Delay Measurements

Table of Contents
Low-Volume Delay Measurement Example ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement and Example ....................................................................................................................... 4
High-Volume Delay Measurement and Example ............................................................................................................................... 8
Delay Equations .................................................................................................................................................................................... 14

List of Figures
Figure 1: Column Graph of Delay versus Level-of-Service .................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement Example .................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement Arrival Example......................................................................................... 7
Figure 4: Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement Calculation Example ................................................................................. 8
Figure 5: High-Volume Delay Measurement Example .......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 6: High-Volume Delay Measurement Calculation Example ....................................................................................... 11
Figure 7: 15-second Count Interval with 90-second Cycle ................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8: 14-second and 15-second Count Intervals with 90-second Cycle ........................................................................ 13
Figure 9: 14-second Count Interval with 90-second Cycle ................................................................................................... 14
Figure 10: Example Complete Signalized Intersection Delay Calculation ............................................................................ 16
Figure 11: Delay Calculation Results for Approaches and Intersection ............................................................................... 17

List of Tables
Table 1: Delay and Level-of-Service ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Table 2: Low-Volume Delay Measurement Calculation Example ........................................................................................... 4

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 Delay Measurements

In the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, delay became the preferred measure of effectiveness for traffic
signal operation. Delay is then utilized to determine a level-of-service, which is a rating system from “A”
representing low delay, to “F” representing high delay. Table 1 and Figure 1 are excerpted from the
2010 Highway Capacity Manual and relate delay to level-of-service for signalized and unsignalized
intersections.

Delay is typically measured or calculated as mean (average) delay, and is traditionally termed seconds-
per-vehicle. In pure mathematical terms, it is correctly identified as only mean delay in seconds. Delay
is sometimes measured or calculated as total delay, termed vehicle-seconds. Total delay must also
include the duration of the measurement. Both average delay and total delay are sometimes converted
to hours by dividing by 3,600 seconds-per-hour.

Delay is then utilized to determine a level-of-service, from “A” to “F”. Table 1 and Figure 1 are excerpted
from the 2010 Highway Capacity Manual and relate delay to level-of-service for signalized and
unsignalized intersections.

AVERAGE DELAY (seconds-per-vehicle)

LEVEL-OF-SERVICE
UNSIGNALIZED SIGNALIZED
A  10  10
B > 10 to 15 > 10 to 20
C > 15 to 25 > 20 to 35
D > 25 to 35 > 35 to 55
E > 35 to 50 > 55 to 80
F > 50 > 80

Table 1: Delay and Level-of-Service

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 Delay Measurements

120

110

100
F
90

80
F
MEAN DELAY (seconds-per-vehicle)

E
70

60

50

40 E D
30
D C
20
C
10 B B
0
A A
UNSIGNALIZED SIGNALIZED

Figure 1: Column Graph of Delay versus Level-of-Service

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 Delay Measurements

Low-Volume Delay Measurement Example

The most accurate technique for measuring delay can only be utilized at low volume intersections,
where vehicles arrive infrequently. A stopwatch is started when each vehicle arrives and stopped when
that vehicle leaves. The delay time is recorded. This technique can be utilized whenever the vehicles
are few enough so that each vehicle’s delay can be measured individually. Two people can be used –
one to operate the stopwatch and the other to record the times. An example set of data is provided as
Table 2.

VEHICLE DELAY VEHICLE DELAY

1 ............................ 3
2 .......................... 23
3 ............................ 5
4 .......................... 12
5 .......................... 16
6 .......................... 13
7 .......................... 10
8 .......................... 15
9 ............................ 9
10 ............................ 8
11 ........................... 6
12 ......................... 12
13 ......................... 17
14 ......................... 18
15 ......................... 19
16 ......................... 20
17 ......................... 11
18 ........................... 3
19 ........................... 7
20 ......................... 13

TOTAL DELAY ..................................240.00 vehicle-seconds

AVERAGE DELAY ............................ 12.00 seconds

Table 2: Low-Volume Delay Measurement Calculation Example

Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement and Example

This delay measurement technique can only be used at a signalized intersection, where vehicles arrive
at clearly identified times. The delay measurement is indirect, yet it is accurate, and not an estimate.
Typically, two people are required.

