7.

Mapping & Analysis of

Results

1
OBJECTIVES

Students should be able to:

1. Draw, read and understand multiple types of maps used in oilfields.
2. Understand the importance of subsurface mapping in petroleum exploration, appraisal and
development.
3. Identify the different type of data used in map making and their possible end products
4. Identify the different types of commonly used map symbols
5. Define the different nomenclatures used to describe stratigraphic and structural features
represented on maps
6. Understand how to develop the different types of subsurface maps and their uses
7. Apply the principle of contouring to construct maps
8. Appreciate the different types of cross-section and be able to produce these sections.
9. Determine hydrocarbon in place volume determination from reservoir maps

2
MAPPING - INTRODUCTION

• Mapping the subsurface involves using interpretations of depositional environments and

diagenetic events to project reservoir data away from relatively few well control points
• In contrast, geological mapping involves making surface observations of outcrop data along survey lines
over a specific grid.
• A number of surfaces are typically mapped during reservoir development to show:
1. closure and other limits to reservoir production.
2. Pay thickness by “subtracting” bottom of pay from top of pay
• Data on a map can be represented as isolated points or locations, such as well locations or
platform positions, or it can be represented as an interpreted gradient of a data type across the
map area, by means of contours.

3
SUBSURFACE MAPPING - IMPORTANCE

• Reservoir properties are mapped to promote optimal field development.

• Subsurface maps dictate well placement and enable engineers to calculate reserves and monitor
trends in reservoir performance.
• Mapping allows us to view compartmentalization of reservoir
• It facilitates visualization of structural impacts on the developmental approach needed for the
field.

4
MAPPING – LOG DATA

Log data is analysed and interpreted to produce the following information for mapping:
• Lithology / facies identifications & markers determination
• Continuity, consistency, missing sections & repetition sections (faults or overturn)
• Depositional environment
• Vertical zonations
• Top & bottom
• Flow unit
• Fluid contacts
• Owc, goc & gwc
• Reservoir parameters
• Por, perm, sw etc
• Net pay thickness determinations

5
MAPPING – SEISMIC DATA

Aid in
• Reservoir facies mapping and reservoir distribution
• lithology, isopach etc 3D
• Reservoir properties mapping
• porosity
• Locating / define fluid contacts
• Monitoring fluid fronts via 4D
• Structure & stratigraphic interpretations
• Seismic methods
• 2D Seismic
• 3D seismic
• VSP
• Time-lapse seismic monitoring etc.

6
MAPPING - WORKFLOW

7
 MAPPING – GEOLOGICAL MAP STRUCTURAL AND BEDDING SYMBOLS

Symbols Unconformable Contact

Generic fault
Normal fault
Low angle normal fault
Reverse fault
Strike Slip fault
Oblique slip fault
Lineament
Anticline
Syncline
Horizontal bedding
Inclined bedding
Vertical bedding 8
MAPPING – GEOLOGICAL MAP
LITHOLOGICAL SYMBOLS
MAPPING – GEOLOGICAL MAP
LITHOLOGICAL SYMBOLS
MAPPING – GEOLOGICAL MAP
LITHOLOGICAL SYMBOLS
MAPPING – GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS

• Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has outlined the standards involving all symbols used on geological
maps. Available at:
• https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/download.php

• Contacts, key Beds and Dykes: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec01.pdf

• Faults: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec02.pdf
• Boundaries Located by geophysical surveys: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-
sec03.pdf
• Lineaments and Joints: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec04.pdf
• Folds: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec05.pdf
• Bedding: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec06.pdf
• Paleontological Features: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec10.pdf
• Geophysical and Structure Contours: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec11.pdf
• Lithologic Patterns: https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/fgdc_gds/geolsymstd/fgdc-geolsym-sec37.pdf

12
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

What are geological maps?

