sq. Km. 3D seismic in onland area.
In offshore area, the first surveys of regional nature were carried out during 1964-65. These
surveys were followed by multifold 2D / 3D seismic surveys, in shallow to deep waters and
transition zone. As on 1st April 2005,(Figures of year 07-08 are to be taken instead of 2005 )
more than 74,753 Line Km. 2D and 26,508 Sq. Km. 3D seismic surveys have been carried
out.
Additionally, during 1972-74, 2,028 km. Refraction data was acquired to study the basement
configuration and also shallow reflectors.
More than 225 prospects have been probed by drilling of more than 557 exploratory wells.
Hydrocarbon accumulations have been proven in 75 of these prospects (22 oil & 53 gas).
Notable oil discoveries are Kaikalur, Vadali, Mori, Bantumilli, Lingala, Suryaraopeta,
Gopavaram, Kesanapalli, and Kesanapalli West. The gas discoveries are Adavipalem,
Elamanchili, Enugupalli, Narsapur, Razole, Tatipaka-Kadali, Pasarlapudi, Mandapeta,
Chintalapalli. Nandigama, Endamuru, Penumadam, Ponnamanda, Achanta, Mullikipalle,
Magatapalli, Gokarnapuram, Kesavadasapalem, Lakshamaneshwaram, Rangapuram and
Sirikattapalli.
In onshore, so far 141 prospects have been probed by 375 exploratory wells by ONGC, out
of which 11 oil & gas pools and 31 gas pools have been discovered and most of them are on
production. In offshore ,Sso far more than 84 prospects have been probed by 182
exploratory wells . Hydrocarbon accumulations have been proved in 33 of these prospects
(11 oil & gas and 22 gas prospects). About nineteen discoveries have been made by Pvt./JV
companies so far in NELP blocks (Fifteen Dhirubhai discoveries by RIL in blocks KG-DWN-
98/3 and KG-OSN-2001/2, three discoveries by Cairn Energy Pty. Ltd. (CEIL) in block KG-
DWN-98/2 within Mio-Pliocene, 3 discovery by ONGC in the block KG-DWN-98/2 within Plio-
Pleistocene sandstone of Godavari formation and one discovery by GSPC in block KG-OSN-
2001/3 within Lower Cretaceous). To check the above the shallow and a deepwater
discoveries.
2 Tectonic History: Krishna Godavari Basin is a Continental passive margin

pericratonic basin. The basin came into existence following rifting along eastern continental
margin of Indian Craton in early Mesozoic. The down to the basement faults which define the
series of horst and grabens cascading down towards the ocean are aligned NE-SW along
Precambrian Eastern Ghat trend.
The geological history comprises of following stages:
2.1 Rift Stage:- The basin got initiated through rift / syn-rift tectonics between Permo-
Triassic to Early Cretaceous and is essentially characterized by lagoonal to fluvial to
occasionally brackish water sediments. The northeastern part of the present onland basin
was part of an intra cratonic rift set up till Jurassic that constituted the southeastern
extension of NW-SE trending continental rift valley slopping northward. The basin has been
initiated through rifting during Permo-Triassic period.
2.2 Syn Rift Stage:- The early stage synrift sediments were deposited during early
subsidence by tectonic fault systems. Basin subsidence continued along basement bound
fault system accommodating synrift sediments of late Jurassic to early Cretaceous.
2.3 Drift Stage:- Rift to drift transition is marked by a southerly/ southeasterly tilt of the
basin leading to widespread marine transgression during Cretaceous and deposition of
marine shale sequence followed by onset of overall regressive phase during Late
Cretaceous, represented by a deltaic sequence comprising Tirupati Sandstone with
dominant arenaceous facies. During Maastrichtian-Danian, the basin experienced major
volcanic activity (Razole Volcanism) covering 1600 sq. km. area and having span of 5.5
million years.
2.4 Late Drift Stage:- Initial soft collision between the Indian and Eurasian Plates and
initiation of Matsyapuri-Palakollu fault appears to have greatly influenced the Paleogene and
younger tectonic regiment and the consequent sedimentation pattern.
2.5 Sediment induced Neogene tectonics:- Increased gradients for the river systems
and increased sediment load coupled with significant sea level falls during Neogene had
triggered sediment induced tectonics in the shelf and slope parts of the basin creating highly
prospective exploration locales. Some of the recent very significant discoveries in these
settings had opened new hydrocarbon opportunities in the Krishna-Godavari basin and
necessitated re-estimation of its hydrocarbon resource potential.
The five major tectonic elements of the basin are Krishna Graben, Bapatla Horst, West
Godavari Sub basin, Tanuku Horst and East Godavari sub basin.
3 Generalized Statrigraphy: In the northwestern and western margins of the basin,

out crops of Achaean crystallines and sediments ranging in age from Late Permian to
Pliocene are present. However, major part of the basin is covered by alluvium/sea.
The outcrop and sub-crop lithologic information has been gathered from a large numbers of
wells drilled in the shelfal area and onland.
3.1 Depositional Environment:- Four distinct depositional systems have been
recognized in Krishna Godavari basin. These are: Godavari delta system, Masulipatnam
shelf slope system and Nizampatinam shelf –slope system and Krishna delta system.
The maximum thickness of the sediments in Krishna Godavari basin is around 5000 m.
Controlling factor of the thick pile of sediments is presence of long linear Gondwana rift
valley. Palaeontological evidences suggest a period of slow sedimentation and subsidence
but changes in water depth during deposition.
Tertiary Play: Principal Depositional Elements from Shelfal Staging Area to Basin-Plain
Krishna-Godavari Basin-Depositional Model of Shallow Offshore
4 Petroleum System: Krishna-Godavari basin is a proven petroliferous basin with

commercial hydrocarbon accumulations in the oldest Permo-Triassic Mandapeta Sandstone
onland to the youngest Pleistocene channel levee complexes in deep water offshore. The
basin has been endowed with four petroleum systems, which can be classified broadly into
two categories viz. Pre-Trappean and Post-Trappean in view of their distinct tectonic and
sedimentary characteristics. Seismic imaging of Pre-Trappean section poses problems in
terms of data quality.
Source rich areas at different stratigraphic levels
Hydrocarbon Generation Centers in Cretceous

Hydrocarbon Generation Centers in Paleocene
Hydrocarbon Generation Centers in Eocene

4.1 Pre-Trappean Petroleum System (Permo-Triassic Kommugudem-Mandapeta-Red
Bed Petroleum System):- This is the oldest known petroleum system in the basin.
Kommugudem Formation is the main source rock for this system. It
belongs to Artinskian (Upper Early Permian) age. This coal-shale unit is
Source more than 900 m thick in the type well Kommugudem-1.It has a good
Rock source rock potential with rich organic matter with TOC ranging between
0.5 to 3% and vitrinite reflectance in the deeper part of the basin is in the
range of1.0 to 1.3. Generation threshold occurred during Cretaceous.
Mandapeta Sandstone of Permo-Triassic age is the principal reservoir
rock for this system. It may be noted that these sandstones are in general
Reservoir
tight and need frac jobs for exploitation. However, porous and permeable
Rock
patches are also present and chasing them seismically is a major
exploration challenge.
Tight layers within Mandapeta Sandstone and the overlying argillaceous
Cap Rock
Red Bed act as effective seals.
Entrapment is essentially structural in nature. As mentioned earlier,
seismic mapping of pre-trappean section has serious problems due to the
Entrapment
presence of a good seismic energy reflector in the form of Basalt above
this system affecting the seismic data quality.
4.2 Late Jurassic-Cretaceous Raghavapuram-Gollapalli-Tirupati-Razole Petroleum

System:-
Raghavapuram Shale of Lower Cretaceous age is considered as the
principal source rock not only for this system but also for the onland part
of the basin. Maximum thickness up to 1100 m is recorded in the
subsurface. The sequence comprises essentially carbonaceous shale with
Source
intervening sands possibly representing brief regressive phases in an
Rock
otherwise major transgressive phase. The organic matter is dominantly of
Type III and III B. The maturity level varies between catagenetic to
inadequately matured in different parts of the basin. TOC is recorded up
to 2.4%. It has the proclivity for generation of both oil and gas.
Lenticular sands within Raghavapuram Shale possibly representing
intervening regressive phases are one of the potential exploration targets;
though mapping them seismically poses some challenges as mentioned
above. A recent major find in its time equivalent (?) in shallow offshore
part of the basin opened up some very exciting exploration opportunities
in this sequence. Recent exploratory efforts in deep offshore also
indicated prospectivity in Cretaceous sequence
Reservoir
Rock Sands within Gollapalli Formation of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous in
Mandapeta-Endamuru area and its time equivalent Kanukollu Formation
in Lingala-Kaikalur area are another potential target in this petroleum
system.
A northeast southwest trending corridor of Upper Cretaceous Tirupati

Sandstone, product of a regressive phase, between southeastern side of
Tanuku Horst and MTP fault is emerging as another important target.
Raghavapuram Shale acts as effective seal for both Gollapalli reservoirs
Cap Rock and the sands within Raghavapuram Shale. Shale intercalations within
Tirupati Formation appear to act as seal for the accumulations within the
Formation.
Razole Formation (Deccan Basalt) acts as a regional cap for the pre-
trappean hydrocarbon accumulations. It is of interest to note that
occasional occurrence of hydrocarbons is noticed within Razole
Formation itself, indicating its reservoir potential also.
While the entrapment style is essentially structural, accumulations in
Entrapment
Raghavapuram Shale have strati-structural element in their entrapment.
4.3 Post-Trappean Petroleum System (Palakollu-Pasarlapudi Petroleum System):- It is

the most prolific system in the onland part of the basin contributing major part of the onland
hydrocarbon production. It has an abnormally pressured source sequence and a reservoir
sequence with more than normal pressures.
The Paleocene Palakollu Shale is the source sequence. It is deposited in
considerable thickness in the area to the south of MTP fault with a ENE-
WSW alignment paralleling the fault. It shows fair to god source rock
Source potential with proclivity to generate mainly gaseous hydrocarbons. TOC
Rock ranges between 0.6 to >5% and is dominantly humic type, rich in inertinite
and about 10-20% contribution is from Type II organic matter. Subsidence
history of Palakollu Shale suggests generation threshold to be around
Middle Eocene.
Sand layers within source rich Palakollu Shale are found to be potential
reservoir rocks, though most often with very limited accumulations.
Reservoir
Associated high pressures also do not make them attractive targets.
Rock
Pasarlapudi Formation of Lower to Middle Eocene is the principal
producing sequence onland with many potential reservoir levels.
Laterally persistent shales within Pasarlapudi Formation have been found
to act as effective seals for the accumulations within Pasarlapudi
Cap Rock
Formation. Palakollu Shale encompassing the occasional sands within the
Formation also acts as seal for them.
Though structural entrapment is the dominant element for Pasarlapudi
Entrapment Formation, strati-structural element also appears to be occasionally
present.
4.4 Vadaparru Shale-Matsyapuri / Ravva Formation-Godavari Clay Petroleum