When the red light first appears, a stop watch is started. The time of each vehicle arrival is noted.
Usually, one person watches the stop watch and records the time, while the other person watches the
street and tells the recorder when a vehicle arrives.

When the red light changes to a green light, the stop watch is stopped. The delay for each vehicle is
calculated by subtracting its time of arrival from the length of the red light. A slight inaccuracy involved
with this technique is the assumption that all vehicles leave immediately upon the appearance of the
green light. Additional measurements – as described below – can be accomplished at different times
or simultaneously to compensate for this inaccuracy.
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 Delay Measurements

The time from the beginning of the green light to the time each vehicle crosses the curb line can be
measured, often termed “start-up delay”. This measurement is accomplished in the same manner as
the measurement of the red light delay. For the measurement of the start-up delay, the stop watch is
started when the green light first appears, and the time that each vehicle crosses the curb line is
recorded. Typically, this delay is one to two seconds per vehicle. Often these vehicle movements occur
too quickly for accurate recording.

The total delay per vehicle is the sum of the red light delay and the start-up delay.

It is most accurate if a separate pair accomplishes the start-up delay measurements simultaneous with
the first pair measurement of the red light delay.

An example of a moderate-volume delay measurement data collection and calculation is provided as

Figure 2.

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 Delay Measurements

5 Seconds 15 Seconds
R R

25 Seconds 30 Seconds
R R

40 Seconds 45 Seconds
R G

Figure 2: Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement Example

In Figure 2, in the first frame, notice that a blue vehicle arrived at time 5 seconds. (The stop watch was
started when the light first changed from green to red.) In the second frame, a yellow vehicle arrived at
time 10 seconds, and the first-arriving blue vehicle remains waiting. A red vehicle arrives at time 25
seconds. A green vehicle arrives at time 30 seconds. A brown vehicle arrives at time 40 seconds. At
time 45 seconds the light changes from red to green.

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 Delay Measurements

The first vehicle waited from time 5 seconds to time 45 seconds, waiting for 40 seconds. The second
vehicle waited from time 10 seconds to time 45 seconds, or 35 seconds. The third vehicle waited from
time 25 seconds to time 45 seconds, or 20 seconds. The fourth vehicle waited from time 30 seconds
to time 45 seconds, or 15 seconds. The fifth vehicle waited from time 40 seconds to time 45 seconds,
or 5 seconds.

This measuring process is repeated for several cycles of red lights changing to green lights. The most
accurate representation of the highest vehicle delay occurs with measurements of low vehicle arrivals
that increase to high vehicle arrivals that return to low vehicle arrivals.

Figure 3 provides the vehicle arrival data for the red-green cycle Figure 2 and four additional cycles.

TIME OF VEHICLE ARRIVAL Time of

Cycle Vehicle # 1 Vehicle # 2 Vehicle # 3 Vehicle # 4 Vehicle # 5 Vehicle # 6 Vehicle # 7 GREEN
1 5 15 25 30 40 None None 45

2 10 25 40 45 None None None 55

3 5 10 30 40 45 None None 45

4 15 20 35 45 None None None 50

5 20 25 30 35 45 55 None 55

Figure 3: Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement Arrival Example

The time when the red light changes to green varies. Also, when a vehicle does not arrive, the word
“none” is written. Figure 4 provides the delay calculation based upon the vehicle arrival data in Figure
3.

Notice that the calculated vehicle delay is the time when the light changes from red to green minus the
vehicle arrival time. Occasionally a vehicle arrives at the time the light changes from red to green,
resulting in a vehicle of delay of 0 seconds. A delay of 0 is meaningful for the mean delay calculation –
different from no vehicle arriving.