• A geologic map uses graphical elements to express detailed information about the different kinds
of earth materials, the boundaries that separate them, and the geologic structures that have
subsequently deformed them
• It usually consists of a topographic map (a map giving information about the form of the earth’s
surface) which is shaded, or coloured to show where different rock units occur at or just below
the ground surface
• Characteristics of formations such as rock composition, internal structure and fossil content are
recorded. By using these details, different units can be distinguished and shown separately on the
base map.
• The presence of structures are delineated using standard symbols

13
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

1. Geologic Map Unit

• A geologic map unit is a cartographic representation of a volume of geologic materials that share
enough characteristics (for example, the composition, areal extent, age, and (or) genesis) to be
considered a single entity (a single geologic unit).
• On a typical geologic map, most geologic units are represented by polygons that are filled with
colors and (or) patterns.
• Geologic units can also be represented by lines (for example, dikes) or points (for example,
blueschist blocks).
• The formation unlike “unit”, whether formal or informal, is the lithostratigraphic unit most
commonly depicted on a geologic map.
• A formation can be subdivided into lower rank stratigraphic units (for example, members, or
beds) or assembled with other formations to make up more generalized, higher rank stratigraphic
units (for example, groups or supergroups), depending on the scale of the map or the focus of the
geologist

14
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

2. Planar Geological Features

• A planar geologic feature is a two-dimensional geologic surface, which may be either a real-world,
physical surface (for example, a contact between two geologic units) or a hypothetical surface (for
example, an axial surface of a fold).
• The geometry of the geologic surface may be flat, curved, or crenulated, and its orientation may
be horizontal, inclined, vertical, or overturned.
• The intersection of a planar geologic feature with the ground surface forms a real or perceived
(projected) linear trace.
• When these linear traces are mapped in the field and then plotted as lines on a base map, they become
the most basic and fundamental elements of a typical geologic map: they may delineate simple map-
unit areas, or they may define complex patterns of structural deformation.

15
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

3. Contacts
• A contact is a planar surface that bounds a geologic unit (except where that bounding surface is a
fault
• A contact is intrinsic to the genesis of each geologic unit; that is, the contact delineates the
stratigraphic position where, owing to changing environmental conditions or other genetic factors
at the time of origin, the properties and characteristics of one geologic unit change, either
abruptly or gradually, to those of another geologic unit.
• Contacts generally can be classified as either one of two types of transition zones: discrete or
gradational
• A discrete contact is a map-unit boundary that is individually distinct; that is, the transition between
geologic units is abrupt enough to be recognized and delineated easily on the map. A discrete contact
may be a sharp, knife-edged surface, or it may be transitional across a zone as wide as a meter or more,
depending on the scale of the map.
• A gradational contact is a map-unit boundary that is diffuse; that is, the transition between geologic
units is gradual enough that it cannot be recognized or delineated easily on the map.

16
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

4. Faults
• A fault is a planar surface of rupture along which geologic units have been fractured and then
displaced.
• Faults can be geometrically complex structures that juxtapose map units over great distances, or
they can be simple fracture planes along which the amount of offset is very small.
• Different types of faults are represented by standard line symbols
• Faults generally can be described in either one of two ways: as a discrete fault or as a fault zone
• A discrete fault is a zone of offset that is individually distinct; that is, the zone is narrow enough to be
recognized and delineated easily on the map. A discrete fault may be a sharp, knife-edged surface of
offset, or it may be a zone of offset as wide as a meter or more, depending on the scale of the map.
• A fault zone (also called a shear zone) is a diffuse zone within which offset has been distributed among
a few or many shear planes, commonly resulting in a zone of crushed and sheared or ductily deformed
rock. In some cases, a fault zone can be mapped as an area bounded by discrete fault planes

17
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

5. Folds
• A fold is a geologic structure that results when a flat-lying or otherwise undeformed geologic
surface is warped and deformed into an undulating geologic surface.
• Specific fold types are represented by specialized line symbols and line-symbol decorations
• On a geologic map, a fold is mapped as a line where the trace of its axial surface intersects the
ground surface
• Attitude of the fold such as strike and dip of its fold axis and fold limbs are indicated by geological
point data

18
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

6. Linear Geological Features

• A linear geologic feature is a one-dimensional geologic or geomorphic line, which may be either a
real-world, physical line (for example, lineament, or outcrop-scale lineation) or a hypothetical line
(for example, a hinge line of a fold or a paleocurrent direction).
• The geometry of the line may be straight, curved, or crenulated, and its orientation may be
horizontal, inclined, or vertical.
• The orientations of linear geologic features are mapped in the field and then plotted as lines on a
base map

19
STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

7. Geological Point Feature

• A geologic point feature consists of geologic or geomorphic information that has been collected at
a particular point of observation in the field
• Geologic point data may pertain to a planar feature (for example, the orientation of bedded
strata), a linear feature (for example, the plunge of a fold axis), or a single locality (for example, a
fossil locality).
• Geologic point data also can be added as line-symbol decorations (for example, anticline arrows)
that provide supplemental information about a particular part of a line on a geologic map