System:- Discovery of medium sized fields with liquid hydrocarbon in the Coastal Tract,
significant discovery of Ravva Field in the shallow offshore and some very exciting mega
discoveries in deep offshore parts of the basin have made this youngest petroleum system,
a very important one.
: Vadaparru Shale is the principal source sequence. Average TOC for this
sequence is about 4%. Organic matter is in the early phase of maturation
in the coastal part and increases basin ward. Organic matter is of Type III
and has potential to generate both oil and gas. Generation threshold for
this sequence is around Lower Miocene.
Source
Rock
An interesting recent observation regarding the source sequence is that
some major gas accumulations in both shallow and deep offshore are
found to be of biogenic origin also. This observation throws some
interesting challenges in terms of exploration strategies to be adopted
especially for the offshore part of the basin.
Sands within Matsyapuri and Ravva Formation and also the sands within
Vadaparru Shale are important potential levels and are known to house
Reservoir significant hydrocarbon accumulations in the basin. Recent discoveries in
Rock the channel- levee complexes in intra slope terrace/basin setting within
Godavari Clay of Pliocene-Pleistocene has opened up hitherto unexplored
frontiers of the basin for exploration.
Shales within Matsyapuri and Ravva Formations, Vadaparru Shale and
Cap Rock
Godavari Clay act as effective seals.
Though structural element plays dominant role for hydrocarbon
accumulations in this system, role of strati-structural element is noticed.
Clear understanding of sediment induced tectonics and precise mapping
techniques for reservoir facies can yield very rich dividends especially in
Entrapment the younger sequences.
Krishna-Godavari Basin endowed with such effective petroleum systems

ranging from Permo-Triassic to Pleistocene offer very exciting exploration
challenges with matching rewards especially in deep water areas.
5 Petroleum Plays:
5.1 Syn-rift Mesozoic play:- Pennar-Krishna Graben, Nizapattinam depression, both

onland and offshore, Synrift grabens in shallow and deep waters (Block KG-OSN-2003/1,
KG-DWN-98/1).
Source Rock Syn-rift Mesozoic sediments
Reservoir Sandstone
Structural and strati-structural. Draping over reactivated structural high
Trap
and wedgeouts.
Depositional
Continental (Fluvial to Laccustrine )
Environment
Discovery KG-15, KG-16, & KG-8, KG-17 (Block KG-OSN-2003/1), KG-D4-MD1
Wells (Block KG-DWN-98/1)
UD-1 (KG-
DWN-98/2)
KG-D6-MA1 was the 19th exploration well drilled by RIL that was
designed to test the hydrocarbons potential of the Cretaceous in the D6
MA-1(Block
block in offshore Andhra Pradesh, Bay of Bengal. The well is located in
KG-DWN-98/3)
water depth of 1189 m in the Krishna Godavari basin. Significant oil
discovery was made in this well in the Cretaceous section.
5.2 Early Miocene–Mid Miocene Play:- Shallow and Deep offshore area, Ravva Field,
KG-OSN-2001/1(Dhirubhai-28,36,37), KG-DWN-98/3.
Source Rock Eocene / Cretaceous
Reservoir Sandstone
• Structural/Strati-structural growth related /roll over/faulted
/unconformity related
Trap • Erosional subcrop beyond major sequence boundary
(stratigraphic )
• Combined fault seal and erosional remnant (strati-structural)
• Tilted faults block(structural )
• Updip stratigraphic pinch out on sequence boundary.
Depositional
Shore face to deep- water channel and slope fan system
Environment
Discovery
Ravva wells R-2 to R-5, 1987-1990.
Wells
6 Hydrocarbon Potential: The Krishna Godavari Basin is an established hydrocarbon

province with a resource base of 1130 MMT, of which, 555 MMT are assessed for the
offshore region (upto 200 m isobath. Several oil and gas fields are located both in onland
and offshore parts of the basin. The entrapments are to be expected from Permo-Triassic to
Pliocene sediments. The Tertiary hydrocarbon entrapments are so far observed only in
offshore part of the basin while Paleogene to Permo-Triassic entrapments are discovered in
East Godavari and West Godavari sub-basins in the onland part.
The reservoir facies of Permo-Triassic occur within the well identified source facies at the
bottom and overlying Cretaceous argillaceous facies, which act as source as well as cap. In
view of the fact that hydrocarbon indications are observed in well KB-4B-1, drilled in the
north western part of offshore basin, and also, in well KG-1-B-1, indication of gas with higher
hydrocarbon and oil stains in ditch samples collected from Late Paleozoic sediments,
imparts the older sequence a fair degree of importance. These older sediments can also be
expected to be present upto Krishna island area around the coastal part. The occurrence of
gas fields like Mandapeta and Endamuru and indications of hydrocarbons in offshore areas
point to the fair potential of this sequence.
The Cretaceous and Early Tertiary accumulations of hydrocarbons are present in several
fields e.g., Kaikalur, Bantumilli, Lingala, Narsapur, Razole Chintalapalli etc. both in East as
well as West Godavari Sub-Basins. The Cretaceous sequence in offshore wells, like well
KB-1B, has also indicated presence of hydrocarbons during drilling. Suitable source and
reservoir facies are also reported in this well. The hydrocarbon generation centers in
Cretaceous are shown in Figure 10. In view of this, the Cretaceous holds good potential for
accumulation of hydrocarbons where some twenty commercial accumulations have been
discovered so far.
A number of gas fields are producing from Paleocene reservoirs, particularly in East
Godavari Sub-Basin. The Tatipaka, Pasarlapudi, Kadali and Manepalli are the fields located
onland, while, GS-8 is occurring in the offshore part of the basin. The hydrocarbon
generation centers in Paleocene indicate fair to rich organic content on the basinal side. The
indications of gas and its pressure in this sequence justify good potential for Paleocene in
the basin. Ten pools of hydrocarbon have already been discovered in this age group.
The Eocene accumulation of gas is observed in Elamanchili, Tatipaka, and Pasarlapudi etc.
Mori prospect is oil producer. These oil fields including GS-38 in offshore area indicate good
hydrocarbon potential in Eocene sequence. Reefal limestone and associated shelf
sediments of Eocene age form another category of hydrocarbon plays, in the lower deltaic
areas of Godavari river and shallow waters of Masulipatnam Bay. Drape folds on tilted
narrow fault block may have the potential for both oil and gas entrapment. Eight hydrocarbon
pools have already been discovered.
The Mio-Pliocene sequence in offshore part is promising. The commercial hydrocarbon
accumulation in Ravva field is well known. The prospects GS-38, G-1 and G-2 are also
hydrocarbon bearing in Mio-Pliocene strata. As many as fourteen commercial finds have
come from this sequence.
MUMBAI OFFSHORE BASIN
1 Basin Introduction:
1.1 Geographic Location of the basin:- Mumbai Offshore basin is located on the
western continental shelf of India between Saurashtra basin in NNW and Kerela Konkan in
the south.
1.2 Category of the basin:- The basin falls under the Category-I, which implies that the
basin has proven commercial productivity.
1.3 Area:- It covers an area of about 116,000 km2 from coast to 200 m isobath.
1.4 Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness:- The age of the basin ranges from late
Cretaceous to Holocene with thick sedimentary fill ranging from 1100-5000 m. Though
possibility of occurrence of Mesozoic synrift sequences in the deep-water basin have been
indicated by the recently acquired seismic data by GXT, it needs to be further ascertained by
future studies.
1.5 Exploration history:- Exploration in the Mumbai Offshore Basin started in the early
sixties when regional geophysical surveys were conducted by the Russian seismic ship. The
first oil discovery in this basin was made in the Miocene limestone reservoir of Mumbai High
field in February 1974. Subsequent intensification in exploration and development activities
in this basin have resulted in several significant discoveries including oil and gas fields like
Heera,Panna, Bassein, Neelam,Mukta, Ratna,Soth tapti, Mid Tapti etc.In addition number of
marginal fields like B-55, B-173A, B-119/121, D-1 and D-18 have been put on production in
the last decade.
1.6 Recent Discoveries (2007-08):-
Block/Prospect Discovery Formation Operator

B-55-5 Gas Mukta ONGCL
B-12-11 Gas Daman ONGCL
D-1-14 Oil Ratnagiri ONGCL
B-172-9 Gas Panna ONGCL
Block/Prospect Discovery Formation Operator
BNP-2 Gas S1 Pay ONGCL
2 Tectonic History:
2.1 Type of Basin:- Mumbai offshore is a pericratonic rift basin situated on western
continental margin of India. Towards NNE it continues into the onland Cambay basin. It is
bounded in the northwest by Saurashtra peninsula, north by Diu Arch. Its southern limit is
marked by east west trending Vengurla Arch to the South of Ratnagiri and to the east by
Indian craton.
2.2 Different Tectonic Zones with in the Basin:- Five distinct structural provinces with
different tectonic and stratigraphic events can be identified within the basin viz. Surat
Depression (Tapti-Daman Block) in the north, Panna-Bassein-Heera Block in the east
central part, Ratnagiri in the southern part, Mumbai High-/Platform-Deep Continental Shelf
(DCS) in the mid western side and Shelf Margin adjoing DCS and the Ratnagiri Shelf.
2.2.1 Surat Depression-: It forms the southward extension of the Cambay Basin and to
the west it is separated from Saurashtra Basin by Diu Arch. An arm of this Depression
extends far south into Panna-Bassein-Heera block (Central Graben) and further south into
Ratnagiri block (Vijayadurg Graben). A ‘high’ feature interrupts the north-south continuity of
these grabens. A few small-scale grabens radiating from these diastamise and circumscribe
horsts in Ratnagiri block. The Surat Depression has numerous structural features of different
origins like basement-controlled anticlines, differential compaction over sand bodies
encompassed by shale, inversions and growth fault related roll over features.
2.2.2 Panna-Bassein-Heera Block-: This block located east of Mumbai High/Platform and
south of Surat Depression has three distinct N-S to NW-SE trending tectonic units which
lose their identity in Miocene. The western block is a composite high block dissected by a
number of small grabens. The Central graben is a syn sedimentary sink during Paleogene
and Early Neogene. The eastern block is a gentle eastward rising homocline.
2.2.3 Ratnagiri Block-: It is the southward continuation of the Panna-Bassein-Heera
block. This block is differentiated into four distinct tectonic units by three sets of NNW-SSE
trending enechelon fault systems. The western block is termed ‘Shrivardhan Horst’ and to its
east is ‘Vijayadurg Graben’ which is also a syn sedimentary sink during Paleogene and Early
Neogene. There is a general southward shallowing of this graben. Adjoining this is ‘Ratnagiri
Composite Block’ with a number of ‘highs’ and lows’ and further east, like in the northern
block, there is a gradual easterly rising homocline called ‘Jaygad Homocline’.
2.2.4 Mumbai Platform-: It is bounded by Shelf Margin to its west and south and by
Saurashtra Basin and Surat Depression to its north. Mumbai Platform includes Mumbai high
and DCS area. The intervening area between these two is gentle homoclinal rise with a few
structural ‘highs’ of different origins. Major part of the Mumbai High area remained positive
almost up to Late Oligocene missing much of the sedimentation activity. In comparison to
other blocks in the basin, Mumbai block remained relatively stable which probably helped in
the deposition of uniform carbonate-shale alternations over Mumbai High during Early
Miocene and early part of Middle Miocene, which later accommodated huge accumulations
of hydrocarbons making Mumbai High, a Giant Field.
2.2.5 Shelf Margin-: Its northern boundary with Saurashtra Basin is indistinct and to its
west lies Deep Sea Basin with the western boundary marked by part of a regional ridge ‘Kori
High’. Except for the deposition of thin carbonates during Eocene, possibly due to paucity of
clastic supply into the basin during this period, the block essentially remained a clastic
depocenter throughout Oligocene and Neogene times. During post Eocene times the block
experienced continuous sinking with varied intensity to accommodate the enormous clastic
material that was being brought into Surat Depression by proto Narmada and Tapti river
systems and getting dispersed westward into this block.
3 Generalized Statrigraphy:
3.1 Sedimentation History and Depositional Environment:-