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 Delay Measurements

CALCULATED VEHICLE DELAY

Cycle Vehicle # 1 Vehicle # 2 Vehicle # 3 Vehicle # 4 Vehicle # 5 Vehicle # 6 Vehicle # 7

1 40 30 20 15 5 None None

2 45 30 15 10 None None None

3 40 35 15 5 0 None None

4 35 30 15 5 None None None

5 35 30 25 20 10 0 None

NUMBER OF VEHICLES 24

TOTAL DELAY (vehicle-seconds) 510.0000

TOTAL DELAY (vehicle-hours) 0.1417

MEAN DELAY (seconds per vehicle) 21.2500

MEAN DELAY (hours per vehicle) 0.0059

Figure 4: Moderate-Volume Delay Measurement Calculation Example

At this point in the delay calculation the list of vehicle delays for the moderate-volume technique in the
Figure 4 example is very similar to the list of vehicle delays for the low-volume technique in the Table
2 example. As indicated in Figure 4 , the total and mean delay can be calculated in both seconds and
hours.

The moderate-volume technique can be utilized whenever the vehicles are few enough so that each
vehicle’s arrival can be recorded individually.
High-Volume Delay Measurement and Example
This technique can be used at either signalized or unsignalized intersections. The delay measurement
is an estimate. The measurement can be accomplished for each movement or each lane. Typically,
two people are required for each separate measurement.

A counting interval is selected. One person – the recorder – watches a clock and tells the other person
to count the number of stopped and slowly moving vehicles at the intersection behind the curb line. The
counter then tells the recorder the number of vehicles that are present at that time. For the high-volume
technique, the count interval determines the time the vehicles are counted. This is different from the
moderate-volume technique when the vehicle arrivals determine the time that is recorded.

The counting interval is critical – the shorter the interval, the more accurate the estimate. However, the
interval must be sufficiently long to allow the counting and the recording of vehicles waiting. With this
technique, the arriving vehicles must also be counted during the same time period as the waiting
vehicles are counted. The time period of the waiting vehicle count must identical – or at least very close
– to an even multiple of the time period for the arriving vehicle count.
The average delay is calculated with the following formula:
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 Delay Measurements

(Waiting Vehicles) * (Count Interval)

Average delay = ------------------------------------------------------ Equation 1
(Arriving Vehicles)

An example of a high-volume delay measurement data collection and calculation are provided
respectively as Figure 5 and Figure 6. For this example, the count interval is 13 seconds. The left-
turning vehicles are counted separately from the straight and right-turning vehicles.

At time 13 seconds, 1 left-turning vehicle is present and 5 straight and right-turning vehicles are
counted. At time 26 seconds, 2 left-turning vehicles are present and 7 straight and right-turning vehicles
are counted. Note that one left-turning vehicle is counted at both time 13 seconds and time 26 seconds.
Also note that five straight and right-turning vehicles are also counted at both time 13 seconds and 26
seconds. Each time a vehicle is counted, it is assumed that the vehicle was waiting the length of the
count interval. Therefore, the one left-turning vehicle and the five straight and right-turning vehicles
were assumed to have waited 2 count intervals, for 26 seconds.

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 Delay Measurements

R R

R R
13 Seconds 26 Seconds

R G

R R
39 Seconds 52 Seconds

R R

G R
65 Seconds 78 Seconds

Figure 5: High-Volume Delay Measurement Example

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 Delay Measurements

Figure 6 records the number of vehicles arriving at each of the first six count intervals as depicted in
Figure 5. Figure 6 provides counts for fourteen count intervals – every 13-second count interval though
time 182 seconds.

The total number of delayed (waiting) left-turning vehicles in 182 seconds was 36, and the total delayed
through and right-turning vehicles in 182 seconds was 136. The total delay is the number of delayed
vehicles multiplied by the count interval. These equal 468 vehicle-seconds for left-turning vehicles and
1,768 vehicle-seconds for straight and right-turning vehicles.

