Lec 06 Civil Engg. Geology

By Prof.
Muhammad salman
Department of Civil Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology Taxila
CIVIL ENGINEERING Geology
INTRODUCTION:
PAGES 93 TO 98
FROM THE WORD NOTES TO BE
STUDIED
Department of Civil Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology Taxila
 Civil engineering geology
 Since the dim ages of pre-historic times, man has been practicing the
art of engineering and he started erecting very simple and ordinary
types of structure for his livelihood. With the passage of time, the
man, entirely on the basis of his practical experience and common
sense, created a few thumb rules, to serve as a guide, for erecting
very ordinary structures.
 It is only since the human progress had reached its evolutionary
height, which we call the dawn of civilization, the man actually started
to design and build the structures according to his requirements.
Since then the man has been curious to know more and more about
the various building materials, specially regarding their properties
and uses. Experience taught him and he continued to make progress
in the art of engineering, bit by bit.
 As a matter of fact progress in one field of science, develops the field
of other branches of the bordering sciences. Similarly, engineering
has gained plenty of knowledge from all the related sciences. In the
course of time, the pure sciences like Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematics and Geology assumed their due role in solving
engineering problems. An engineer, of today, has acquired sufficient
knowledge to design and construct his structures systematically,
accurately and successfully in the light of advanced geologic
knowledge.
 Role of geology in the field of engineering:
 Before a civil engineer may proceed to design his project, lie
must know something about the type of rocks on which the
foundation of his structure has to rest, or in which his work has to
be carried out. This necessitates a thorough investigation of the
site, before the detailed design may be prepared. If he neglects
such an investigation, he can be compared to a surgeon starting
the work of an operation without diagnosis; or a lawyer pleading
his client's case without prior discussion with him.
 The practice, going on in the last few decades all over the world,
is that geologists are called upon to give their advice regarding
the foundation conditions of the major and important projects to
be undertaken. The service, that is rendered by a geologist in
any major civil engineering project, is being considered as the
most valuable and important for the proper planning and
execution of the project. For example.
 1. The geologist analyses the conditions of area,

selected for the site, the engineer will consider as to
how to improve the conditions and to adjust them,
so as to make them suitable to his plans.
 2. The geologist, from his analysis, finds out the
probable problems and difficulties, that are likely to
be faced during the construction, the engineer will
solve the problems and overcome the difficulties.
 3. The geologist suggests different sites for the
building materials such as stone, brick earth, sand
etc. to be obtained, the engineer will obtain them
economically and will put them to use.
 In addition to the above-mentioned few examples, engineer may
have to face a variety of problems and hardships, in his day to
day work, for which fundamental knowledge of Geology is most
essential. As a matter of fact, good engineering means
construction of most economical structures, which will last longer
and fulfill their purposes satisfactorily. But a structure cannot
work smoothly and successfully until and unless the foundations
of the structure are safe. It may be noted that safety of a
foundation not only depends upon its correct design and
superiority of construction but also upon the underground
 Geological features.
 It has been experienced that majority of modern failures are not
due to faulty design or lack of proper supervision during
construction, but only due to defective bed-conditions, which are
not fully detected at the time of selection of the site or during
construction.
 It may be noted that it is merely a geological investigation which lacks
proper attention; as the engineers are seldom qualified to carry out
geologic works. Moreover, geologists cannot apply their knowledge to
engineering problems as they are geologists and not engineers. This
gap can only be filled by an engineer who has considerable knowledge
of Geology. There is also a serious defect in the working of the various
nation building departments, as there is no co-ordination between the
staff of geology and engineering departments at any level. In advanced
countries the engineers and geologists have a common, platform,
where they plan a neat and co-ordination team work and, thus,
contribute more towards the development of the country.
 It has been observed that detailed geological surveys not only constitute
a valuable insurance against difficulties and hardships, which otherwise
the engineer has to face, during construction, but also economizes the
cost of construction. In the excavation of the Panama Canal igneous
rocks were broken down. into very small pieces. when blasted. This
crushed stone was utilized in the construction of canal, saving millions
of rupees. There are many examples on similar lines, in which the
geological knowledge has economised the cost of construction. It may
be noted that even in small jobs economies are possible, if the
knowledge of geology is applied by engineers at the right time and
place. Thus, today the knowledge of Geology has become a major part
of the studies of a civil engineer. Application of Geology to a few
engineering problems is discussed here.
CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (Road Metals)
 Road metals:
 After finalizing the route of a roadway, the engineer's next
problem is the selection of suitable materials for its construction.
Such a problem also arises, when an existing road is to be
reconditioned. In a broad sense, the road metal is an engineering
term, which is applied for the broken stone, used in the
construction of roads. As a matter of fact, the road metal
constitutes a major part of the body of a road, and has to bear
the stresses caused by the traffic. It is, therefore, essential that
selection of a rock for the road metal should always be done,
keeping in view economic considerations, amount and type of
traffic the road is expected to bear, topography of the region and
availability of suitable rocks for the road metal. The essential
physical properties and usual tests carried out to determine the
suitability of any rock, as a road metal, may be summarized as
below:-
 1. The stone should be sufficiently hard, i.e. it should offer the

maximum possible resistance to abrasion. This can be tested by
putting a weighed quantity of broken pieces off the stone in a
drum along with small cast iron balls. The drum should be
revolved about 2000 times in one hour. The weight lost by the
stone pieces will indicate the amount of loss by abrasion. It may
be noted that a more resistant stone will show, comparatively, a
little loss in its weight (i.e. abrasion).
 2. The stone should be quite tough. This can be tested by
breaking it under a hammer.
 3. The stone should have a high crushing strength, which can be
determined by testing the blocks usually 10 cms. (4 inches) cube
by crushing them, by a testing machine, in a laboratory.
 4. The stone should have adhesive properties, i.e. binding
capacity of the road metal with the binding material such as coal
tar etc. to ensure stability of road. This can be tested either by
experiments in the laboratory or by studying the conditions of the
roads, already constructed with the stone under consideration.
 Sometimes it is found that a stone, which gives good results when
tested in a laboratory, may not give good service under traffic. On the
other hand a stone, found to be of poor quality in the laboratory, may
give good service under traffic. This difficulty may be overcome by a
careful microscopic examination of the mineralogical composition of the
rock under consideration...The main geological requirements for a road
metal, as suggested by Prof: P.G.H. Boswell are as follows:-
 1. The rock should be crystalline in nature.
 2. The texture of the rock should be equiangular and
interlocking.
 3. The rock should be quite hard and tough.
 4. All the constituent minerals should be of equal hardness.
 5. The rock should neither be too fresh nor badly altered.
 6. The specific gravity of the rock should be moderately high.
 7. The rock should not be too porous.
 The above-mentioned requirements demand supreme considerations,
at the time of supplies of road metals, to be made. It has been
experienced that igneous rocks generally satisfy all the above-
mentioned geological requirements.
CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(Building Stones)
 Building stones:
 Building stone is a broad engineering term; used for the rock,
that can be used safely and successfully in different shapes and
sizes for all types of buildings and various other engineering
projects.
 As a matter of fact, the cost of a building stone is one of the most
important factors to be considered for a particular type of
building, which further depends upon its availability,
transportation and workability. In recent times, the use of stone is
not very common and is generally restricted only to particular
type of structures, and ire hilly areas only, where the stone i:.;
available at cheap rates. Today brick in mortar, plain and
reinforced cement concrete is being used extensively, in all types
monumental and important buildings. Strictly speaking, no one
kind of stone is suitable for all types of works or all types of
purposes in the same building, e.g.
(Building Stones)
 1. A heavy and impervious stone is required for all types of
marine engineering works
 2. A stone, unaffected by acids or fumes, is required for use in a
manufacturing town or industrial area.
 3. A heavy and hard stone is required for retaining walls and
foundations of a building.
 4. A stone of pleasing colour and impervious nature is
 Required for the face work of a high class building.
 5. A soft and even grained stone is required for the ornamental
work.