This phase signifies the early syn-rift stage & is represented by trap-
derived clastics contributed by the then existing paleo-highs essentially
in continental to fluvial environment in its lower part (Panna Formation).
It is overlain by grey to dark grey shales with subordinate sands possibly
representing the first marine transgression into the basin. Presence of
carbonaceous shale and coal at a few places suggest localized
restricted conditions.
Main clastic depocenters like Surat Depression and the contiguous

southward lows like Central Graben (Panna Bassien block) and
Vijayadurg Graben (Ratnagiri Block) received these sediments in
considerable thickness aided by syn-sedimentary activity of the
Late
bounding faults. A few localized depressions in Mumbai Platform and
Paleocene-
over some other horst blocks also received these sediments. Panna
Early Eocene
Formation is wide spread in the basin except over the crestal parts of
prominent paleo-highs like Mumbai High, Heera etc. Its thickness varies
from almost nil to hundreds of meters in deep sinks.
Shelf Margin block, though under deep marine realm seem to have
received lesser quantities of sediments which were either derived from
the Diu Arch (?) or from localized provenances. The facies developed in
this block are mainly claystone, argillaceous and carbonates with some
amount of pelagic fauna.
Carbonate facies (Devgarh Formation) development is observed

towards the southern edge of Mumbai High in the form of muddy
foraminiferal- algal banks; Deep Continental Shelf area and isolated off-
shelf carbonate build-ups at a few places in Shelf Margin and
Ratnagiri.
The syn-rift stage of Late Paleocene-Early Eocene period got terminated

with a basin wide regression and development of an unconformity
After a period of peneplanation, the basin witnessed a major
transgression. Extensive carbonate sedimentation occurred in the
shallow shelf area of Mumbai Platform, Panna-Bassein-Heera block
and Ratnagiri block (Bassein Formation). However the period
witnessed essentially clastic sedimentation in Surat Depression
(Belapur and Diu formations) with occasional carbonate bands and a few
sand stringers and argillaceous carbonates and shales in Central and
Vijayadurg Grabens (Panna-Bassein-Heera block and Ratnagiri
Middle–Late block). Shelf margin was generally starved of clastics with deposition of
Eocene minor claystone and carbonates of mixed middle shelf to bathyal origin (
Belapur Formation)
Bassein Formation also indicates a wide range of environments –

restricted platform, shelf lagoon with isolated shoals in Bassein area to
open carbonate shelf in DCS and Ratnagiri and finally deep water
carbonates in Shelf Margin area. It also formed wedge outs against the
rising flanks of Mumbai High and Heera, which can be considered as
potential exploration targets.
During this period, Surat Depression experienced the maximum
subsidence-accumulating thick under compacted claystone relating to
the prograding delta from northeast (Mahuva Formation). The Mumbai
platform experienced generally shallower water depths and shale
Early interbeds within limestone becoming more frequent. In Shelf Margin
Oligocene area thinner carbonates are deposited under relatively deeper
conditions.
End of Early Oligocene also witnessed initiation of the westerly tilt of the
basin.
Close of Early Oligocene is marked by a minor period of non-deposition
except in Shelf Margin area. A few brief spells of transgression followed
by continuous eustatic rise in sea level up to Early Miocene marked this
period. Crestal part of Mumbai High that hitherto remained a positive
area also got submerged during this period.
Surat Depression witnessed reduced subsidence resulting in a

regressive coastline. A package consisting of sand bodies deposited in
distributary channels, coastal bars, tidal deltas and other transitional
Late
environments encased in marginal marine normally pressured silty and
Oligocene
carbonaceous shale overlying over pressured prodelta clay stone of
Early Oligocene. (Daman Formation) The reservoir facies within this
Formation have assumed great importance as they have been found to
host significant amounts of hydrocarbons.
There was faster subsidence in Shelf Margin to accommodate the

increased sediment load supplied by the westward prograding delta
system. The finer clastics reaching the Shelf Margin block were mainly
deposited in the depression between Kori High and the carbonate
platform. (Alibag Formation)
Southward Close of Early Oligocene is marked by a minor period of non-

deposition except in Shelf Margin area. A few brief spells of
transgression followed by continuous eustatic rise in sea level up to
Early Miocene marked this period. Crestal part of Mumbai High that
hitherto remained a positive area also got submerged during this period.
Southward from Surat Depression, clays got dispersed over Panna-

Bassein-Heera block, including the crestal areas and the northern part of
Ratnagiri block as well as Bombay Platform. While in Mumbai High-DCS
area and southern part of Ratnagiri, the unit is termed as Panvel
Formation, in Panna-Bassein-Heera and northern part of Ratnagiri, the
unit is named as Alibag Formation.)
It was a period of eustatic rise in sea level punctuated by a brief spell.
The finer clastics entering into Surat Depression got mostly dispersed
westward into Saurashtra basin and Shelf Margin area. Limited quantity
of clastics got dispersed southward and entered Mumbai platform at its
southeast and also up to Heera area. In response to the rising sea level,
the delta being formed in Surat Depression in Late Oligocene shifted
eastward.
Early Miocene Bassein and the area to its south that experienced shoaling conditions
during Eocene was the site for fine clastic deposition during Early
Miocene. Mumbai High and its western part (DCS) underwent fairly
thick carbonate sedimentation. In fact the major reservoir of Mumbai
High that hosts major part of the Country’s hydrocarbon reserves
belongs to this unit. While over the Mumbai High area the facies are low
energy, very fine grained to clayey carbonate reservoirs, the DCS area
represents high-energy bio-clastic grainstone facies along with minor
mudstone and wackestone.
The sea level continued to rise during this period. Clastic supply also
continued into the basin. However much of the clastic material got
dispersed westward into Saurashtra and Shelf Margin areas.
Considerable quantity of clastics got dispersed southward also covering
the entire Panna-Bassein area and also the Mumbai High and its
immediate surroundings to the west and south. This clastic unit over
Middle Mumbai High includes sheet like sand, which has also been found to be
Miocene hydrocarbon bearing. Carbonate sedimentation continued in Ratnagiri
and DCS areas. Toward the later part of Middle Miocene, clastic
deposition almost came to a halt in Mumbai High and other areas and
consequently carbonates got deposited over many areas. Uppermost
part of the Middle Miocene Limestone in Heera field has been found to
be hydrocarbon bearing. Close of Middle Miocene was marked by a very
pronounced unconformity.
Post Middle Miocene witnessed a major transgression covering the
entire basin coupled with spectacular increase in clastic supply. The
Middle
earlier initiated westerly tilt of the basin also became more pronounced.
Miocene-
All these events brought the carbonate sedimentation to a total halt. The
Holocene
increased clastic supply also resulted in a significant progradation of
Miocene shelf at places up to 80 km (Chinchni Formation)
Late Paleocene-Early
Middle-Late Eocene Early Oligocene
Eocene
Late Oligocene Early Miocene Middle Miocene

3.2 Standard Stratigraphic Table:-
4 Petroleum System:
4.1 Source Rock:- There are three major depocenters in the basin viz. Surat Depression
in the north, Shelf Margin in the west and Central and Vijayadurg Grabens in the south.
Blocks Character Comments
The bounding faults of this tectonic
Shallow protected shelf facies unit have been continuously active
consisting of organic rich shales accommodating huge pile of
(Panna Formation- Paleocene to sediments that are being brought by
Surat early eocene & Belapur Formation- the Narmada/Tapti fluvial systems
Depression Middle Eocene)
The enclosure provided by the Diu
3-11% organic carbon and the Arch and Mumbai High could have
kerogene type is mixed Type II and prevented free open marine
circulation and coupled with
Blocks Character Comments
Type III. optimum subsidence appears to
have helped in preservation of
Expected oil window is around 3000 organic matter.
m
Several layers of shale/claystone in
a few wells are reported to have Possible reasons for the exploration
requisite TOC and have reached the setbacks could be the speculative
oil window (Panna Formation & nature of reservoir rocks and
Shelf Margin Belapur Formation) hydrocarbon expulsion pressure did
not exceed the ambient hyper
The oil window from the available pressure within the formation
geochemical data appears to be inhibiting primary migration .
between 2900m and 3850m.
It is widely perceived that the
Central Graben in Panna-Bassein
Heera block and Vijayadurg Graben
The finer clastics entering into Surat
in Ratnagiri block had contributed
Depression through Narmada /Tapti
to huge hydrocarbon accumulations
systems have been getting partially
in many major structural features
dispersed southward and entering
like Panna, Bassein, Heera, South
Central and these two prominent lows that
Heera, etc. lying on the western
Vijaydurg appear to be an arm of the
horst block suggesting a major
grabens Depression extending to the south.
westward hydrocarbon migration.
Syn depositional sinking of these
However discovery of Neelam field
two lows accommodating the huge
within Central Graben indicated
clastic influx from north is evident
hydrocarbon opportunities within the
from the seismic data.
graben itself provided better
reservoir facies coupled with proper
entrapment condition is available.
4.2 Reservoir Rock:- Mumbai offshore basin has been blessed with both clastic and
carbonate reservoir facies in almost total Tertiary Section ranging from Paleocene to Middle
Miocene.
Age Lithology/Location Comments
The uppermost part has been found
to be hydrocarbon bearing at a few
Carbonate sections at Ratnagiri, places
Middle
Mumbai high & Diu (Ratnagiri & A sheet like sand deposited over
Miocene
Bandra formations) Mumbai High (S1) is also proved to
be gas bearing in commercial
quantity in Mumbai High
Deposited under cyclic
sedimentation with each cycle
represented by lagoonal, algal
Represented by a thick pile of
mound, foraminiferal mound and
Lower carbonates hosting huge quantity of
coastal marsh facies
Miocene oil and gas over Mumbai High
The porosity is mainly intergranular,
(Bombay, Ratnagiri)
intragranular, moldic, vuggy and
micro-fissures and the solution
cavities interconnected by micro-
Age Lithology/Location Comments
fissures provided excellent
permeability.
Sands in the central and mid-
eastern part of Surat depression i.e. Deposited under prograding delta
Oligo– Early Tapti- Daman area, Daman conditions
Miocene formation.
Carbonates adjoining Mumbai High( Proved to be excellent reservoirs
Panvel formation )
Proven hydrocarbon bearing
reservoirs in Tapti area.
E.Oligocene clastics of Surat
Gradual increase of sea level,
depression(Mahuva Formation)
shielding from the clastic onslaught
Eocene and Deposition of thicker carbonate
from the northern part of the basin.
Early facies over the horst blocks in
The intervening regressive phases
Oligocene Panna- Basein-Heera and Ratnagiri
have aided in developing good
blocks (Bassein, Mukta & Heera
porosity in these rocks making them
formations).
excellent reservoir levels in the
basin.
Coarser clastic facies developed
The clastics of Panna formation are
within the upper marine shale
proved to be excellent reservoirs in
Paleocene sequence in areas of Mumbai High,
the Sw flank of Panna –Basin
Panna and Ratnagiri (Panna
platform.
Formation)
4.3 Cap Rocks:- Shale encompassing the coarser clastic facies in the Paleocene
section, widespread transgressive shale overlying the Middle Eocene Bassein Formation,
alternation of shale and tight limestone over early Oligocene Mukta Formation, widespread
intervening shale layers within Early Miocene Mumbai formation over Mumbai High and in
DCS area, post Middle Miocene clay/claystone of Chinchini Formation over parts of Heera
etc. had provided effective seal for the underlying hydrocarbon accumulations in the Mumbai
offshore basin.
4.4 Entrapment:- As mentioned earlier, Mumbai offshore basin has been endowed with
a wide variety of entrapment situations like- structural closures with independent four way
closures of very large, large, medium and small sizes, fault closures and faulted closures
with effective fault sealing, strati-structural features like Paleogene wedges against rising
flanks of paleohighs, mud mounds, carbonate build-ups, unconformity controlled traps,
Paleogene and Neogene carbonate wedges against the rising Eastern and Jaygad
Homoclines. Mumbai Offshore Basin Introduction Tectonic History Generalized Stratigraphy
Petroleum System Petroleum Plays.
5 Petroleum Plays:
5.1 Major Identified play types:-