20
 STRATIGRAPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

7. Planar-Feature Geologic Point Data

• Planar-feature geologic point data consist of quantitative information about the character and the orientation
of a geologic surface, which may be:
• physical surface (for example, a fault plane or bedded strata) or
• a hypothetical surface (for example, an axial surface of a fold or a plane of foliation).
• Two measurements, the strike and the dip, define the orientation of a geologic surface in three-dimensional
space:
• the strike of a surface is the azimuthal direction of a hypothetical line formed by the intersection of the surface with
an imaginary horizontal surface, as measured in the direction that the observer is facing when the surface dips down
to the right (this method of directional measurement follows the right-hand rule convention)
• the dip of a surface is the angle of departure of that surface downward from horizontal, as measured perpendicular
to the line of strike.
• Information about the type of observation, as well as the values of strike and dip is represented on the
geologic map by specialized point symbols and associated annotation:
• the strike value and the direction of dip are indicated by the orientation of the point symbol;
21
• the dip value is added as annotation
 MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS
PRODUCED
1. Structure Map
• Structure maps show lines of equal elevation or
depth for a selected marker horizon (Figure
adjacent).
• Mean sea level is a useful reference datum for all
contour elevations.
• Commonly contoured horizons are top of zone or
top of net pay.
• Control points are provided by surveyed wells
and can be supplemented by seismic
interpretations, especially offshore.
• In highly developed fields, typically onshore,
sufficient well control might exist to
allow geostatistical interpolation between
control points.

Structure map of the top of the T5 marker, Frlo Formation,

Brazoria County, Texas. (After Bebout el al.) 22
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

2. Fault planes
• Faults are special surfaces whose traces will show
on structure contour maps .
• Faults form bounding surfaces for some reservoirs,
and sufficient well control might exist to contour
map the fault surface itself.
• Projections of subsurface data into the plane of the
fault are also useful “maps” for reservoir
development, but are more appropriately described
as cross sections.
• Usually represented as
• fault trace or
• fault polygon
• restored surface method (fault/structure map Example of contouring using fault polygons.
integration) 23
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

2. Fault planes - restored surface method

(fault/structure map integration)
• In the restored surface method, faulted systems are
processed in three steps designed to honor
continuity of shape across faults:
1. Move the fault blocks, together with the contained
geological horizons, to their prefaulted positions.
2. Having restored the “continuous surface” attribute
to the geological horizons, perform all the stacking
and interpolations needed to obtain a smooth map
or cross section.
3. Rebreak (i.e., reverse the first step) and return the
fault blocks and their contents to their faulted
positions and display contour maps or cross
sections.

24
Faulted structure using restored surface method
 MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

3. Unconformities and subcrops

• Surfaces of unconformity can be especially
useful marker horizons for structure contour
mapping.
• In many fields, unconformities are the location
of sealing shales and/or source rocks above
reservoir pay.
• Subcrop maps are outcrop equivalent maps
reflecting geological formations in the earth
subsurface as represented by sequence
boundaries from seismic sections
• Subcrop maps highlight traces of productive
zones, barriers, or marker horizons mapped on
the unconformity surface are invaluable for
planning well placement and for reservoir
25
development.
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

4. Pressure
• Maps of reservoir pressure are useful
throughout reservoir life
• Pressures should be converted to a
common depth datum, such as mid-
reservoir, prior to contouring.

Map of pressure response to pattern flood, Judy Creek

field, western Canada, 1974 and 1975. Contour interval
26
is
2750 kPa. (After Jardine et al.)
 MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

5. Thickness Maps
A. Isopach
• A contour map of equal values of true stratigraphic
thickness is an isopach map ((i.e. measured
perpendicular to bedding)
• Except for vertical wells in horizontal beds,
corrections for wellbore deviation and
formation dip are needed to make isopach maps.
B. Isochore
• A contour map of equal values of true vertical thickness is
an isochore map.
• Note that in common practice, isochore maps are
informally referred to as “isopach” maps, a term that
properly should be restricted to true stratigraphic
thickness.
(a) Cross section and (b) net pay Isopach map of the
Please view video on thickness maps: Strachan gas field, western Canada. Contour Interval is 100
ft. (From Hriskevich et al.) 27
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDWYX0UM8-M
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