 6. A soft and light stone is required for arches.
 7. A very hard and resistant stone is required for stair cases and
floor pavings.
(Building Stones)
 In addition to the above mentioned suitabilities of a stone, the essential
physical properties and tests carried out to determine the suitability of any
rock, as a building stone, may be summarized as follows:
 1. The stone must be free from cracks and cavities, and should have
crystalline structure.
 2. The stone should be sufficiently hard, that can be tested by scratching
with a pen knife; which should not be able to make any mark.
 3. The stone should be sufficiently tough, which can be tested by breaking it
under a hammer.
 4. The stone should be sufficiently durable, i.e. it should not be easily
affected by weathering agents, which can be determined either by studying
the effects of weathering on the buildings, constructed by stone under
consideration in the neighboring areas, or can be tested by studying the
effects of dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids.
 5. The stone should be quite impervious. Any stone absorbing 5% of
water should be rejected.
 6. The stone for heavy engineering works should have a high specific
gravity usually not less than 2.60, which can be determined by weighing a
given volume of stone and comparing this weight with the weight of an equal
volume of water.
Dams and Reservoirs:
All geological problems of a dam site and a reservoir
are, generally, common. But distinction must be made
between the two. Geological investigation of a
reservoir covers the entire area, over which the water
is to be impounded, and relates generally to the
condition that may cause leakage. But the geological
investigation of a dam site relates to a small area, with
a particular stress on the strength, stability and
permeability of the underlying bed-rocks.
It may be noted that safe location of a dam is of
greater importance than that of a reservoir. It has
been observed that leakage in a reservoir does not
cause sudden failure of the dam, releasing huge
volume of water, costing many lives and destroying
the costly stricture itself. Geological problems of dams
and reservoirs are discussed in detail as follows:1.
Dams:
A dam may be defined as a structure, erected across
a stream or a river, to impound water; and to retain it
above the level at which it normally stands. This
impounded water is then made to pass through the
dam, at the rate of certain calculated flow.
The impounded water may be used for the purposes
of the generation of power, irrigation, water supplies
and flood control. A dam, that serves more than one
such purpose, is called a multipurpose dam.
Classification of dams:
Dams may be classified, on the basis of the materials,
of construction, into the following two categories:-
1. Earthen dams.
2. Concrete (Gravity) dams.
Earthen dams
The earthen dams are generally trapezoidal in
section, constructed of selected soil or earth-
obtained from the borrow pits of the adjoining
areas. Sometimes an earthen dam also contains
a hard rock-fill, depending upon the height, base
width and length of the dam as shown in Fig: 1,
page 100(A).
It may be noted that the cost of an earthen dm
depends upon its longitudinal section and is also
proportional to the square of its height. Dams
which are long and less in height are cheaper in
construction and safer than those shorter in
length but more in height. Both the sides of an
earthen dam should have an easy slope not less
than 2:1 (i.e. 2 horizontal to 1 vertical) in any
case. The upstream side should always be
stone-pitched to avoid erosion. The work of earth
filing should be done layer by layer. A layer of 30
cms. In height should be laid. It should then be
moistened and compacted into 20 cms. Thick
layer.
A concrete dam is preferred when its height increases
60 or 70 meters. It is generally triangular in section
and is , designed to withstand its own weight and
thrust of the compounded water. Since the dams are
always very important and costly structures,
therefore its design and construction should always
be done very carefully. Tile record of dam failures all
over the world, in the last few decades, has revealed
that a majority of dam failures all over the world was
not due to faulty design or lack of proper supervision
during construction. But was only due to the
defective bed conditions, which were not fully
detected at the time of selection of the site.
It is thus essential that the selection of a dam site
made on the basis of topography of the region
and Geological conditions of the site. An ideal
dam site should have the following topography:
1. A narrow river-channel, which can be blocked
with a Relatively small dam.
2. Availability of materials, required for the
construction of the dam, in the neighborhood of
its site.
3. Level of the dam site should coincide with the
designed level, with respect to water level in the
reservoir.
In Addition to the above mentioned topographical In
addition to the above mentioned topographical
Requirements of thee dam site, it should be thoroughly
investigated for underground geological details also. For
this Purpose, a large scale geological map should be
prepared giving the following details:
1. Type of rocks.
2. Properties of the rocks, i.e. chemical composition,
texture and hardness of the rocks.
3. Permeability of the rocks.
4. Structural features of the rocks, i.e. dip, strike, out crop etc.
5. Structural defects of the rocks, folds, faults, fissures etc.
6. Crushing and shearing strength of the rocks.
7. Spacing of points in the rocks.
8. Extent of weathering of the rocks.
9. Thickness of the bedding planes.
10. Zones of fractures and weaknesses.
11. Water table of the area.
12. Accumulation of the stream deposits.
The ideal foundation conditions. For the successful working of
the ideal foundation conditions, for the successful working of a
dam, are that it should be built over a uniform formation if
more than one kind of rocks is present, the different bearing
strengths may lead to an unequal settlement of the structure.
Moreover, the underlying rocks should be strong enough to
bear the weight of the dam and to withstand the, resultant
thrust of pressure of the impounded water and the weight of
the dam itself. It may be noted that a difference of water table
is always set up on the two sides (upstream and downstream)
of the dam. Thus all materials in the bed very close to the
dam are subjected to a considerable hydraulic pressure. It is,
therefore, essential that the bed rocks should be sufficiently
hard and impervious to counteract this pressure.
For studying the underground geological data of a dam site,
boring tests should be carried out. Bore holes and core
samples, should be thoroughly studied. Water pressure tests
in the bore holes provide a fairly reliable data, regarding the
water tightness and the structural features of the underlying
rocks.
The formations, in which hard and soft layers are alternately present,
provide the worst type of foundations as penetration of water may weaken
the soft layers. It may be noted that if sandstones and shales are present
in alternate layers,. it leads to slipping. As the bearing capacity of different
rocks varies widely and even two similar rocks may have different bearing
strengths, it is, therefore advisable that the rocks should be tested for their
crushing strengths also.
It has been experienced that granite, when free from structural or
other defects, provides an excellent type of foundations. Dolerite,
gneisses, schists and quartzite’s, if free from open joints and fissures,
also provide a good type of foundation. Limestone’s are generally
troublesome because of their solubility.
As the dam site is always at the deepest part of a valley, therefore the
impounded head is always greatest at this site. Thus the rocks structural
defects or existence of such rocks that may be easily affected by the
prolonged exposure to water, are of greater danger in the vicinity of a
dam. In addition to the above requirements, the site should be
investigated for the structural features also.
Structural features of a dam site:
It has already been mentioned that an ideal condition for a dam site is
that it should be built up over a uniform .formation, but the engineer is
not always lucky enough, to have such a situation and he may have to
face a number of difficulties, especially regarding the structural
features of the underlying, rocks. The following structural features of
the underlying socks should be analyzed:
1. Dip and Strike,
2. Folds,
3. Faults,
4. Joints.
1. Dip and strike:
We know that the bedded rocks are stronger in compression, and can
bear greater stresses when applied normal to the bedding planes,
than the stresses applied along the bedding planes. Thus the desired
conditions are that the resultant thrust (resultant
of vertical force due to the weight of the dam and the horizontal force due
to the thrust of the impounded water) should be perpendicular to the
bedding planes. Thus the beds dipping gently upstream offer best
resistance to the resultant thrust and also obstruct the leakage of
water than those dipping downstream. as shown in Fig: 2 and 3, on