1. Paleogene Synrift clastics(Paleocene-Lr. Eocene, Panna Fm)
2. Eocene Carbonate Platform (Bassein formation)
3. Lr.Oligocene Carbonate plays (Mukta and Heera formations)
4. Oligocene-Lr. Miocene deltaic Play (Mahuva &Daman formations)
5. Up. Oligocene carbonates ( Panvel and Ratna formations)
6. Lr. Miocene carbonate (L-III and L-IV reservoirs, Bombay / Ratnagiri formation)
7. Lr-Mid. Miocene clastics(S1 sands),
8. Mid. Miocene carbonate (L-I and L-II reservoirs, Bandra Formation)
5.1.1 Paleogene Synrift clastics (Paleocene-Lr. Eocene, Panna Fm)
• Area: Western and southeastern flank of Mumbai High,western flank of central
graben,Heera-Panna Block
• Reservoir rock: sandstone
• Depositional environment: Continental (parallic) to coastal
• Trap: structural /stratistructural(updip pinch outs)
• Source rocks: Paleocene-Eocene (Panna Formation)
Commercial production from few wells of Heera Field. Areas SW of Bassein Field containing
B-80, B-23A prospects and prospect D-33 in DCS have been identified for pre-development
studies along with younger pays. In addition commercial flow has been observed in
prospects like B-34, B-59, B-127, Panna East wells etc.
5.1.2 Eocene Carbonate Platform (Bassein Formation)

• Area: Heera-Panna Composite Block, part of MH-DCS block (NW and SW flank of
Mumbai High), Ratnagiri
• Reservoir rock: Limestone
• Depositional environment: shallow shelf /Shelf-lagoon carbonates
• Trap: structural /stratistructural (wedge outs)/diagenetic traps (?)
Commecial production from several medium sized and marginal Fields-: Mukta-Panna,
Bassein, Heera, Neelam, B-55, B-173A, South Heera In addition several prospects in
Heera-Panna Composite block and BH-DCS block has been tested hydrocarbon in
commercial quantities.
Areas identified for development/pre-development studies: NW of Mumbai High, SW of
Mumbai High, West and SW of Bassein, Bassein East
5.1.3 LR. Oligocene Carbonates (Mukta & Heera Formations)

• Area: Heera -Panna composite block, MH-DCS platform
• Reservoir rock: limestone
• Trap: structural
• Fields: Heera, Panna, Neelam, Basseim, B-55, D-18 etc.
4 Oligocene-Lr. Miocene Distal Deltaic-Coastal Play (Daman & Mahuva Fm)

• Area: Tapti-daman Block
• Reservoir rock: Sandstone
• Depositional environment: Deltaic to coastal
• Trap: Structural /stratistructural
• Fields: South Tapti/Mid Tapti
• Areas identified for development/pre-development studies: C-series structures, North
Tapti,
5 Up. Oligocene carbonates ( Panvel and Ratnagiri formations)

• Area: MH-DCS Block
• Fields: B-121/119
• Tested commercial potential from wells located in the MH-DCS Blocks Area identified
for Dev/pre-development studies: B-46, B-48 (NW of Mumbai High), B-192, B-45,
and WO-24 etc
6 Lr. Miocene carbonate (L-III and L-IV reservoirs)
• Area: Mumbai High
• Depositional environment/facies: Deposited under cyclic sedimentation with each
cycle represented by lagoonal, algal mound, foraminiferal mound and coastal marsh
facies
• Fields: Mumbai High, D-1 Prospects identified for development WO-24, B-45 along
with other pays
7 Lr-Mid. Miocene clastics(S1 sands)

• Area: Mumbai High and adjoining area
• Reservoir rock: sandstone/siltstone
• Trap: strati-structural
• Fields: Mumbai High, recent discovery on BNP prospect
8 Mid. Miocene carbonate (L-I and L-II, Bandra Formation)

• Area: Mumbai High, DCS and adjoining area (L-I and L-II)
• Reservoir rock: Limestone
• Fields: Mumbai High,Heera,D-1
MAHANADI-NEC
1 Basin Introduction
The Mahanadi Basin, a product of rifting and break up of Gondwana Land, situated on the
East Coast of India (Figs.1 & 2) is a basin with significant unexplored hydrocarbon potential.
Like its immediate neighboring, Krishna-Godavari Basin, Mahanadi Basin also has a
geological extension into offshore. The basin covers a total area of 55,000 Sq. Km. out of
which about 14,000 Sq. Km. lies in the shallow offshore area. The shelf break occurs
approximately along 150 m isobath. The deep-water part of the basin covers a much larger
area. The prognosticated resource of the onland part of the basin is in the order of 45 MMt
and that of the shallow offshore basin is about 100 MMt. Deep water part of the basin holds
huge significant additional hydrocarbon potential.
The onland part of the basin is limited to north west and west by Pre-Cambrian outcrops
belonging to the Indian crystalline Shield (Fig. 3). Towards northeast, it merges into North
East Coast region (NEC) with Bengal Basin lying further northeast. Onshore Mahanadi Basin
is located in the State of Orissa. Geographically, the shallow offshore part of the basin lies
off the coast of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. The 850 E Ridge occurring to the south of Lake
Chilka forms the approximate southwestern limit of the basin. Subsequent to Late Oligocene
/ Miocene period, Mahanadi-NEC area is so greatly influenced by Bengal deltaic
sedimentation system that its northeastern boundary with Bengal Basin becomes obscure.
To date, four wells in onshore part (MNO-1 to 4) and seven wells in Mahanadi shallow
offshore (MND-1 to 7) have been drilled, some of which indicated significant hydrocarbon
shows during drilling. In NEC area, two wells viz. BB-A-1R and BB-B-1 were drilled by
Carlsberg, four wells viz. NEC 1,2,3,and 4 were drilled by OIL and in more recent times
another Company drilled 6 wells. Some of the wells gave very encouraging results.
Geochemical Sniffer Surveys conducted by M/s Interocean of USA revealed a number of
geochemical sniffer anomalies in the shallow offshore area. An independent comprehensive
basin modeling study for the area also gave encouraging results. These positive
observations indicate the hydrocarbon potential of the basin. The recent promising finds in
Mahanadi-NEC shallow offshore gave further fillip to the envisaged potential of the basin.
2 General Geology
2.1 Tectonic Evolution of Eastern Continental Margin: The Gondwana paleo-

geographic reconstruction shows juxtaposition of Antarctica to the east coast of Peninsular
India with Australia lying further to the east. The eastern continental margin of India is a
rifted passive margin evolved in response to continental rifting. Indian Craton is
circumscribed by rifted grabens and marginal sag basins. The east-west trending Narmada-
Son Tectonic Lineament, an important line of discontinuity across the Indian shield is a mid-
continental rift system, which divides the shield into two halves; a northern ‘Foreland block’
that now forms the Himalayan Foreland Region and a southern’ Peninsular Block’. The
process was initiated along the Satpura weak zone during Late Carboniferous / Triassic time
due to crustal stretching that also caused co-genetic rifting of Mahanadi and Godavari
grabens along NW-SE tectonic trend. During the Early Rift Stage (Permo-Triassic), down
warping of the Eastern Margin formed a series of northeast southwest trending faults
following an older set of Achaean fault lineaments ‘The Eastern Ghat Trend’. Initial break-up
of the Indian Craton was caused by rift initiation possibly by the formation of a series of triple
junctions forming two sets of cross trending grabens.
Northwesterly paleo-current directions during Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic times,