5. Thickness Maps
Isopach vs Isochore
• Vertical thickness will always be
greater than the stratigraphic
thickness, and the two are related by
the dip of the bed, in a right-angle
triangle relationship

Schematic diagram showing the relationship between parameters such as wellbore

orientation, dip of bedding, isochore and isopach thickness.
28
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

5. Thickness Maps
Isopach vs Isochore
• “0” represents non-existence of the
layer mapped.

Example of thickness contours. 29

MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

5. Thickness Maps
C. Isochron
• An isochron map is a contour map of equal values of seismic traveltime between selected
events.
• Isochron maps are the seismic analog of isochore maps and, as such, are intended to derive
thickness information from seismic data.
• Isochroning between events above and below a pay horizon, for example, would estimate pay
thickness.

30
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS PRODUCED

6. Intensive Surfaces
A. Isoporosity
• These maps show the lines of equal
porosity in the potential reservoir rock
• First, for each well the average porosity
over the net pay portions of the desired
formation is calculated.
• Then, contours are drawn which illustrate
the net pay porosity trends in the
reservoir. One number is representing
the average porosity at each well
location.
• Porosity maps show areas with high and
low porosity

31
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS
PRODUCED

6. Intensive Surfaces
B. Isopermeability

32
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS
PRODUCED

6. Intensive Surfaces
C. Fluid Saturation

33
MAPPING – TYPES OF MAPS
PRODUCED

6. Intensive Surfaces
D. Net Pay

34
MAPPING – CONTOUR RULES

1. A contour line cannot cross itself or any other contour except under special circumstances
(see rule 2). Since a contour line connects points of equal value, it cannot cross a line of the
same value or lines of different values.
2. A contour line cannot merge with contours of the same value or different values. Contour
lines may appear to merge or even cross where there is an overhang, overturned fold, or
vertical surface (Fig. 2-5). With these exceptions, the key word is appear. Consider a vertical cliff
that is being mapped. In map view the contours appear to merge, but in three-dimensional
space these lines are above each other. For the sake of clarity, contours should be dashed on
the underside of an overhang or overturned fold.
3. A contour line must pass between points whose values are lower and higher than its own
value (Fig. 2-6).
4. A contour line of a given value is repeated to indicate reversal of slope direction. Figure 2-6
illustrates the application of this rule across a structural high (anticline) and a structural low
(syncline).
35
MAPPING – CONTOUR RULES

5. A contour line on a continuous surface must close within the mapped area or end at the edge of the
map. Geoscientists often break this rule by preparing what is commonly referred to as a “postage
stamp” map. This is a map that covers a very small area when compared to the areal extent of the
structure

• Additional Contour Guidelines:

1. All contour maps should have a chosen reference to which the contour values are compared (MSL)
2. The contour interval on a map should be constant
3. All maps should include a graphic scale
4. Every fifth contour should be thicker than the other contours, and it should be labeled with the value of
the contour
5. Start contouring in areas with the maximum number of control points
6. Construct the contours in groups of several lines rather than one single contour at a time
7. Use a smooth rather than undulating style of contouring unless the data indicate otherwise
36
MAPPING – CONTOUR INTERPRETATIONS

• Along a contour this value is of course constant, since a contour is a line joining all points of equal
value.
• Walking along a contour line is like walking along a constant (i.e. flat) elevation. This is also
equivalent to walking along structural strike since strike is the horizontal line on the
geological surface.
• If you walk at right angles to the elevation contours, you will either be waking up hill (up dip) or
down hill (down dip).
• When contours are close together the hill is steep, when they are far apart the slope is gentle.
• The difference in two contour values divided by the horizontal spacing between the two point
values give the slope or gradient between those data point.
• It is important to understand with thickness maps, that a ‘zero’ value means the unit is not
present or not detected.
• In elevation maps, ‘zero’ = sea level, and is a unique value that has an associated contour.