page 100(A).
1. Dip and strike:
We know that the bedded rocks are stronger in compression, and can
bear greater stresses when applied normal to the bedding planes,
than the stresses applied along the bedding planes. Thus the desired
conditions are that the resultant thrust (resultant
of vertical force due to the weight of the dam and the horizontal force due
to the thrust of the impounded water) should be perpendicular to the
bedding planes. Thus the beds dipping gently upstream offer best
resistance to the resultant thrust and also obstruct the leakage of
water than those dipping downstream. as shown in Fig: 2 and 3, on
page 100(A).
2. Folds:
As already mentioned, the folded rocks
always under a considerable strain and the
same is released whenever any kind of
excavation is done through them or they are
disturbed by some external force or stress. It
is therefore desirable that a highly folded rock
should always be avoided.
If the engineer is compelled to adopt such a
site, he should see that the foundations of his
dam should rest on the upstream limbs of the
fold, if the fold in it, is anticlinal in nature as
shown in Fig: 4, page 100(A).
But if the fold is synclinal in nature, the
foundations of the dam should rest on the
downstream limbs of the fold as shown in Fig:
5, page 100(A). In no case the foundations of
a dam should rest on the axis of the fold. It
has also been observed that the danger of
leakage is always more beneath the strata in
the case of a synclinal fold.
3. Faults:
It is always desirable to avoid risk by rejecting a site on a fault, as the
movement along the existing fault plane is much easier than along any other plane.
Even a slight disturbance may damage the structure constructed on a fault.
If the engineer is compelled by the circumstances to adopt
Such a situation, then he should see that the site has the fewest
disadvantages or no serious defects. It is advisable in such
Cases to place the foundations of a dam upstream of the fault and not
downstream of it, as shown in Fig: 6, page 100(A).
The engineer should also investigate, as thoroughly as
Possible, the nature, extent and age of the fault. It may be noted that the
different zones of a small fault can be improved effectively by grouting; whereas in
the case of wider zones all the weak material should be removed and refilled with
rich cement Concrete. This should only be done if there is no possibility of
movement along the fault plane.
Civil Engineering Geology
4. Joints:
A joint is always the weakest point in a structure.
Similarly, if the site, under consideration for a dam is
jointed, the engineer is expected to face much of troubles,
before the construction of dam, during the construction of
dam and even after the construction of the dam. The
presence of joints in underlying rocks at the dam site will
cause the water to leak through them. With the passage
of time, this leakage may even endanger the structure.
Such a condition will change from bad to worse, if a part
of the underlying rocks is of limestone formation, as the
joints of such a formation are enlarged by the solution of
rock. If the joints, met with, are local in character, or the
area affected is small, grouting will improve the site and
may be relied upon. But if the underlying rocks are
heavily jointed, the site should be straightaway rejected.
 Geology of Reservoirs:
 The chief function of a reservoir is to store
a predetermined quantity of water that
may be used for water supply or irrigation
purposes, at a later stage.
 The selection of site for a reservoir
depends upon so many Factors, e.g. if the
reservoir has to serve the purpose of
storing water for water supply of a town,
the site should be as near to the town as
possible. An ideal site for this purpose
should be free from harmful organic and
inorganic materials and the capacity of the
reservoir should be sufficient to ensure
regular and adequate supply to the
residents of the town.
 If the reservoir has to serve the purposes
of storing water for the generation of
power or irrigation purposes, the detailed
geological survey of the site is of utmost
importance.
 Leakage from a reservoir is always a source of
trouble,Which an engineer has to face. Leakage may
take place because of the defects in the structural
arrangement of the underlying strata e.g. faults or
excessive fissures. As it is seldom possible that a
reservoir can be emptied completely, or even partially,
when once it has been placed under active service. I
Thus, it is most essential to conduct geological
investigations of the reservoir site. All the sources of
leakage should be discovered and suitable steps should
be taken to stop the same, as discussed below:
 1. Natural sealing material, such as clay or silt content
of the Streams feeding the reservoir, should be
employed to block-up The openings in the reservoir,
through which leakage takes Place.
 2. When the exact location of the weak area is shown, it
can be improved by grouting. This is only possible if
The area affected is small and local in character.
 3. When the fault or fissures, met with, are large they
can be improved by removing loose material and
refilling the same With cement concrete; though this
operation may prove costly.
Silting up of reservoir:
Streams flowing into a reservoir bring considerable
amount of sediments, which are carried in suspension by the
water. These sediments are deposited in the reservoir. Thus the
storage capacity of the reservoir goes of decreasing gradually. It
is a general trouble, which is being faced all over the world by
the engineers engaged on the maintenance of reservoirs. It still
requires a careful attention and a satisfactory solution. The
reservoir of Austin in Texas (U.S.A) was silted up 95% in a
period of 12 years after it was built. The only possible remedies
to stop or minimize the silting up of the reservoirs are:
1. Making provisions for washing out the silt through
passages of the dam.
2. Constructing weirs across mouths of the feeding
streams.
3. Providing a good cover of vegetation on the catchments
area.
Tunnels:
A tunnel may be defined as an underground route or passage
constructed in order:
1. To avoid the excessive cost of maintenance of an open cut of
more than 20 meters height, subjected to landslides etc.
2. To connect two terminals, by the shortest route, separated by a
mountain.
3. To meet the requirements of rapid transportation in big cities.
4. To avoid expensive acquisition of valuable land -or properties, on
the ground.
5. To avoid holding up of traffic, for long periods, in big cities.
6. For conducting water for the generation of power. Such a tunnel is
called a hydropower tunnel.
Most of the tunnels are constructed to connect two Terminals,
separated by a mountain. It is always advisable to drive a tunnel,
than to make an open cut of more than 20 meters depth.
 If the tunnel is to be constructed either to meet the requirements
of rapid transportation, to avoid expensive acquisition of valuable
properties or to avoid holding up of traffic in big cities, there is
not much of freedom for the choice of alignment for an engineer,
because the geology of the area is always dominated by other
factors such as location of the connecting roads, built up
properties, water and sewer pipes etc. In such cases, the engineer
should study the geological features of the area in details and
plan his work accordingly.
 If a tunnel is to be constructed for the conduction of water to
generate power, no separate geological investigations are
required as such a tunnel is always a part of the dam.
 The ideal geological conditions are that the rocks should be
Homogeneous in character, which can be easily excavated.
Moreover, the rocks should not contain any kind of water bearing
Strata and at the same time the rocks should not be affected, in
any way, when exposed to air.
 The desired conditions for the construction of a tunnel are That the
rocks should stand even after the tunnel is driven through, and at the
same time the work should not be rendered Expensive due to
unforeseen problems. It is therefore absolutely essential to study the
geological features of the rocks, before the excavation is undertaken.
It may be noted that if an exact idea of the structural features and the
nature of the rocks, through which the tunnel has to be driven, is
determined beforehand, it is then possible to predict the conditions
arid difficulties that are likely to be faced during construction.
Necessary steps should be taken to overcome such difficulties. It has
been observed that carefully planned drilling, along the centre line of
the proposed tunnel, gives a fairly reliable data regarding the
underground geological features of the rocks. But this is not always
practicable as the tunnel may be driven, sometimes at great depths.
In such cases, drills along the centre line is impracticable, if not
impossible. However, in such cases
 Accurate correlation of the strata with the surface conditions should
be done or the geological features can be estimated from the
indications of the adjacent land.
 Rocks may be divided into the following two main groups, for the
tunneling operations:

 (a). Unconsolidated rocks.
 (b). Consolidated rocks.
 (a) Unconsolidated rocks:
 Those include loose sediments like gravel, sand, clay
and highly uncomposed rocks. Such rocks do not
possess cohesive power and always have low crushing
strengths. Tunnels driven through such rocks always
require heavy lining, depending upon the type of the
rocks and importance of the tunnel. It has been
experienced that the tunneling Is always difficult and
Complicated in unconsolidated rocks, as such rocks do
not stand in their original position after excavation.
 It also requires heavy shuttering even before the lining is

started. Moreover, water is generally present in such
rocks, which worsens the situation and offers many
complications during excavation and lining.
 (b) Consolidated rocks:
 These include granite, basalt, gabbro, diorite, gneiss,
schist, sandstone etc. Tunnels driven through such
rocks require no or little lining. It has been experienced
that tunneling in consolidated rocks is always easier as
there is no possibility of the roof to fall and water to be
encountered. Consolidated rocks are thus considered
to be the best type of rocks for the tunneling
operations, but are expensive at the same time. A
tunnel required for the conduction of water is called a
pressure tunnel or hydropower tunnel. In such a tunnel,
the engineer should give a proper consideration to the
following points, in detail:
 1. He must ensure that the rocks, surrounding the water
are impervious.
 2. He should see that some means are adopted to
withstand the pressure, set up by the unbalanced head
of water, passing through the tunnel.
 3. He should study the abrasive effects of silt and
gravel, carried in suspension or rolled along the base of
the tunnel, while designing the lining of the tunnel.
Structural features of tunnel site:
It has been observed that the structural features of the
rocks through which the tunnel is driven, always play a
major role in the proper planning, execution and
successful working of the tunnel. The following
structural features of the rocks should analyzed:
(a) Dip and strike.
(b) Folds.
(c) Faults.
(d) Joints.
(a) Dip and strike:
The relationship of the dip and strike, of the rock with the
centre line of a tunnel, is always a most important
factor for
The proper planning of the project.
In general the following two cases are studied:
(i) When the centre line of the tunnel is at right angles to
the strike.
(ii) When the centre line of the tunnel is parallel to the
strike.
(i) When the centre line of the tunnel is at right angles to the
strike:
In this case there is no symmetrical pressure, from the site
as shown in Fig: 7, page 100(A). The tunnel can be driven
easily And can work quite smoothly, even with a little lining,
which may be required only to withstand the downward
pressure of the roof.
 (ii) When the centre line of the tunnel is parallel to the strike:
 In this case there is a considerable unsymmetrical pressure
from the sides as shown in Fig: 8, page 100(A). As the blocks
always tend to slide down into the tunnel along the bedding
Planes, thus the unsymmetrical pressure may result in sliding
down the rocks. In such cases heavy lining has to be provided
for the stability of the tunnel. In both the cases there is a
likelihood of interference of water that may come into the
Tunnel, through the bedding planes.
(b) Folds:
As already mentioned, the folded rocks are always under a
considerable strain; and the same is released, whenever
any kind of excavation is done through them or the folds
are disturbed by some external stress. This may result in
movement of rocks or bulging out of the walls. It is
therefore advisable that a highly folded site should be
avoided as far as possible for the construction of a tunnel.
Sometimes, if the engineer is compelled by the
circumstances, to adopt such a site, then he should study
the following two cases:
1. When the tunnel is driven through an anticlinal fold:
In this case the blocks and fragments tend to fall from the
roof into thee tunnel as the anticlinal formations are always
highly fractured. This happens during the excavation of the
tunnel and necessitates heavy lining.
2. When the tunnel is driven through a synclinal fold:
In this case there is every likelihood of interference of water
that may come through the bedding planes. It has also
been observed that rocks, below the floor of the tunnel,
may subside under heavy traffic, creating a number of
complications.. It is therefore advisable to avoid a synclinal
fold for the construction of a tunnel.
(c) Faults:
As already mentioned, it is always advisable to avoid risk
by rejecting a site on a fault for the construction of a
tunnel, because movement along the existing fault plane is
much easier than any other plane. Even a slight
disturbance may damage the Structure constructed on a
fault.
(d) Joints:
Lot of grouting is required to hold the rocks in their original
position. Sometimes, when the grouting does not seem to
be sufficiently safe, heavy lining has to be provided. It is
therefore advisable that a rock, which is heavily jointed,
should preferably be avoided for a tunnel to be driven
through. It may be noted that if the tunnel is required for
the conduction of water, a badly or heavily jointed rock
may permit a considerable leakage of water.
Water supply:
Rainfall is the chief source of water supply, even if
the supplies may be drawn from any source, e.g.
rivers, lakes, wells and catchments areas. Thus, the
estimation of the quantity of rainfall, of an area, is
the most important factor for a water supply
engineer.
It has been observed that a part of the rainfall. That
falls on the ground, is evaporated (termed as
evaporation); part will run off the surface (termed
as run off); part will be absorbed by the vegetation
(termed as loss); on which it falls and the rest will
find its way into the subsoil (termed as
percolation).It may be noted that all these four
processes are dependent more or less on the
geological features of the area.
It has been estimated that more than 80% of the
total water Supply of the world is based on the
underground water', and the rest on the surface
water. The man of ancient times, used to obtain
water directly from the flow of the rivers or lakes.
This, perhaps, is the probable reason that all the
big cities of the world are situated near the flow of
the ancient river or lakes In this scientific age, a
water supply engineer has to study the following
two problems, while planning his water supply
project:-
1. Quantity of water.
2. Quality of water.
Quantity of water:
The quantity of water, required by a town, depends upon the
following two factors:
(a) Population of the town, and
(b) Requirement of water, per head per day.
The population of a town is forecasted, by some standard
method in coming decade. This is normally done by studying
the increase of population in the last 4 or 5 decades of the
town. The requirement of water per head per day is fairly
estimated by studying the climatic conditions, habits and
customs of the people, industrial requirements and system of
sanitation of the town. Then the total quantity of water
required is calculated by multiplying the population of the
town with the requirement of water per head per day. If the
water supply Engineer is planning his project on the
underground sources, and then he has to make sure that the
underground rocks have the capacity to supply the required
quantity of water. This is generally done by studying the
porosity (i.e. capacity of rock to contain water, which is
expressed numerically as the percentage of the void space
contained in it) and permeability (i.e. property of a rock By
virtue of which it allows the water to travel through its pores
and other openings) of the underground rocks. The following
Table shows some typical values of porosity for a few of the
well known rocks:
The following Table shows some typical values of porosity for a
few of the well known rocks:
Type of rock porosity
Clay soil 50 to 60%.
Chalk Up to 50%.
Sand and gravel 25 to 40%.
Limestone 10 to 20%.
Sandstone 5 to 15%.
Shales 4 to 5%.
Slates up to 5%.
Granite (and other igneous rocks) 1 to 1.5%.
Crystallined rocks less than 1%.
Porosities greater than 40% are rare except in soils and
unconsolidated deposits. A Porosity greater than 20% is regarded
As high; 5 to 20% as medium arid below 5% as low.
It is believed that the quantity of water, within the earth's crust,
relatively close to the surface is about one-third of the total
volume of water in seas and oceans. It is also estimated that water
exists, almost invariably, under all parts of the surface, although it
may be located at such depths, so as to be of no possible use for
man. It may be noted that pumping is not economical, generally,
below the depths of 200 or 250 meters. Although water may be
available below these depths, yet it cannot t be regarded as
commercially available.
Water table:
We know that the underground water continues to
percolate, downwards, through permeable rocks;
so long as pores of the rocks are interconnected
and are of sufficiently large size. At a certain depth,
further percolation of the water stops, for want of
interconnections of the pores of the rocks. The
percolating water, therefore, has no other way
except to accumulate there. This water saturates
the pores and other openings of the rocks. As more
and more water goes on percolating up to the
saturated pores of rocks, therefore it causes the
level of saturated rock pores to move upwards. The
upward movement of the saturation ceases at
certain level. This level, below which thee rocks are
completely Saturated with water is known as
"water table" and the water, that occurs below the
water table, is called "underground water."
Extraction of the underground:
It has been observed that most of the
rocks, near the ground level, consist of
alternate strata of pervious and impervious
soils though their thickness may vary from
place to place. The water is generally
obtained from the pervious strata of the
rocks through the wells. Though there are
many types of wells, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view:
1. Shallow well
2. Deep well, and
3. Artesian well.
1. Shallow well:
An ordinary well of 2.5 meters to 5 meters in diameter, dug up
to topmost water bearing strata is called a "shallow well" as
2.deep well:
A well of 25 cm to 50 cm. In diameter, and drilled up to the
second or even lower water bearing strata, is called a "deep
well" as shown in Fig: 11, page 100(A). The water from a deep
well is pumped out with the help of mechanically or
electrically operated tube-wells.
WELLS AND TUBEWELL
Extraction of the underground:
3.Artesian well:
A well, from which the water is
obtained, without pumping, is
known as an "artesian well" as
shown in Fiq: 12, page 100(A).
This happens, when a porous
strata, surrounded by impervious
formations, is folded in the form
of a syncline. If the pervious
strata is continuously fed with
water at its higher level, the same
must find some way to flow out
due to hydrostatic pressure. Such