Number of Vehicles in Queue

Time (Seconds) Left Through and Right
13 1 5
26 2 7
39 4 12
52 3 19
65 2 15
78 3 10
91 3 2
104 3 3
117 4 8
130 5 12
143 1 17
156 3 14
169 1 10
182 1 2

TOTAL DELAYED VEHICLES 36 136

TOTAL DELAY (vehicle-seconds) 468 1,768
TOTAL DELAY (vehicle-hours) 0.1300 0.4911

TOTAL ARRIVING VEHICLES 12 170

MEAN DELAY (seconds) 39.0000 10.4000
MEAN DELAY (hours) 0.01 0.00

Figure 6: High-Volume Delay Measurement Calculation Example

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 Delay Measurements

The total delay can be divided by 3600 seconds-per-hour to determine the total delay in vehicle-hours
of 0.1300 vehicle-hours for left-turning vehicles and 0.4911 vehicle-hours for straight and right-turning
vehicles.

To determine the mean delay, utilizing Equation 21, the total number of arriving vehicles during the
182-second count period must be determined. Recall that the total of 36 left-turning and 136 straight
and right-turning delayed vehicles included counting some vehicles more than once. Therefore, the
number of unique vehicles must be counted separately. For this example, as indicated in Figure 6, 12
left-turn vehicles arrived and 170 straight and right-turning vehicles arrived. Recognize that these two
numbers cannot be determined from the delayed vehicle counts.

A critical aspect of the high-volume delay measurement technique is that the count interval should not
be a number that is an integer divisor of the cycle length. The cycle length is the total time that the
different signal indications appear. Figure 7 depicts a simple traffic signal – one that does not include
left-turn arrows. It indicates a green light, then a yellow light, then a red light, and the sequence
continues. Each of these individual colors is termed a phase. The sum of the green phase, yellow
phase, and red phase is termed the cycle length.

Figure 7 indicates a 90-second cycle length. If a high-volume delay technique is utilized with a 15-
second count interval, then the delayed vehicle count would occur at the same time within each green,
yellow, or red indication. Recall that the high-volume delay measurement is an estimate. The estimate
is more valid if the delayed vehicle count occurs at random times of the color indications, rather than at
identical times with each indication.

Count Interval

15” 15” 15”

GY R GYR
90 second cycle

Figure 7: 15-second Count Interval with 90-second Cycle

Figure 8 depicts a 90-second cycle length with both a 15-second count interval and a 14-second count
interval. Not that the 14-second count interval occurs at random times within the three signal color
indications. This results in a more valid estimate of vehicle delay.
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 Delay Measurements

Prior to accomplishing a high-volume delay measurement, the actual cycle length must be discovered
through conversation with the appropriate jurisdiction controlling the traffic signal, or by direct
measurement. Typically, though not always, at intersections within high-volume segments, the cycle
lengths are consistent. At low or moderate volume intersections, the cycle lengths often vary based on
the amount of traffic on the lower volume street. With varying cycle lengths, greater flexibility for the
count interval time is possible.

Count Interval
14”

15”

GYR GYR
90 second cycle

Figure 8: 14-second and 15-second Count Intervals with 90-second Cycle

Figure 9 reveals that a 14-second count interval will eventually occur at in a repetitive pattern. However,
as stated, this occurs every 630 seconds or 10.5 minutes. The 210 seconds stated in Figure 9 is an
appropriate time interval to count the arriving vehicles. This is 3.50 minutes and corresponds exactly to
15 count intervals – which ensures an accurate calculation of mean delay based upon delayed vehicles
and arriving vehicles, utilizing Equation 21.

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 Delay Measurements

14-Second Count Interval

GREEN

GREEN

GREEN

GREEN

GREEN

GREEN

GREEN

GREEN
YELLOW

YELLOW

YELLOW

YELLOW

YELLOW

YELLOW

YELLOW

YELLOW
RED

RED

RED

RED

RED

RED

RED

RED
210 seconds

630 seconds

Figure 9: 14-second Count Interval with 90-second Cycle

In recent years, video recording of traffic movement has become increasingly inexpensive and
convenient, and therefore become more popular. These three techniques can each be utilized with
recorded video.
Delay Equations
Recognizing that direct traffic delay measurement has historically been difficult and expensive, while
traffic counts have been relatively common, equations calculating traffic delay based upon traffic
volume have been developed and refined.