marine intercalations and deltaic facies of Godavari and Mahanadi grabens suggest the
presence of a sea to the north of these grabens. This and the formation of depocenters at
the meeting point of these grabens with the Narmada-Son rift (Satpura and Son) prompted
to reasonably infer the presence of a seaway along this major rift. This rift episode seems to
have ended by Late Triassic when the seaway was probably filled up and uplifted as the
Indian Plate had started drifting away. The failed arms of these rifts forming aulacogens
have been exploited by the Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Cauvery river systems.
During Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period, India – Australia plates rotated from
Antarctica with continental extension between Australia and Antarctica and a right lateral
transform movement along the southern part of the Coromandal coast (east coast) margin of
India (to the south of Krishna-Godavari Basin) and Indian plate got separated from
Antarctica. Thus the initial breakup of the Indian Plate from Australia-Antarctica possibly
occurred prior to Early Neocomian, creating the proto Bay of Bengal Ocean with the onset of
sea-floor spreading. Since Cretaceous, the Indian Plate rotated northwestward.
Development of a new spreading center (?) initiated spreading in north-south direction. It
was during Late Albian that the paleoslope was reversed in these graben basins with the
southeasterly tilt of the peninsular block. This event coincided with first basin wide marine
transgression during Cenomanian and continued up to Maastrichtian. The post-rift thermal
subsidence continued throughout remainder of the Cretaceous and Tertiary. An extensive
uplift of that major rift and erosion followed the end of Cretaceous prior to the volcanic
episode of Deccan trap. The northward drift continued till it had initial (soft) collision with
Eurasia in Paleocene. Sea level fall in Upper Oligocene followed this. The southeasterly/
easterly tilt of the Peninsula had resulted in the increase of fluvial energies of various fluvial
systems leading to pouring of substantial sediment loads into the adjoining sea. In Early
Miocene, crustal shortening continued as the Indian Plate continued its northward drift with
the resultant further increase of fluvial activity. Himalayan upliftment and deposition of
sediments by the Ganges and Brahamaputra commenced in Miocene. Thus Miocene and
younger times witnessed very significant increase in the sediment outpouring into the
offshore extending the basins into the deeper waters.
The evolution of East Coast of India as a passive margin set up resulted in the formation of a
number of peri-cratonic basins- Bengal, Mahanadi, Krishna-Godavari, Pennar and Palar,
while Cauvery basin developed as an intra-cratonic basin.
2.2 Basin Evolution / Geological History & Stratigraphy:
The Eastern Continental margin of India represents a rifted passive margin evolved in
response to continental rifting. India separated from southern super-continent Gondwana
Land during Late Jurassic- Early Cretaceous, although rift initiation was during the Permo-
Triassic prior to continental splitting. Rift initiation was in the form of linked rift triple junctions.
One of the failed arms of these rifts forming aulacogen north of the Mahanadi Basin has
been exploited by Mahanadi river systems (Mahanadi Graben). These aulacogens,
representing favorable locations for the development of fluvial systems, provided great
drainage basins for the progressive erosion of the cratonic hinterland. Predominantly
continental sediments of Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic age were deposited and preserved
in this aulacogen – Mahanadi Graben. Rifting and synrift infill of the Mahanadi Graben was
continuing in Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.
2.2.1 Rift Stage:- Mahanadi Basin, a peri-cratonic basin was initiated probably during Late
Jurassic by rifting and subsidence of the Pre- Cambrian Basement by a number of major
faults with a dominant ENE-WSW trend and subordinate NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE trends.
These faults, which are parallel/sub-parallel to the present day coast line divided the basin
into a number of linear depressions and uplifts Bhadrak Shallow Basement Block, Cuttack-
Chandbali Depression, Bhubaneswar- Kendrapara Uplift, Paradip Depression, Nimapara-
Balikuda Uplift, Puri Depression and Konark Uplift from north to south in the onland part.
The Konark Uplift extends into shallow offshore part of the basin. Further southeastward, the
shallow offshore part up to the Eocene Hinge Zone has also been differentiated into a
number of ENE-WSW trending uplifted blocks and depressions. Further to northeast, a
NNW-SSE trending fault is present probably, due to which the Eocene Hinge Zone takes a
sudden NE-SW swing and further northeastward, it assumes almost a N-S trend. North of
this part of Hinge Zone is designated as NEC area.
Available regional geoscientific information suggests that the Basement in the Mahanadi
onland and shallow offshore area is of continental type to the north of the Eocene Hinge
Zone. It may be mainly of oceanic type further to the south of it. A transition zone from
continental to oceanic crust of varying width may be present in different parts of the basin.
Continental Basement is made up of Eastern Ghat granulites and gneisses of Pre-Cambrian
age. The oceanic basement has not been drilled so far in any of the Mahanadi wells, but it is
likely to have an affinity with the Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks encountered in some of the
drilled wells. The upper age limit of the oceanic basement may be Early Cretaceous. The
Bouguer Anomaly Map indicates that the lineament from which ocean spreading initiated
was coast parallel implying that rifting and spreading was controlled at least in part by the
NE-SW trending Achaean Eastern Ghat trend. NNW–SSE trending faults divide the basin
into transverse blocks. Significant lateral movement has taken place along these strike slip
faults during the course of basin development. As mentioned earlier, both the basin strike
and the alignment of the Eocene hinge takes a sharp turn to NE along one of these faults
suggesting a post-Eocene movement.
Oldest exposed sediments in onshore part of Mahanadi Basin belong to Athgarh Sandstone
Formation of Late Jurassic to Early cretaceous age. These sediments directly overlie Pre-
Cambrian Basement rocks along the western basin margin near Cuttack and are concealed
under a widespread cover of laterite and alluvium of Pleistocene to Recent age at places.
Predominantly coarse grained sandstone with subordinate shales and thin coal streaks of
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age have been encountered in the onland wells drilled in
Depressions. These sediments have been inferred to be deposited under fluvial conditions
with occasional marine incursions. Several flows of basic volcanic rocks of different
thickness are met within this sequence. However, the shallow offshore part of the basin
witnessed more intense volcanic activity albeit with a few interruptions. This predominantly
volcanic sequence made up of basalts, tuffs and inter-trappeans is resting unconformably
over Pre-Cambrian Basement. These volcanic rocks have both sub-aerial and sub-aqueous
characteristics. The thickness of volcanics varies from around 25 m in MND -3 to 850m in
MND -7 indicating the variation in volcanic activity over the basin. Based on palynological
evidence, these volcanics are correlated with Rajmahal Trap and have been assigned
Neocomian-Aptian age (133 to 144 Ma). The inter-trappeans are mainly argillaceous and
their thickness vary from 150 m in MND-1 to almost nil in MND-7.
Accumulation of Early Cretaceous syn-rift sediments in complexly dissected relief caused by

rift development explains their composite and heterogeneous lithology as well as vertical and
lateral variations within the basin.
2.2.2 Early Thermal Subsidence:- The initiation of early thermal subsidence during Late
Albian is marked by a southerly / southeasterly tilt of the continental margin leading to
marine transgression. The structural configuration continued to be of horst- graben type but
less differentiated than earlier.
Unconformably overlying the volcano-clastic rocks of Early Cretaceous is an appreciably

thick sequence of sandstones and shales with minor limestone at places deposited under
shallow inner shelf conditions in the present day shallow offshore part of the basin. The
thickness of this stratigraphic sequence varies widely from almost nil to 500m. However, the
equivalent sediments in the onland part were deposited under fresh water conditions
suggesting restricted marine transgression.
2.2.3 Late Thermal Subsidence:- The first soft collision took place in Early Paleocene as
continental India collided with the Eurasia Continental margin. Rifting had ceased and
northward drifting was initiated. Eastward flowing rivers along the East Coast of India
deposited Paleocene sediments that filled Cretaceous topography. Marine transgression
continued through Paleocene. However occurrence of Paleocene sediments in only two
wells drilled on shore viz. MON-3 drilled on Konark Uplift located relatively basinward and in
MON-4 in Chandbali Depression, seaward part of the Cuttack-Chandbali Depression,
suggests that the marine transgression during Paleocene was restricted to the basinward
periphery of the present day onland part of the basin. While the sequence is represented by
shales, sandstones and thin limestones deposited in the shallow marine environment, in the
offshore part it is represented by a dominant argillaceous limestone, shales, siltstone and
sandstone deposited under deltaic to shallow marine conditions. Based on the well data, it
can be surmised that there was a paucity of clastic supply into the area during Early
Paleocene resulting in the deposition of limestone in the present day shallow offshore area
(i.e. where the wells are located). However the clastic supply got resumed (possibly from a
provenance located in NE part of the onland basin with a southeasterly drainage direction)
during Late Paleocene resulting in the deposition of sands and silts with minor limestones
possibly under deltaic conditions in the southwestern part of the offshore basin. However,
northeastern part of the offshore part of the basin (MND-2&7) continued to be deprived of
clastic supply leading to uninterrupted deposition of limestone.
Dominant presence of fossiliferous limestone with minor clastics in the Eocene sequence in
the shallow offshore wells and presence of seismic mounded facies corresponding to this
sequence possibly represent carbonate build-ups along the hinge. Occurrence of medium to
fine grained sandstone and shales deposited under inner shelf conditions in a lone well
proximal to present day shoreline and total absence of this sequence in other wells strongly
suggest that major part of the onland part possibly remained uplifted inhibiting marine
transgression into the northern part of the onland basin.
As mentioned earlier, Eocene Hinge can be clearly identified through seismic data. Clear
evidence of deep erosion into the upper part of the Eocene sequence is reflected in the form
of uneven topographic surface and erosional channels and total absence of Oligocene
section in both onland and shallow offshore part of the basin indicates a major Late Eocene-
Oligocene marine regression from the basinal area. In contrast, there was widespread
sedimentation during this period in the adjacent Bengal Basin. In the NEC area, the well
NEC-1 located 40 km away from Mahanadi offshore well MND-2, encountered 567m of
Oligocene. However, in deep offshore, Oligocene sediments seem to wedge out against
Eocene shelf edge.
Crustal shortening initiated in Late Eocene - Oligocene continued into Early Miocene during
the northward drift of the Indian plate and the consequent upliftment of Himalayas that
initiated Gangetic sedimentation. Further upliftment of the Himalayas during Mid-Miocene
caused Gangetic delta to dominate the sediment deposition in a significant part of eastern
offshore viz.- Bengal, NEC, Mahanadi and northeastern part of Krishna-Godavari Basin. It
also altered the course of the Brahamaputra River to join Ganges with a resultant
spectacular increase in the rate of sedimentation into Bay of Bengal. The most prominent
feature in Bay of Bengal i.e. Bengal Fan can be considered as the largest deep sea fan
complex in the world with a length of 3000 Km. extending from the mouth of Ganges to
Latitude 7 0 S in the Central Indian Ocean.
The significant increase in the sedimentation rate during Miocene and younger times had its
own positive impact in terms of hydrocarbon exploration in the area. It initiated ‘sediment
induced tectonics’ in these sequences.
Eocene Hinge Zone paralleling the coastline represents a prominent tectonic element in the
area, providing slope with 10 – 2 0 dip at shelf-edge and 60 – 12 0 dip on the slope. Beyond
the slope, it flattens out to 10-20 in the deep basinal area. This provided an excellent
geological setting to carry the huge sediment loads into the deep offshore area. During sea
level lowstands, sediments were delivered to the shelf edge initiating the formation of shelf
edge deltas, levee-channel and basin floor fan complexes.
Initiated in Late Oligocene, a broad regressive cycle comprising successive periods of delta
building followed through Miocene and Younger times. Frequent sea level fluctuations
alternated the periods of transgression and progradation.
Seismic expression of both Upper Miocene and Pliocene sequences exhibits deltaic facies in
the lower part while the upper part of the sequences exhibit deep canyon cut and fill
features. The canyon cuts are steep sided, narrow to wide and at times 1-2 Km deep. These
canyons have created locally deep-water conditions over the shelf. Channels within these
canyons acted as conduits for transporting coarser clastic sediments into deep-water areas.
As the canyons got filled up, they gradually came under shallow water environment. It is
observed that those canyons fills, in general, are of fine clastics with some sands
representing the channel facies within them. The cyclic nature of occurrence of shelfal
canyon complexes clearly suggest periodic spurt in the fluvial energy coupled with sea level
fluctuations.
Data from a few wells drilled in the above discussed sediment induced tectonic setting have
indicated some very exciting hydrocarbon opportunities in the shelf and deep-water areas.
3 Petroleum System
The Geochemical Sniffer Surveys carried out by M/s INTEROCEAN of USA in part of the
Mahanadi shallow water area in 1988 have revealed the presence of a number of
Geochemical Sniffer anomalies. Basin modeling studies carried out by M/s BEICIP of France
indicated presence of mature source rocks in some of the onshore depressions, suggesting
similar possibilities in deeper parts of various depressions in the basin . Presence of organic
matter has been reported in different sequences in some of the onshore and offshore wells.
Temperature gradient in onshore and offshore wells is found to be >2.50 C/100m. Presence
of structural and stratigraphic traps and the above observations clearly indicate the
hydrocarbon potential of the basin.
Significant hydrocarbon shows have been encountered in most of the exploratory wells
drilled in the Mahanadi Offshore basin. Gas recovered during Formation Interval Testing
(FIT) of Miocene sandstones and Eocene limestones in the well MND-2 contained significant
proportions of higher hydrocarbons including iC4. In addition, specks of tarry matter were
noticed in few sidewall cores from the Paleocene carbonate sequence of MND-2. Recently,
six exploratory wells drilled in Block NEC-OSN-97/2 by RIL have proved to be gas bearing
within Upper Miocene to Pliocene sequence.
3.1 Source Rock:

The onland well MON-2 drilled in the Cuttack Graben has a high content of TOC (upto 9.5%)
in the Early Cretaceous sequence and the well MON-1 drilled in Paradip Depression has
adequate TOC of more than 2% in the Miocene sequence. A total thickness of 960 m of
source rocks have been encountered in the well MON-2 with an average potential of 7 Kg
HC/ton rock (coal beds included). Most of the organic matter is of type II and III. Maturation
in the Cuttack Graben was obtained around 2300m depth. This indicates similar possibilities
in the deeper parts of other depressions in the basin.
Source rock studies on drill cuttings and sidewall cores from the wells drilled in shallow
offshore indicate presence of adequate organic matter (TOC 1.5-2.5%). TOC values of more
than 3% also have been recorded in some samples. The organic matter within Paleogene
sequence of well MND-2 has reached adequate maturity (Vro of 0.55 at about 2800 m and
0.65 at about 3300 m. In the well MND-7, organic matter within Paleocene and older
sediments appear to be mature. This observation suggests that better source sediments can
be present in the deeper parts of the basin. The organic matter in the Paleogene and older
sequences in MND-5 and MND-6 shows marginal maturity. Additionally, Rock-Eval studies
show that migratory hydrocarbons are present in the Miocene and older sediments of
Mahanadi offshore wells.
3.2 Reservoir Rocks
Sandstone reservoir facies have been encountered in the wells drilled in Cuttack Depression
in the onshore part of the basin. Average porosity in these sands is in the range of 15 to
25%. The inter-trappean sequences with associated fractured and weathered volcanic flows
are also potential reservoir rocks.The subsurface data in the shelf part of the basin suggest
availability of good reservoir rocks within Early Miocene and older sediments. Porous and
permeable sandstones and carbonates within Late Cretaceous, Paleogene and Early
Miocene are the potential reservoir levels. Reservoir sands within Channel/ Levee
complexes of Pliocene and Pleistocene and Late Oligocene Wedge-outs against the Eocene
Hinge in deep offshore part of the basin are also the potential reservoir targets.
3.3 Cap Rocks:

Presence of claystones and shales at different stratigraphic levels reported from the drilled
wells are likely to provide cap rock in the basin and in particular a relatively thick sequence
of Miocene comprised of claystones provides a good regional cap rock for hydrocarbon
accumulation.
3.4 Entrapment / Trap Types:
3.4.1 Structural And Fault Related Traps In Syn-Rift Cretaceous Sediments:-

Presence of coarse-grained sandstones in the synrift Cretaceous sequence coupled with
availability of source facies within this sequence can be a very potential situation for hosting
hydrocarbons. The potential traps may be sealed vertically by Paleocene / Eocene shales.
Complex development of this sequence has brought out diverse potential situations- local
faulted anticlines, fault related structures and positive erosional features over the Cretaceous
surface.
3.4.2 Paleocene-Eocene Carbonate Buildups And Sand Bodies:- Carbonate buildups

can be envisaged along/over the Eocene hinge. It is observed that the carbonate bodies
show distinctly less internal reflections in comparison to the surrounding sequences. Faults
within the underlying Cretaceous and Paleocene sequences can act as effective migration
pathways.
3.4.3 Paleocene To Miocene Wedgeouts And Pinch-Outs:- The 85 deg East Ridge to
the southwest acts as a barrier onto which Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene
sediments onlap and can have entrapment potential. These units may consist of thin sands,
carbonates and shales terminating against the Ridge. The eastward basinal tilt in post Late
Cretaceous could have facilitated hydrocarbon migration northwest from the basinal
depocenters. Oligocene Wedgeouts against the Eocene hinge can also have entrapment
potential.
3.4.4 Submarine Canyon And Turbidite Fan Systems:- Submarine canyon and turbidite
fan Systems are more characteristic of Pliocene-Pleistocene sequences with slope failures
caused by significant increase of sediment input into the basin. Canyon fills can be
interpreted as the Ganges delta builds into the basin or as sediment forced during a
highstand as the sediment supply outpaces the accommodation space. Channel sands
within the Canyons also can have potential entrapment conditions.
Thus, Mahanadi Basin- onshore and most significantly the offshore part is endowed with a
good combination of source and reservoir facies with potential entrapment situations. The
deep offshore part of the basin with the characteristic sediment induced tectonics coupled
with the envisaged good reservoir and source facies holds high promise for challenge loving
explorationists. Similar geological situations in the neighboring Krishna- Godavari Basin
already started paying rich dividends to the explorationists.
ANDAMAN-NICOBAR
The Andaman-Nicobar basin, located in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal,
occupies an area of 47,000 sq. km including deep waters. This basin forms a part of Island
Arc System which extends from Myanmar in the north to Indonesia in the south.
The Andaman-Nicobar basin represents a typical Island arc system. The basin came into
existence as a result of the northward movement and anticlockwise rotation of the Island
Plate and its under thrusting under the Asian plate in the Cretaceous time. As subduction
progressed, the Outer High Arc complex started rising steeply, thereby creating a depression
or a Fore Arc basin between Volcanic Arc and the Outer High Arc. Continued thrusting
caused uplift and formation of the Andaman Nicobar Ridge as a chain of Islands. The
Andaman chain of islands form a part of geotectonic regime; “ The Great Indonesian Island
Arc System” of the East Indies and it extends upto Burmese Arc i.e. Arakan Yoma fold belt.
It is more than 5000 km in length. The prognosticated resources for this basin have been
estimated to be about 180 MMt.
Various evolutionary stages of the Andaman – Nicobar region are shown in below figure.
2 Tectonic History
The Andaman-Nicobar Basin has evolved through a complex history of tectonics associated
with the convergent plate boundaries between Indian plate and west Burmese plate. The
Andaman-Nicobar basin was initiated with northward drift of Indian Plate with respect to
Asia. The collision of Indian/Eurasian plates initiated along the irregular boundary and
occurred at the same time as the oceanic subduction beneath the southern Eurasia. The
continental collision slowed down the oceanic spreading rates in the Indian Ocean and
slowed down the subduction velocity along the Sunda Arc system. It resulted in a phase of
extension in the adjacent Fore-Arc and Back-Arc areas.
Major Tectonic elements of Andaman-Nicobar region are:

• Andaman Trench/Inner slope
• Outer High/Trench slope break
• Fore Arc Basin
• Volcanic Arc
• Back Arc Basin
• Mergui Terrace
These Tectonic elements are shown in the figures given below.

Figure: Schematic cross section across Andaman Sea at 110 N Latitude
Figure: Regional Tectonic Element of the Andaman Nicobar Figure: Tectonic Map of Fore Arc Sub Basin
Region
Figure: Semi Geological Cross Section across Fore-Arc Basin

Figure: Key events in the development of Fore-Arc Sub Basin
3 Generalised Stratigraphy
3.1 Habitat Of Oil and Gas:

Tectono-sedimentation studies carried out suggest presence of various petroleum systems
in Andaman basin :
• Deeply buried thermogenic system in a ponded forearc.
• Thermally induced petroleum system around the volcanic arc and
• Biogenic/shallow gas system
Basins associated with convergent plate margins are known to have good hydrocarbon
potential if organic carbon content and thermal maturity are satisfied. The Andaman-Nicobar
basin belongs to this category. Mud volcanoes with associated oil and gas are reported from
the outcrops of the Baratang Formation over the Middle and South Andaman. Gas has been
discovered from Middle Miocene limestone in well AN-1-1. Minor gas indications have also
been observed from the Lower Miocene vitric ash beds of well AN-32-1 as well as from
Cretaceous sandstone of AN-1-1 well.
Figure: Lithostratigraphic Column of Well AN-32-1 Figure: Lithostratigraphic Column of Well AN-1-1
Sedimentary packages, especially in the Fore Arc basin, comprise strata of fluvial, shelf and
deep marine regime. Accumulation of significant organic matter is considered a strong
possibility. Possible reefal growths within the Neogene section, further enhance the scope of
enrichment of organic matter. Proximity of the Fore Arc basin to the Volcanic arc is likely to
ensure optimum heat flow for hydrocarbon generation.
The Inner slope has been the locale for Paleogene turbidite deposition that is known as
collector of rich organic matter. Similarly, the Back Arc zone has been an area with
significantly high heat flow and thus considered favourable for hydrocarbon generation.
Geochemical analyses have indicated that Andaman-Nicobar region has organic rich
sediments. The total organic carbon (TOC) ranges between 2.4% & 5.2% for Cretaceous to
Oligocene Shales and Claystones.
The most favorable source rock in the basin appears to be the Baratang Formation of the
Late Cretaceous-Late Eocene age, comprising of shale, silt, sand, carbonaceous shale,
limestone with minor anhydrite and gypsum deposited in bathyal to shallow marine and open
to restrictive euxinic environments. The Pre-Neogene section in well AN-1-1 indicated
presence of rich organic matter. The Baratang Formation is in the early phase of maturation
and lies within the principal phase of oil generation up to 5,000m. Geochemical modeling
has been carried out by M/s LARGE of Russia, using data from drilled wells as well as
pseudo wells generated in deep water area. Below figure shown is Representative Thermal
& Maturation History in Deep Waters of Andaman-Nicobar Basin.
The Neogene sequence, though immature for any significant thermogenic generation of
hydrocarbons, is of interest for biogenic gas (as observed in the limestone of Well AN-1-1).
Port Blair Formation, which is the main reservoir facies in the basin, shows variable
properties. Over the Andaman Islands, the reservoir rock is conglomeratic and pebbly at
places, with alternating silty sand and shale or fine to medium grained massive sand stone
at other places. Sandstone reservoirs appear to be restricted to the Middle Miocene. Drilling
results indicate that the main reservoir is Carbonate. The major Carbonate platform shoal
provinces of the Middle and Lower Miocene were generally located in periphery of the
Central Uplift. The Paleogene section in the outcrops of the Outer High and in the subcrops
of the Fore Arc basins and Inner Slope contains turbidite deposits. The presence of
carbonate deposits at higher stratigraphic levels are associated with development of reefal
characters in the Sumatra Fore Arc region.
In the Andaman – Nicobar basin, the inner slope has not been probed by much of
exploratory drilling so far. A large number of anticlinal structures within the Cretaceous-
Oligocene sequence with fairly good source and reservoir facies, form excellent entrapment
conditions.
Porosity pods within Tertiary limestones constitute excellent reservoirs in offshore Sumatra
(Meulba-1) and in offshore Andamans (AN-1-1). To the east of south Andamans, onlapping
sedimentary sequences over the slope of magmatic arc provide ideal entrapment conditions
for accumulation of sizeable hydrocarbons deposits. Porous facies in the carbonate section
of Neogene is well developed in the northern part of Andaman Fore Arc basin. Southward
extension of this element harbours large oil/gas fields in northern Sumatra (Arun gas field).
Occurrence of fairly large anticlinal structures provides suitable entrapment conditions for
hydrocarbon accumulation.
In the invisible bank area, the onlapping sedimentary sequences on the flanks are ideal
locales for pinchout / wedgeout features favouring entrapment.
Anticlinal / Fault related structures are the principal type of traps for accumulation of
hydrocarbons – primarily gas – in Post Oligocene sediments. Stratigraphic traps like
pinchouts, wedgeouts, reefs, turbidites etc. are considered to be potential traps for
hydrocarbon accumulations.
Figure: Wedgeouts in Miocene Sequence