a well. through which the water
flows out, without pumping, is
called an "artesian well" as
shown in Fiq: 12, paqe 100(A).
AQUIFER
Quality of water:
The main duty of a water supply engineer is to supply water of
good quality to the residents of the town. But he is not always
lucky enough to obtain a good quality of water from the
underground rocks.
Sometimes various salts are dissolved in the underground water,
which affects the utility.of water, depending upon the quantity of
the salt present in it. The following is the chart of water containing
salts in parts per million (P.P.M.) and itscomparative use:
P.P.M. use.
up to 400 No taste at all.
up to 2500 Slightly brackish. taste.
up to 3300 Usable domestically.
up to 4500 Almost unbearable.
up to 5000 Unfit for human use.
up to 6250 Horses live in good condition.
up to 7800 Horses can live on it.
up to 9300 Cattle can live on it.
up to 15600 Sheep can live on it.
up to 15600 Beyond tolerance power.
It is therefore essential for a water supply
engineer, to know the Quantity as well as
quality of water available, while making
underground water survey. It may be noted
that the content of salt up to 3300 P.P.M.
can be simply treated and supplied to the
public. But if the content of the salt is more
than that, it is always advisable, to reject
the source of water. Following are the
water bearing properties of a few rock
groups:
Following are the water bearing properties of a few rock groups:
(a) Gravels and Sand:
These are considered to be the ideal water bearing rocks, as
these are highly porous. In addition to the grater bearing
properties, gravels and sands also act as an effective filtering
medium, thus yielding very clear water.
(b) Clays and shales:
Though clays and shales are the most porous rocks, yet these are
regarded as unsuitable rocks for the underground water. Clays are
often wet and the water present is not readily available. Moreover,
the water obtained from these rocks often contains impurities.
(c) Sandstones:
Sandstones are so variable in texture and chemical composition
that they form an almost impervious rock to the most pervious
one. It has been experienced that when the sandstones are found
pervious in nature, they form an admirable source of underground
water and also constitute an effective filtering medium. Water
obtained from such sandstones is a most clear and sparkling.
(d) Limestone:
Are considered to be the water bearing rocks next to sandstones.
It has been observed that water in contact with limestone
dissolves a small quantity of the rock. Thus the water obtained
from such rocks should be thoroughly treated before supplying to
the public.
Excavation:
Excavation for civil engineering purposes is done for either of the
following two purposes:-
1. To form a hole, within. Specified limits and up to specified
levels, e.q. For canals, sewer pipes and foundations etc.
2. To utilise the excavated materials, e.g. stone for building
purposes; gravels and sand for concrete and earthwork for
embankment etc.
Open excavation work is frequently regarded as a simple
process. But an experienced engineer knows the problems that are
likely to be faced during excavation. In almost all the engineering
projects little attention is paid to know the nature of materials to be
handled, their relative structural arrangement, their behavior when
removed from their existing position, possibility of water to be met
with during excavation operation on the adjacent ground and
structures.
Whenever these preliminary requirements are not fully detected
before the excavation work is undertaken, it results in extra
expenditure and troubles to be encountered. Preliminary
investigation is sometimes neglected, as it is often considered that
a few cubic meters more or less of earthwork will make little
difference. But lack of preliminary investigations may cause
complicated troubles; even loss of human life, during excavation. It
is therefore essential that the preliminary investigations should be
carried out and constant check on the excavated work be exercised
for the excavation of all types of important foundations e.g. dams
bridges, multistoreyed buildings etc.
In general excavation work, dip of the
strata to be encountered is a factor of
major importance. If the strata are
horizontal or approximately so, excavation
work will be simple. But if the bedding is
appreciably inclined excavation work will
be affected adversely. In such cases side
slopes should be so selected as to be in
accordance with the natural slopes of the
bedding.
As a matter of fact, excavation work is
always influenced by the nature of the
material to be encountered. The materials
to be Excavated may be designated as
below:
1. Excavation of hard rocks:
(Excavation of granite, basalts, limestone etc. which has to be
carried out by blasting).Excavation of such rocks is carried out by
means of drilling and blasting slightly in excess to the required
dimensions and to the predetermined levels. Lining is provided to
obtain the required cross-section.
2. Excavation of loose rocks:
(Excavation of rocks, which do not require blasting; but can be
carried out by means of hand shovels).
Excavation of such rocks can be carried out safely by means of
hand shovels without much trouble, as the internal friction and
cohesion of the rock particles keep the adjoining areas stable.
3. Excavation of soft rocks:
(Excavation of disintegrated rocks like clay and sand etc. which
can be carried out economically by means of hand-shovels or
similar tools).
Excavation of such rocks involves a wider excavation with a
greater surface area. This is required because of the small angle of
repose of rocks, which may be defined as the angle at which a
material can stand without sliding.
4. Excavation of water bearing strata:
In water bearing strata, adequate surface drainage arrangements
are the first essentials to reduce the water content or to prevent its
increase. This may be done by means of ditches, tile drains or
pumping out by tube wells or other wells to lower down the water
level.
Quarrying:
Quarrying is a general engineering term, used for the process of
taking out stones of various sizes from a stone quarry an ancient
art and many ancient quarries are still preserved in many
countries. In ancient times, wedges and chisels were used for the
extraction of stones. But modern methods of obtaining the stones
are highly mechanized and special. Methods of quarrying are
being used for the extraction of different varieties of stones.
Explosives such as gun powder, dynamite or gelignite are
extensively used in quarries.
Quarries may be open on hill tops or holes below the ground level.
When a quarry is open on a hill top, dip of the strata to be
encountered is a factor of major importance. The quarry faces
should be kept at a safe height it and inclination. If the quarry face
exceeds 30 meters in height there is always a danger of rock-fall
from the top of the quarry face. In such cases it is always
advisable to keep the quarry face at proper slope and suitably
stepped so as to render it quite safe. It has been experienced that
the possibility of rock fall is always more in a slate quarry than any
other stone quarry.
A quarry, below the ground level, is a large hole in the ground.
Drainage of such quarry is always a difficult problem and
provision must be made for pumping out the water which may
have accumulated on the quarry floor.
A quarry, below the ground level, should not be preferred Unless
the stones obtained from such a quarry are of superior quality
than those obtained from an open hill side quarry.
Quarrying in jointed rocks:
It has been observed that joints always facilitate
the extraction of stones and cut down the quarry
expenses. If the stones are required for road metal
or concrete aggregates, a jointed rock should
always be preferred. But if the stones of large sizes
are required, it is advisable to study the joint
systems before the quarrying is started.
Sand quarries:
Sand pits, from which the sand is taken out for
construction purposes, is known as a sand quarry.
A sand quarry may be small, when it is dug and
loaded by manual labor which may have none or
only a rough screening to remove pebbles. In a
large mechanically operated quarry, sand may be
dug by draglines and sent to washeries where it
may be washed to remove clay and pebbles which
may be present. In very large undertakings sand
may be separated into graded sizes and than
recombined, by mixing a definite proportion of
graded sand, as desired.
Roads and Railways:
Roads, railways or highways always assume a national importance
in a country. As a roadway always extends over a long distance and
every variety of soil is likely to be encountered, thus the engineer is
supposed to carry out his work on every type of soil.
For a systematic and scientific approach, it is necessary to make
sub-soil survey of the entire length of the strip of land to be
acquired. Following are the few problems, which are generally faced
by an engineer during the construction and maintenance highway.
1. Roads and Railways on embankment:
The ideal earth for an embankment should be dense, free from
excessive moisture and possess a high internal friction an cohesive
power. It has been observed that soils having a low internal friction
and cohesion always tend to flow and spread out, especially when
there is excessive moisture. Theoretically, an ideal soil should
contain gravel, sand clay and silt in equal proportions with moisture
slightly above the plastic limit (say 10%). However such ideal soils
are rare in nature. Usually a mixture of two or three different soils
gives satisfactory results, e.g. sand material should be mixed with
clayey soil to increase internal friction and to reduce the plasticity of
clay.
The best material obtained from the borrow pits should be used in
the top two or three layers of the embankment. Moreover, gravelly
and sandy material should be used in the topmost layer.
2. Roads and Railways in excavation:
Excavation work is always influenced primarily by the nature of the
materials to be encountered. Both the faces should be kept at a safe
slope and stepped along with longitudinal drains as shown in Fig: 1,
page 116(A).
If the rocks are hard like granite, basalt, gneiss etc. then
a slope of 1/2: 1 (1/2 horizontal to 1 vertical) can stand quite safe.
But if the rocks are soft like clay, sand or gravel, a slope of 2:1 or
more depending upon the internal friction and cohesion of the rock
particles, should be provided.
3. Roads and Railways marshy regions:
Geological investigations of the areas are absolutely
essential whenever a road happens to pass through a
marshy region .it may be noted that such a region is always
a treacherous one and road failure generally occurs due to
subsidence (vertical settlement), which takes place due to
the presence of unstable material.
If the area involved is small, it can be improved by
removing the weak material and refilling the same with
cement concrete. But if the area involved is large, it is
advisable to avoid such a region
4. Roads and railways in water-logged area:

We often find that roads situated in water-logged areas
are always damaged. This happens when the water table
in the area rises up to the ground level and moistens the
subgrade to various degrees. It reduces: the bearing
capacity of the subgrade and road metal, which results
in damaging the road.
In a water-logged area the roads should be constructed
on embankments at a safe height and longitudinal
drains should be provided on both sides of the road to
drain off the water.
5. Roads and railways in Hilly areas:
In hilly areas, the roads and railways are often led through
cuttings along the slopes of the hills; to serve as means of
communication between the hilly tracts and the neighbouring
plains. The hill slopes, along which the roads and railways lie;
walls of the cuttings or fillings through which they pass as
shown in Fig: 2, page 116(A), should be sufficiently stable, for
the safe working of the roads and railways.
The only problems which the engineers, employed on the
maintenance of roads and railways in hilly areas, face is due to
landslides; which include all downward movements of rocks.
Following are the two types of landslides in hilly areas:
(a) Soil slips.
(b) Rock slips.
(a) Soil slips:
Sometimes the loose soils
(such as gravel, sand etc.)
gently creeps down the hill
slopes, and falls on the
roadway. These creeping
materials do not exhibit serious
problems and can be held back
by constructing retaining walls
on both sides of the roads as
Such a downward movement of
the loose soil is called "soil
slip".
(b) Rock slips:
Sometimes huge masses of hill rocks are dislodged, along
their planes of weakness, and suddenly slide down. If such
masses of massive rocks fall on the roadway, they
completely or partly block it. But if such blocks, form the
subqrade of the roadway,they decrease the width of the
roadway; sometimes rendering it unserviceable, till it is
widened towards the hill side. Such downward movements
of the massive rocks are called "rock slips" and are
generally disastrous.
It may be noted that the frequent rock slips are
detrimental to the stability of hill-slopes and cuttings. The
possibility of frequent rock slips depends upon the nature
of hill rocks and their structural features.
From loose and unconsolidated rocks (such as gravel
sand etc.) to massive hard and compact rocks (such as
granite, syenite etc.), It has been observed that a loose and
unconsolidated rocks cannot stand permanently at a slope,
more than its angle of repose. It is thus obvious that walls
of cutting and filling of a roadway should not have a slope
more than its angle of repose. If a steep slope is
unavoidable, then retaining walls should be stabilized by
stone pitching or grouting.
It has been observed that the dip of
the hill rocks also plays an important
role in the stability of the roads or
railways in hilly areas. If the beds are
dipping towards the roadway at an
angle, less than the angle of the wall
of cutting as shown in Fig: 4, page
116(A), they are most unsafe; as the
possibility of rock slips is always
more in such cases. It is thus obvious
that such a site should always be
rejected.
It has also been observed that if the
beds are dipping towards the roadway
at the same angle as that of the wall of
cutting as shown in Fig: 5, page
116(A), they are sufficiently safe.
The only problem, that is likely-to
crop up, may be due to the
subsidence of a weaker bed; whereas
a harder one may remain at same
level.
It has also been observed that if the
beds are dipping away from the
roadway they make the rocks as well
as the roadway or railway, very stable.
HYDROLOGY
Hydrology
Introduction:
The science, which deals with the study of
quality and quantity of water in rocks and
in different states, is called "hydrology."
The water of the earth may be divided into
the following three parts:
1. Water of the atmosphere,,
2. Water on the surface of the earth, and
3. Water below the surface of the earth.
The water below the surface of the earth
is sometimes divided into two parts: (a)
water near the earth's surface, which can
be used by drilling wells, tube wells etc. (b)
water in the Interior of the earth, which
cannot be used.
HYDROLOGY
The hydrologic cycle:
We know that the water falls from the atmosphere on the
earth in the form of rain, snow, dew or fog. A part of this water
is evaporated, which forms clouds and again falls on the
ground. Another part of the falling water percolates into the
ground, which can be obtained by digging wells or tube wells.
A larger part of the falling water flows over the surface in the
form of streams and rivers, from where a part of it is again
evaporated to form clouds. The transformation of water, from
one state to another, is known as "hydrologic cycle:“
Atmospheric water:
The amount of water present in the atmosphere (i.e. air) in
the form of clouds depends upon the weather, temperature,
altitude and position of the area from-the equator. This
water is not available for useful work, unless it falls on the
ground. It is only of academic interest, and gives us some
idea of time and place when it will fall on the ground in the
form of rain, snow, dew or fog.
HYDROLOGY
Surface water:
The sources of surface water are:
(a) Lakes,
(b) Streams and rivers, and
(C) Reservoirs.
(a) Lakes:
The lakes are natural depressed basins, and are formed
mostly in mountains (sometimes in plains also). Rain
water, spring water and sometimes water from small
streams gets collected in these basins and lakes
are formed. The quantity of water stored in a lake depends
upon the size of the basin and the source of water.
(b) Streams and rivers:
The streams and rivers are formed by the surface run off.
The discharge in a stream or a river varies greatly
throughout the year. In dry season, the discharge in
streams becomes very small, and sometimes they go dry
also.
HYDROLOGY
SATPARA LAKE SKARDU
HYDROLOGY
(C) Reservoirs:
A reservoir is an artificial lake formed by the construction of a
dam or weir across a river. The surplus water, during rainy
season, is stored in an impounded reservoir. Care should
always be taken to develop the reservoir at such a place
where submergence of the area is low, and the basin formed
is cup-shaped.
The quality of lake water is generally pure and does not need
any purification. Large lakes provide comparatively more pure
water than the smaller ones. It has been observed that the
Lakes situated in mountains generally provide pure water. The
only drawback in lakes is their quantity, which is limited. It
depends upon the capacity of the basin, catchment area,
annual rainfall and also porosity of the ground. The quality of
stream Water is generally safe, except in the first rainy
discharge and floods. But the quality of river water is,
generally, not reliable. It is, therefore, advisable to treat the
river water before supplying to the public. Streams and rivers
are the major sources of water supply all over the world.
HYDROLOGY
Underground water:
The sources of underground water are:
(a) Wells,
(b) Tube wells, and
(c) Springs.
(a) Wells:
A well is a hole of 2.5 m to 5 m in diameter,
made in the ground, for the purpose of getting
underground water. It is a popular source for
water supply (sometimes for irrigation also) in
small villages, who cannot develop their own
water sup ply system because of high cost.
The wells may be classified into shallow wells
(which are dug up to the first water bearing
strata) and deep wells (which are dug up to the
second or third water bearing strata). Both the
shallow wells and deep wells are lined from
inside by brick or stone masonry.
WELLS AND TUBEWELL
HYDROLOGY
(b) Tube wells:
In case of a tube well, a hole of 15 cms. to