The best reference for these equations is the Highway Capacity Manual published by the Transportation
Research Board. Delay calculations are too complex for detailed explanation. A brief exposure to these
concepts and equations is provided.

The equation for delay calculation at unsignalized intersections is:

3600 vx
(----------) * (----------)
3600 (vx – 1) cm,x cm,x
D = -------- + 900 * T * [ (----------- – 1 )2 + (--------------------------------) 0.5] + 5 Equation 2
cm,x cm,x 450 * T

D = Delay (seconds-per-vehicle)
vx = Volume of movement x (vehicles-per-hour)
cm,x = Capacity of movement x (vehicles-per-hour)
T = Duration of analysis (hours)

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 Delay Measurements

The equations for delay calculation at signalized intersections are:

D = D1 * PF + D2 + D3 Equation 3

D = Delay (seconds-per-vehicle)
D1 = Uniform Delay
D2 = Incremental Delay
D3 = Residual Demand Delay
PF = Progression Factor

[ 1 – (g / C)]2
D1 = 0.5 * C * --------------------------------------------------- Equation 4
[ 1 – (g / C) * minimum (X,1)]

8*k*I*X
D2 = 900 * T * [ ( x – 1 ) + ( (x-1)2 +----------------------) 0.5] Equation 5
c*T

1800 * Qb * ( 1 + u ) * t
D3 = --------------------------------------- Equation 6
c*T

C = Cycle length (seconds)

T = Duration of analysis (hours)
G = Effective green time (seconds)
X = Volume to Capacity Ratio
c = Capacity (vehicles-per-hour)
k = incremental delay factor, dependent on controller settings
I = upstream filtering factor

Qb = Initial queue at start of period T (vehicles)

t = Duration of unmet demand in T (hours)
u = delay parameter

Qb
t = 0, if Qb = 0, else t = Min { T, ----------------------------} Equation 7
c * [ 1 – Min (1,X)]

c*T
u = 0, if t > T, else u = ---------------------------- Equation 8
Qb * [ 1 – Min (1,X)]

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 Delay Measurements

Figure 10 provides the results of an example signalized intersection delay calculation. This example
reveals the complexity of the calculation methodology. Detailed example of this methodology is beyond
the scope of a textbook and is provided in the Highway Capacity Manual.