A number of small size anticlinal structures with relief of 150m to 200m / fault related
structures are indicated at the level of Pre-Oligocene (Basement?). These anticlinal features
are reflected in Miocene sediments also.
Figure: Structural Contour Map on top of Mid Miocene Figure: Structural Contour Map on top of Basement
4 Status of Exploration
Exploratory activities in the basin by ONGC commenced in 1959 with the initiation of
geological mapping. Since then, 5433 sq.km of area has been covered by reconnaissance,
semi-detailed and detailed mapping, and 646 LKM by traversing. The geology of the islands
is shown in Fig. Geological Map of Northern part of Andaman-Nicobar Basin & Geological
Map of Southern part of Andaman-Nicobar Basin.
Geological Section across the Andaman-Nicobar Basin.
Geophysical surveys in the offshore areas of the Andaman-Nicobar Basin were initiated by
ONGC in 1977. To start with, ONGC acquired 6,370 LKM of 24 fold CDP data through
Dresser Olympic in 1977. This was followed by acquisition of 1,898 LKM of 24 fold data
through M/s. GSI in 1979 and 10,039 LKM of 48 fold data through M/s. GSI in 1982 in
Eastern and Western Andaman area. Thereafter, 2,426 LKM of 24 fold data in 1988 and
2,831 LKM of 72 fold data was acquired in 1990 in the areas East and South of Andaman
through M/s. GECO. The surveys by GECO having high quality of seismic data, helped in
detailing of the Neogene prospects identified earlier and in mapping of additional prospects
within the Pre-Neogene section.
DGH has acquired 7,906 LKM of high resolution seismic data during 1997–2001 through
Western Geophysical and M/s. LARGE of Russia. The quantum of geophysical data
acquisition till date, by ONGC, OIL and DGH is 27356 LKM, 201 LKM and 9,398 LKM
respectively, totaling to 36,955 LKM. In addition to the above 7,314 LKM of gravity data and
17,775 LKM of Magnetic data have also been acquired. DGH, has carried out Satellite
Gravity Survey over Andaman offshore area through M/s Petroscan, Germany, covering
about 0.292 million sq. km. Derived Bouguer gravity map based on Satellite Altimetry and
depths to the base of sediments derived from the above gravity map are shown in Fig.
Derived Bouguer gravity map based on Satellite Altimetry : Andaman Offshore & Fig. Depths
to Basement from 3D Gravity Inversion. These maps depict the arcuate nature of fault
zones, which is a reflection of the arcuate nature of westerly subduction zone.
The first exploratory well AN-I-I, drilled in 1980, resulted in discovery of gas flowing @ 180,
000 m3 / day from Middle Miocene limestone. A total of 15 exploratory wells have been
drilled in the Neil and Havelock Islands., 1 of which lies in the western and the remaining are
in the eastern Andaman offshore. Indications of gas from Early Miocene sediments were
recorded in a number of wells.
In 1988, 2,500 LKM of sniffer surveys have been carried out in the eastern Andaman
offshore. Interpretation of the results obtained from absorbed gas survey indicates the
presence of wet gas in these recent sediments suggesting occurrence of reservoirs in the
subsurface. Several positive anomalies have been brought out by Geochemical sniffer
surveys. Recent seismic data acquired in deep waters has revealed attractive exploration
targets in carbonate buildups in Eocene – Miocene sequences and turbidites & gas hydrates
in Neogene sequence.
Two exploration blocks in deep waters, namely, AN-DWN-2002/1 & AN-DWN-2002/2 offered
under NELP-IV round have been awarded to Oil & Natural Gas Corpn. Ltd. (ONGC). Another
two exploration blocks namely, AN-DWN-2003/1 and AN-DWN-2003/2 were offered under
NELP-V round. These blocks were awarded to ONGC and ENI-ONGC-GAIL consortium
respectively. Under NELP-VII round one block is being offered in Eastern Andaman.
Geophysical data acquisition carried out in these PSC blocks as on 31.05.2008 is tabulated
below :
Block name 2D (LKM) 3D Q-marine (SKM) RP(2D LKM)
AN-DWN-2002/1 1400 2541 1400
AN-DWN-2002/2 2600 2702 2600
AN-DWN-2003/1 2900 205.5 1000
AN-DWN-2003/2 5141 2528 1066
5 Hydrocarbon Potential
Mud volcanoes with associated oil and gas shows are reported from the outcrops of the
Baratang Formation of the Middle and South Andaman.
Gas discovery from Middle Miocene limestone in well AN-1-1 proves that hydrocarbons have
been generated in the Inter-deep basin of east Andaman shelf. Minor gas indications have
also been observed from the Early Miocene vitric ash beds of well AN-32-1 as well as from
Cretaceous sandstone of AN-1-1 well. The data from well AN-63C-1 indicate that good to
mature organic matter having Kerogen Type-II & III is present in the Pre-Neogene section. In
the little Andaman Island, gas seepage is associated with Miocene sediments.
From the presence of commercial hydrocarbons in the adjoining basins of similar geological
setting, this basin is considered to have fairly rich hydrocarbon potential.
BENGAL BASIN
1.1 Geographic Location: Bengal Basin is situated towards the northeastern part of
Indian Peninsula in the state of West Bengal, lies tentatively between Latitudes 25°-20°30’
and Longitude 87°30’ – 90° 30’ and falls in the West Bengal state of India and Bangladesh.
Towards south the basin extends into the offshore region of Bay of Bengal.
1.2 Category: Bengal basin comes under Category III as it has shown hydrocarbon
shows in some of the wells that are considered geologically prospective.
1.3 Area: It occupies an area of 89,000 sq.km in total about which 57,000 km2 onland
and 32,000 km2 offshore up to 200 m bathymetry.
1.4 Age and Sediment Thickness: The formation of the Bengal Basin was initiated
during Middle-Upper Cretaceous time with differential subsidence. This episode corresponds
with the deposition of the subaerial fluvial clastics of the Bolpur Formation and its facies
variant of the shell limestone and shale–sandstone of the Ghatal Formation in the shelf area.
Proximal deposition of a portion of the orogenic sediment from the eastern Himalaya and the
Indo-Burman Uplifts has built a thick sequence of approximately 20km of deposits in the
Bengal basin.
2 Tectonic Framework
Tectonically, Bengal basin had a polycyclic history. From carboniferous to upper Eocene
time it was a divergent margin basin and was initiated as a response to the breakup of the
Gondwanaland along the rifted margin of the Indian plate. It depicts all evolutionary
characteristics related to marginal sag basins. Indian plate finally got separated from
Gondwanaland during lower cretaceous moved northwards and during upper Eocene had
first collision with Eurasian Plate in the north and with Burmese plate in the northeast. Since
then Bengal basin, attained the status of convergent margin basin.
The basin shows two distinct phases of development :

1. Gondwana phase
2. Post-Gondwana phase
During the Gondwana phase, non-marine sediments got deposited within a graben oriented
in N-S direction. This initial phase of sedimentation was followed by a period of
peneplanation and initiation of a general tilt of the shelf towards east. After the outpouring of
Rajmahal lavas, an uninterrupted phase of marine sedimentation in a subsiding basin started
in Late Cretaceous. Marine inundation covered practically the whole of the basin up to its
western margin. A thick sedimentary prism was deposited during Tertiary.
Following are the main tectonic and structural zones identified in the basin :
1. Basin Margin Fault Zone
2. Shelf Zone
3. Hinge Zone
4. Deep Basin
Figure: Tectonic & Structural Zone of Bengal Basin
2.1 Basin Margin Fault Zone: This NNE-SSW trending fault zone demarcates the
western crystalline/metamorphic complex of Precambrian age from the shelf sediments. The
fault zone is, apparently, the result of distension and down warping of the shelf region during
Early Cretaceous, probably, concomitant with the eruption of Rajmahal basaltic lavas. West
of this feature are the exposures of Gondwana sediments resting on the Precambrian
granitic basement.
2.2 Shelf Zone: The Bengal foreland shelf is more than 100 km wide in north and
narrows a little towards south. The Tertiary sedimentary prism thickens towards east and
merges with the deep shelf beyond the hinge. Most of the exploration activities including
drilling remained confined within this broad zone. West of Burdwan the break in the
basement slope is conspicuous. The basement slopes gently towards east and is marked by
numerous step faults with small displacements. The post-Paleocene period witnessed a
gradual deepening of the basin. This created necessary environment for the development of
shelf carbonates during Eocene. Development of a linear zone of thick limestone along the
shelf edge, interpreted as a reefal build-up along the shelf break. All the sequences show
gradual change in depositional environment from fluvial through deltaic to marine conditions
from west to east.
2.3 Hinge Zone: Bengal ‘Hinge Zone’ is a narrow elongated zone separates the thick
Post-Eocene sediments in the east from the shelf zone of the west. This feature runs in
NNE-SSW direction from east of Kolkata (Figure shown below). It is seen to be prominent on
seismic records (Figure shown below) as an abrupt change of slope and a flexure at ‘D’
reflector corresponding to top of Eocene limestone. Eocene limestone further east of hinge
zone possibly grades to shales and other deep basin sediments. This zone has given rise to
a belt of possible flexures and faulting during Oligocene and Miocene. Truncations and
wedgeouts against the hinge zone are characterstic. Golf Green and Ichapur wells are
observed to fall in this trend. The hinge zone is associated with gravity high and magnetic
low. However, seismic data indicates only a change in basement slope along this zone.
Geologiocal Section Along Bengal Basin
2.4 Deep Basin: The basinal part (of the shelf slope–basinal system) southeast of the
Eocene shelf break (hinge zone), hosts a thick prism of 10–15 km of sediments which are
largely made-up of post–middle Miocene deltaic deposits. Oligocene and older sediments
have not yet been penetrated by the drilling bit in this part. The prominent ‘D’ reflector,
corresponding to the top of the Kalighat Formation/ Sylhet Limestone, loses its character in
the basinal part, perhaps due to change of facies from limestone to shale.
3 Basin Evolution
The Evolution of the Bengal Basin, beginning with the formation of the Gondwana graben,
followed by continental rifting and drifting (Figure shown below), bears similarity with that of
the east coast basins of India. However, the graben mapped is oriented in a dominant north-
south trend instead of northwest-southeast trend as in other east coast basins. After a brief
volcanic activity resulting in outpouring of basaltic lava, the basin evolved in a passive
margin setup during post-Cretaceous period.
3.1 Gondwana Rift Stage: During Permo - Carboniferous and Early Mesozoic times, the
rift-related grabens were filled with land- derived coarser clastics, carbonaceous shale and
coal. The arenaceous facies comprising ill-sorted sand, derived from granitic provenance in
the west filled the graben. This is true of all the Gondwana sediments present along the east
coast. A number of the Gondwana time related trijunctions existed along the east coast of
India, which ultimately resulted in the break away of India from Antarctica. After the break-up
of the Gondwana land, a distension took place along the Bengal shelf which resulted in the
outpouring of Rajmahal basaltic lava during Early Late Cretaceous (118 + 2 m.y.). This
volcanic lava covered the Gondwana topography in West Bengal.
3.2 Post–Rift subsidence: A steady down-warping of continental margin took place

after the outpouring of Rajmahal Basalt. The first marine transgression over the shelf took
place during Late Cretaceous with the deposition of the Dhananjaypur Shale followed by the
Bolpur Formation. Deposition of thick coastal, shelf and marine sediments during Late
Cretaceous and Tertiary periods took place in several cycles of transgression and regression
(Figure given below). The Dhananjaypur and Bolpur formations of Upper Cretaceous were
the first to be deposited by the proto rivers flowing from western highland. During Late
Paleocene and Early Eocene, a thick shale-sand alternation, interspersed with carbonates
were deposited in a transgressive sea.
Development of carbonate facies (Kalighat Formation) of Eocene marks a relatively quiet
and warm period during which subsidence was slow or partially arrested. Subsequent to the
deposition of the Kalighat Limestone, a major phase of clastic sediment deposition started.
This is attributed to the initiation of collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate
towards the end of Eocene. This event also marks the beginning of a marked shift in the
direction of drainage system from easterly to southerly, consequent upon the emergence of
Himalayas. The Oligo-Miocene sedimentation condition was followed by a strong deltaic
environment. Early Miocene-Pliocene epoch is characterised by the deposition of a thick
succession sediments brought by the Brahmaputra-Ganga river system as delta fan deposits
over the lower shelf-slope system.
4 Stratigraphy
The Stratigraphic framework of the Bengal Basin has been reconstructed from a study of
rocks exposed along the western flank of the basin and met with in drilled wells. Generalised
stratigraphy of the basin.
Generalised stratigraphy of the basin.