50 cms. in diameter is drilled and a steel
pipe line is inserted into it. This pipeline
consists of perforated pipes which are put
in the pervious or water bearing layers,
whereas blind pipes are put in the
impervious or non water bearing layers.
The water enters into the pipeline through
perforation from where it is pumped out.
The perforated pipes are also called
strainer pipes.
HYDROLOGY
(c) Springs:
A spring is a natural flow of water from the ground at some

point. The water from springs is, generally, so limited that it
can be hardly used for any purpose. Some springs supply
mineralized hot water, which has medicinal value.
Sometimes, these springs are developed into picnic spots
for tourists.
The quality of shallow well water depends upon surface
conditions near the well. The area closer to the population
is, generally, contaminated. Its quality can be improved to
some extent, if the wells are constructed away from the
contaminated sites. The quality of water from deep wells
and tube wells is generally better than shallow wells, and
does not require any treatment. But sometimes, some salts
get dissolved in water while it flows through the strata and
make it hard. In such cases, some treatment becomes
essential to make it soft. The quality of spring water varies
greatly from one to another, and is highly influenced by the
geology of rocks through which the water flows.
SPRINGS
HYDROLOGY
Engineering considerations:
The most important point in the design of
a water supply project is the required
quantity of water of suitable quality. If
sufficient quantity of water is available
from a surface source, then the same
should be adopted. The water can be
supplied to the public after its purification.
But if there is no suitable surface source,
then the water supply engineer has to
depend upon underground sources. It may
be noted that the surface source requires
less. initial cost but good running cost. The
underground source requires heavy initial
cost but less running cost.
HYDROLOGY
Porosity:
The consolidated or unconsolidated
rocks always contain some voids. The ratio
of the volume of voids in a formation to its
total volume is called porosity, and is a
measure of its ability to contain water. It is
more in case of unconsolidated rocks than
consolidated ones. The porosity of a rock
depends upon:
1. Shape and arrangement of the rock
particles.
2. Degree of mixture of various sizes of the
particles.
3. Degree of compaction or consolidation of
the rock Formation.
4. Number of joints or fissures in the
formation.
HYDROLOGY
The porosity for a few types of rock
formations are given
S.no Type of formation porosity
1 Uniform sand 48%
2 Medium to fine sand
38%
3 Course sand and gravel
34%
4 Sandy clay
34%
5 Clay 18%
HYDROLOGY
Permeability:
We have already discussed that the
underground water flows. From one place to
another. This movement of water takes place
because of the difference of water levels, and
depends upon the capacity of the porous
medium to transmit water. The capacity of a
rock formation to transmit water is known as
its "permeability". It is different than the
porosity, and depends more upon the size of
the pore openings than on the percentage
space. The permeability of a rock formation is
an important factor for determining the yield of
a well.
Note: There is no direct relation between the
porosity and permeability of a rock formation.
Gravel with 20% porosity is much more
permeable than clay with 35% porosity.
HYDROLOGY
AQUIFERS:
A body of rock or loose surface material, which is permeable as