INTERSECTION: EXAMPLE AREA: NON-CBD TIME PERIOD: AM PEAK HOUR

EASTBOUND WESTBOUND NORTHBOUND SOUTHBOUND

LEFT THRU RIGHT LEFT THRU RIGHT LEFT THRU RIGHT LEFT THRU RIGHT
VOLUME 421 1,579 189 368 1,263 263 126 1,158 105 63 1,526 158
LANES 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 2 0 1 2 0
SATURATION FLOW RATE 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000
LEFT-TURN OPERATION E E E E
RIGHT-TURN OPERATION P&E
LANE WIDTH 12 10 10 12 10 10 12 12 0 12 12 0
HEAVY VEHICLES 3% 12% 3% 3% 12% 3% 3% 12% 3% 3% 12% 3%
HEAVY VEHICLE EQUIVALENT 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4
GRADE 4% 4% 4% -4% -4% -4% 2% 2% 2% -2% -2% -2%
PARKING PER HOUR 0 0 10 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 10 0
BUSSES PER HOUR 1 3 0 1 3 0 2 3 0 2 3 0
ARRIVAL TYPE 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 6 6 3 3 3
UNIT EXTENSION 1.5 4.0 1.5 1.5 4.0 1.5 1.5 4.0 4.0 1.5 4.0 4.0
F - lane utilization 0.971 0.908 1.000 0.971 0.908 1.000 1.000 0.952 0.000 1.000 0.952 0.000
F - left-turn 0.950 0.950 0.950 0.950
F - right-turn 0.850 0.850 0.988 0.986
F - left-turns blocked
F - right-turns blocked
F - width 1.000 0.933 0.933 1.000 0.933 0.933 1.000 1.000 0.600 1.000 1.000 0.600
F - heavy vehicles 0.943 0.893 0.917 0.943 0.893 0.917 0.943 0.893 0.917 0.943 0.893 0.917
F - grade 0.980 0.980 0.980 1.020 1.020 1.020 0.990 0.990 0.990 1.010 1.010 1.010
F - parking 0.950 0.967 0.850 0.950 0.967 0.850 0.900 0.925 1.000 0.900 0.925 1.000
F - busses 0.998 0.996 1.000 0.998 0.996 1.000 0.992 0.994 1.000 0.992 0.994 1.000
F - area 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Adjusted Flow Rate 3,331 4,718 1,213 3,467 4,910 1,262 1,584 3,251 0 1,616 3,317 0
Phase Length 21.00 21.00 21.00 21.00 21.00 21.00 5.00 34.00 34.00 5.00 34.00 34.00
Cycle Length 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00 86.00
Degree of Saturation (X) 0.518 1.371 0.640 0.435 1.053 0.854 1.371 0.901 0.000 0.672 1.164 0.000
Progression Factor 1.030 1.030 1.030 1.030 1.030 1.030 1.000 0.346 0.346 1.000 1.000 1.000
Uniform Delay 46.29 53.50 47.92 45.24 53.50 51.09 45.50 56.35 56.35 44.60 60.00 60.00
Controller Setting Delay 0.03 0.50 0.12 0.01 0.41 0.28 0.50 0.34 0.16 0.14 0.46 0.16
Capacity 813.35 1,152.00 296.09 846.55 1,199.02 308.18 92.11 1,285.24 0.00 93.97 1,311.21 0.00
Incremental Delay 0.13 672.83 2.56 0.05 116.44 17.84 734.14 8.35 8.35 11.02 304.04 304.04
Total Movement Delay 48 120 52 47 120 70 120 28 28 56 120 120
Total Approach Delay 100 99 36 118
Total Intersection Delay 92

Figure 10: Example Complete Signalized Intersection Delay Calculation

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 Delay Measurements

One minor aspect of delay can be presented completely. At either an unsignalized or signalized
intersection, the delay for an approach is the weighted average delay of the movements. At either an
all-way stop controlled or signalized intersection, the delay for the intersection is the weighted average
delay of the approaches.

 (dx * vx)
APPROACH DELAY = ---------------------- = d a Equation 9
 (vx)

 (da * va)
INTERSECTION DELAY =---------------------- = di Equation 10
 (va)
dx = Delay of movement x (seconds-per-vehicle)
vx = Adjusted Volume of movement x (vehicles-per-hour)
da = Delay of approach a (seconds-per-vehicle)
va = Adjusted Volume of approach a (vehicles-per-hour)
di = Delay of intersection (seconds-per-vehicle)

Figure 11 provides an example calculation of approach delay and intersection delay from movement
volumes and delays.

Northbound Southbound Eastbound Westbound

Left Thru Right Left Thru Right Left Thru Right Left Thru Right
Movement Volume 100 1100 90 1750 160 200 1000 100 900
Movement Delay 24 12 30 22 8 50 20 30 20
Approach Delay 13.00 21.24 25.00 21.00
Intersection Delay 20.20

Figure 11: Delay Calculation Results for Approaches and Intersection

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 Delay Measurements

Northbound Approach Delay

(150 * 30) + (1,800 * 20)

= --------------------------------------------------- = 20.8 Equation 11
150 + 1,800

Intersection Delay

20.8*(150+1,800)+17.4*(200+1,600+100)+28.0*(180+1,000)+37.5*(220+1,100)
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(150 + 1,800) + (200 + 1,600 + 100)+ (180 + 1,000)+ (220 + 1,100)

= 24.6 seconds

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