4.1 Depositional Environment: The subsurface thickness of the Tertiary sedimentary
prism is observed to increase gradually from west towards east. It is also observed that the
depositional environment changes from brackish water over the shelf to marine condition in
deeper basin.
Environments of Deposition
4.2 Geological History: The Geological history of the basin began with the rift stage due
to the mantle upwelling during Gondwana period. During this period, sedimentation took
place in continental environment in lakes. During this period, Indian plate was located in the
southern hemisphere. The continuing mantle upwelling resulted in the outpouring of
Rajmahal basalts during U.Jurassic to L. Cretaceous period and final break of the Indian
plate and due to the plate movement, its journey towards northern hemisphere. Thus, Indian
eastern sea coast started forming during cretaceous period and there was a sea
transgression over Rajmahal basalts during U. Cretaceous period and Ghatal formation was
deposited during this period. Paleocene period is marked by sea regression and sand shale
deposition has taken place known as Jalangi formation. During Eocene time, there was sea
transgression but detrital influx was meager and the sea was shallow and clear. Thus
widespread limestone deposition has taken place during this period. At this time Indian plate
came into contact with Burmese plate in the east and Tibetian plate in the north. The
Oligocene period was a regressive phase resulting in the deposition of Burdwan formation.
Miocene period has several transgressive and regressive phases and the huge sediment
supply was there due to Himalayan uplift and deposition has taken place in deltaic
environment. Finally during recent period sea has regressed and alluvium is deposited in the
flood plain environment.
5 Petroleum System
Source Rock
The Lower Gondwana sediments are contain upto 4% organic carbon with
Type-II and Type-III kerogen in wells Galsi-1, Mainagar-1, Palasi-1. The
Gondwana
Vitrinite reflectance values of the source material within the Gondwana
sequences range between 0.47% and 3.29%
Cretaceous sediments show good maturation in Bolpur, Ghatal and
Cretaceous Dhananjaypur Formation Paleocene sediments of VRo maturation value of
and 0.65% and shows a good source development with type II & III Kerogen in
Paleocene the Jalangi Formation. Source beds within the Ghatal Formation, having a
good to moderate percentage of TOC are in the early stage of maturation.
The Early Eocene section is characterized by the development of
alternating continental and marine facies and the Middle to Late Eocene
sequence, by the development of a thick carbonate facies comprising
Eocene
Nummulitic limestone with intervening shales. The carbonate facies is
observed to change basinward into highly organic-rich marine shale in
several wells.
Oligocene to Miocene sediments are, by and large, immature within the
Bengal Shelf. Beyond the ‘Hinge zone’, maturation of Oligocene sediments
is expected to increase with the increase in the depth of occurrence of
such sediments. The source rock maturation for various stratigraphic units
and probable oil window zone across the shelf. Maturation values for
Oligocene
various stratigraphic sequences such as Paleocene, Eocene, and Miocene
show that the hinge zone and deeper basinal areas form favourable areas
for maturation of organic matter. This is also observed in case of the
Jalangi Formation which forms an important source sequence in the
Bengal Basin.
Reservoir facies are available in abundance within the Gondwana and
Paleocene sequences are of arenaceous character. Sandstone reservoirs
occur in abundance within the Bolpur, Lower Jalangi and Upper Jalangi
Reservoir
formations and higher up within the Burdwan Formation of Oligocene age.
Facies
A Sand within the Burdwan Formation is found oil bearing in well Ichapur–
1. In the Miocene sequence, sandstone reservoirs are present in
abundance within the Bodra and Pandua formations.
Cap Rock and Entrapment
Gondwana rocks have been deposited as an alternating sequence of sand,
shale and coal in Galsi, Mainagar and Chandkuri areas. Graben setting,
Gondwana together with composite lithology, may provide suitable conditions for
hydrocarbon accumulation in structural, stratigraphic and strati-
structural traps. Barakar and Raniganj shales should serve as good seals.
The argillaceous Amta Member of the Ghatal Formation can serve as seal
Cretaceous for Bolpur sand reservoirs. Argillaceous Middle Jalangi unit also may serve
and as seal for the reservoirs of the Lower Jalangi unit. Hydrocarbon
Paleocene accumulation in this section is expected to be mostly in stratigraphic
traps.
Tight limestone of the Eocene section and the Hoogly Shale may serve as
seal for the porous reefoidal Eocene reservoirs. Accumulation in the
Eocene
Eocene section is expected to be in stratigraphic and strati-structural
traps.
In the deeper part of the shelf, the Matla Formation is observed to thicken
considerably .The Memari Member of this formation may act as a good seal
for reservoirs within the Burdwan Formation and the Jayanagar Member
Oligo –
can be a seal over Miocene reservoirs. The deltaic system with composite
Miocene
lithofacies within the Oligocene and Miocene sections has a potential to
form stratigraphic hydrocarbon plays in the area near and beyond the
hinge zone.
5.1 Prognosticated Resources: The prognosticated hydrocarbon resources in Bengal

basin are placed at 190 MMt of oil +gas equivalents.
Hydrocarbon Plays
Entrapment conditions are expected to exist in basement related
Gondwana structures and stratigraphic wedgeouts in the central, northern and
southern parts of the Gondwana graben.
a) Low amplitude structural highs, broadly in a NE-SW trend through
Cretaceous
Contai–Ghatal-Jalangi–Karimpur areas.
and
b) Growth fault related low amplitude structural prospects in the
Paleocene
depositional low in Krishnanagar–Ranaghat area.
Eocene shelf edge forms a favorable locale for the development of
Eocene
carbonate reef prospects.
Onlapping reflectors of good continuity and moderate to high amplitude
are observed in the seismic sequence corresponding to the Oligocene
section. Velocity analysis suggests that these anomalies correspond to
Oligocene
sand-shale alternations within Oligocene and can be target for
exploration. The wedgeout zones are equally interesting for
stratigraphic accumulation.
Seismic facies analysis and basin modeling (done by ongc) indicate
development of two types of prospects in the Mio-Pliocene section
Mio –
(a) deltaic, and
Pliocene
Prospects
(b) prospect associated with turbidite facies along the shelf–slope area
south of Sunderbans
6 Exploration Status
6.1 Geological Survey: Most of the basin area is covered by alluvium and there are only
a few exposures of rocks towards western fringe of the basin. Gondwana rocks are exposed
in the western part as outliers on the Archean basement. Other exposures include basaltic
rocks, known as the Rajmahal Trap, lying over the Gondwana sediments. The total area
covered by geological mapping is about 8800 sq. km.
6.2 Geophysical Survey: The Bengal Basin is extensively covered by geophysical

surveys. Aeromagnetic and gravity surveys were carried out during the early stages of
exploration (1963-1970). Many parts of the basin were extensively covered by 24 and 48 fold
surveys from 1975 to 1988.
3D seismic data (4217 LKM, equivalent to 210 SKM) was acquired in 1989-91 for confirming
the presence and mapping the extension of reefs and other features / prospects which were
inferred to occur in Amtala, Golf Green and Ichapur areas.
Offshore areas were also covered by 24 fold seismic surveys conducted in 1975. This was
followed by additional CDP survey in offshore areas and in the Sunderban estuaries during
1979-81. 3D seismic survey in offshore area measures 1248 LKM (60 Eq. SKM).
6.3 Exploration Drilling: The Bengal Basin drew early interest of exlplorationists, when
10 wells were drilled by Standard Petroleum under Indo-Stanvac Petroleum Project (ISPP)
during 1958 - 1960. Sedimentary sequences of Pliocene to Cretaceous age were
encountered in these wells. Most of these wells are reported to have given hydrocarbon
shows at various depths during drilling in the following table.
Well Hydrocarbon Shows

SME-4 Gas at 2270-2465, 3070-3125 & 3850-4050m
Burdwan – 1 Asphalt at 1951m
Galsi – 1 Gas at 1050 & 1058m
Jalangi – 1 Pale +ve cut at 2133m; asphalts at 2545m & gas at 3049m
Debagram – 1 Gas at 1050,1428 & 2131m & GYF at 1426m
Memari – 1 Gas at 2015 - 2022m
Port Canning –1 Gas at 546-613, 2373 & 2543.25m
West Ranaghat – 1 Dissolved gas at 2526-2544m

Sedimentary Basins of India

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sedimentary Basins of India

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sedimentary Basins of India

On the basis of prospectivity basins have been categorised as follows:

Category-I : Proven Commerical Productivity

Basin Name Onland Area Offshore Area Total

Assam-Arakan 116000 - 116000

Cambay 51000 2500 53500

Cauvery 25000 30000 55000

Krishna-Godawari Offshore 28000 24000 52000

Mumbai Offshore - 116000 116000

Rajasthan 126000 - 126000

Category-II : Identified Prospectivity

Basin Name Onland Area Offshore Area Total

Kutch 35000 13000 48000

Mahanadi-Nec 55000 14000 69000

Andaman-Nicobar 6000 41000 47000

Category-III : Prospective Basins

Basin Name Onland Area Offshore Area Total

Bengal 57000 32000 89000

Himalyan Foreland 30000 - 30000

Kerla-Konkan Lakshdweep - 94000 94000

Saurashtra 52000 28000 80000

Vindhyan 162000 - 162000

Category-IV : Potentially Prospective

Basin Name Onland Area Offshore Area Total

Bastar 5000 - 5000

Bhima Kaladgi 8500 - 8500

Chhattisgarh 32000 - 32000

Cuddapah 39000 - 39000

Deccan Syneclise 273000 - 273000

Karewa 3700 - 3700

Narmada 17000 - 17000

Pranhita Godavari 15000 - 15000

Satpura-S.Rewa-Damodar 46000 - 46000

Spiti Zanskar 22000 - 22000

1 Basin Introduction: The Assam-Arakan Basin is situated in the northeastern part of

2 Tectonic History: The Assam-Arakan sedimentary Basin is a shelf–slope–basinal

2.1 Upper Assam Shelf:-

2.2 Shelf To Basinal Slope To Basinal Area:-

3 Stratigraphy: Sedimentary sequences ranging in age from Late Mesozoic to

Formation Average TOC Range Remarks

Barail (shales) 2.5% to 4.5% Excellent source potential

Kopili (shales) 1% to 3% Excellent source potential

Sylhet Limestone ~ 0.61% Poor source potential

Basal Sandstone ~ 0.62% Poor source potential

5.3.1 A Comprehensive Petroleum System events of Assam basin-

1.1 Category of the basin:- Proved

1.5 Exploration Status:-

Field Area(Sq Km) Field Area(Sq Km)

Lohar-ONGC 8.29 Gandhar Ext. - II (Denwa) 54.30

Umra Ext. - II 34.43 Gandhar Ext. - I 32.75

Kalol West Ml 14.53 Kalol Ext. -II 15.50

Motera Ext. -II 26.02 Kadi Ext. -II 41.01

2.1 Type of Basin:- Intracratonic rift graben.

During Paleocene, the basin continued to remain as a shallow depression, receiving

During Early Eocene, a conspicuous and widespread transgression resulted in the

During Miocene The depocenters continued to subside resulting in the deposition of

6.1 Paleocene-Early Eocene Play:-

6.2 Middle Eocene Play:-

6.3 Late Eocene-Oligocene Play:-

6.4 Miocene Play:-

Figure showing Geological Map of Cauvery Basin

Figure showing Tectonic Evolution Profile of Cauvery Basin

2.1 Sedimentation History and Despositional Environment:- Evolution of the Cauvery