well as porous, and yields abundant water is called an aquifer.
Most aquifers are sheets of sand, gravel or beds of sandstone.
Wells:
A well is a hole, made in the ground, for the purpose of getting
underground water. it will be interesting to know that the
construction of wells is one of the oldest trades known to man. he
learnt the art of digging wells, by various methods in the quest for
water The credit for the development of the art Of drilling and
casing of wells goes to the Chinese, who were probably the first to
dig up the wells manually and provide lining by bamboos. The
depth of water table, being very low the digging of well was often
started by one generation and finished by another.
Before sinking a well (or boring a tube well) the site should be
thoroughly examined for assured. supply of water and its freedom
from the possibility of pollution. A highly jointed and pervious
rocky surface is not a favorable site. if the surface is less fissured,
then there is a possibility of getting water at a moderate depth The
wells sunk into an old river terrace may, under ordinary
conditions, yield excellent water. The well situated in the dry beds
of large streams, usually, yield good quality of water.
AQUIFER
AQUIFER
HYDROLOGY
Wells in igneous rocks:
In general, the mineral components and grains of igneous rocks are
closely interlocked it is thus obvious. that the prospect of getting water
from wells sunk into igneous rocks is poor . Granite rocks yield a large
supply of water, only when the contain joints and fissures. A
Decomposed granite is porous, and hence suitable for yielding a large
supply of good water. Basaltic rocks, being heavily jointed, also yield
large supply of water. Coarse-textured basalts and dolerites yield good
quality of water, but they do not yield good quantity of water.
Wells in sedimentary rocks:
In general, the water bearing capacity of a sedimentary rocks depends
upon the condition of its sediments and the cementing material. Gravel
is considered to be the best formation to yield water, and sand to be
the second best. Sandstone also yield good quality and quantity of
water. They can yield a large, quantity of water under suitable
topographical and structural condition. The limestone formations are
are unreliable Wells sources.
Wells in metamorphic rocks:
In general, the water bearing capacity of a metamorphic rock depends
upon the degree and type of metamorphism as well as foliation.
The less metamorphosed rocks such as quartzites, slates, marbles etc.
are usually jointed and thus can yield some water. But highly
metamorphosed rocks such as gneisses and schists are usually
massive rocks, and thus are very discouraging; unless deeply
weathered.
HYDROLOGY
Tube wells:
A tube well is adopted, where ordinary dug wells do not yield
sufficient quantity of water of good quality. The tube be wells have
many advantages over dug wells such as cheapness, simplicity,
speedy sinking, ease of working, exclusion of surface water etc.
They are very successful in sand and gravel because of their high
permeability.
Causes for the failure of tube wells:
Though there are many causes for the failure of tube wells, yet the
following arc important from the subject point of view:
1. A higher rate of pumping than the inflow off water in the storage. It
affects the stability of the pipe line.
2. The screens getting corroded. It results in the pumping of sand
particles along with the water.
3. The screens getting choked. It results in less discharge than the
calculated one.
Engineering considerations:
If the city (for which the project is being undertaken) is away from
a river or a canal, the only Source left is the underground water. In
such a case, the water supply engineer has to provide tube wells
of sufficient capacity. For this purpose, he has to select the site
(or sites) for tube wells after thoroughly investigating the types of
rocks, quantity and quality of the water available.
BE READY FOR THE
PRESENTATION SESSION
BE READY FOR THE
PRESENTATION SESSION
END OF THE GEOLOGY SESSION
3.
END OF LECTURE
BREAK FOR 15 MINUTES

Lec 06 Civil Engg. Geology

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Lec 06 Civil Engg. Geology

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By Prof.

Department of Civil Engineering,

Department of Civil Engineering,

 1. The geologist analyses the conditions of area,

 1. The stone should be sufficiently hard, i.e. it should offer the

 It also requires heavy shuttering even before the lining is

4. Roads and railways in water-logged area:

In case of a tube well, a hole of 15 cms. to

A spring is a natural flow of water from the ground at some

A body of rock or loose surface material, which is permeable as

BREAK FOR 15 MINUTES

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