37
CONTOUR MAPS – EXERCISE 1

• Given the spot elevations on the

diagram to the right, draw
contour lines to represent the
possible configuration of a
subsurface map in which an
anticlinal structure is found.
• Use 100m contour intervals
• Note measurements given are
representative of elevation as
measured TVDSS in metres

38
CONTOUR MAPS –
EXERCISE 1 POSSIBLE
INTERPRETATION

39
CONTOUR MAPS – EXERCISE 1 TRIANGULATION APPROACH

• Given the spot elevations on the

diagram to the right, draw
contour lines to represent the
possible configuration of a
subsurface map in which an
anticlinal structure is found.
• Use 100m contour intervals
• Note measurements given are
representative of elevation as
measured TVDSS in metres

40
CONTOUR MAPS – EXERCISE 2

41
CONTOUR MAPS – EXERCISE 2
SOLUTION

42
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
ON MAPS - FOLDS

• Horizontal folds result in a series of parallel rock

stripes very much like inclined bedding, but with
folds, rock layers are symmetrically repeated on
either side of the fold axis.
• Plunging folds result in curved rock strips, but
plunging anticlines still have the oldest rocks in the
center (perhaps core is a better term here) whereas
plunging synclines have the youngest rocks in the
center/core
• The plunge direction of folds is easily identified if
you remember this simple rule;
• the plunge direction of all plunging folds is
always towards the younger rock layers.
• Just remember that plunging anticlines always
plunge towards the "nose" of the fold.
• Plunging synclines plunge away from the nose
43
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
ON MAPS - FOLDS

• Anticlines – these folds have

the oldest beds in the middle,
with beds dipping away from
the axis. Plunging anticlines
plunge towards the closed
end of the V.
• Synclines – these folds have
the youngest beds in the
middle, with beds dipping
towards the axis. Plunging
synclines plunge towards the
open end of the V.

44
 STRUCTURAL FEATURES ON MAPS - FAULTS
• It can be tricky deciding in the field whether or not a particular
junction between two different rock units is a
fault
• If the contact is thought to be faulted, it will be shown by a line of
different weight or colour. There may be some symbolism to
distinguish the downthrow side .

• Faults that involve vertical displacement will produce a change in

elevation of the surface across the fault, and all structure contours
for that surface would terminate against the fault, and begin in a
different position on the other side
• The amount of vertical displacement across the fault is then equal
to the difference between the elevation of the surface on each side
at a single point on the fault plane, and can be estimated visually by
comparing the elevation as given by the contours on each side of
the fault
A: Fault with downthrown side indicated. Look
• Repetition of beds, on the other hand, can only indicate a strike- closely at the offset contours, and see if you can
parallel fault, dipping in the opposite direction to the bed
work out what the throw (vertical offset) is on this
• If the beds are dipping it could be due to either strike-slip or dip- fault
slip faulting. It may not be possible to tell which. 45
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
ON MAPS - FAULTS

• Normal faults on a thickness

map will produce an
horizontal offset of thickness
in the downthrown block
(Figure on right)
• Reverse faults will have a
zone along the strike of the
fault of double thickness due
to the overlapping strata

46
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
ON MAPS - FAULTS

47
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
ON MAPS - FAULTS

• Strike parallel fault:

• Repetition of beds can only indicate a strike-
parallel fault, dipping in the opposite
direction to the bed
• Note that the strike-slip fault has no
apparent effect.
• With the oblique-slip fault, the strike-slip
component appears to have no effect,
whereas the dip-slip component has the
same effect as a normal fault

48
STRUCTURAL FEATURES ON MAPS – DOMES AND BASINS

• Domes and basins are somewhat similar to

anticlines and synclines;
• they are basically the circular (or elliptical)
equivalent of these folds.
• A dome is an upwarping of Earth’s crust, which is
similar to an anticline in terms of the age
relationships of the rocks, and a basin is an area
where the rocks have been warped downwards
towards the center, with age relationships being
similar to a syncline.
• The key to identifying these structures is similar to
identifying folds.
• In a dome, the oldest rocks are exposed at the
center, and rocks dip away from this central
point.
• In a basin, the youngest rocks are in the
center, and the rocks dip inward towards the
center .
49
 ISOPACH MAP
EXERCISE

• Identify the thickest

part of the
formation
• Where is the
thinnest part of the
formation

50
CROSS SECTION - INTRODUCTION

• A cross section depicts the configuration of many units as typically viewed in a vertical plane.
• Since a map or cross section alone cannot represent the complete subsurface geologic picture,
both must be used to conduct a complete and detailed study.
• Cross sections are used for solving structural and stratigraphic problems in addition to being
employed as finished illustrations for display or presentation.
• Used in conjunction with maps, they provide another viewing dimension that is helpful in
visualizing a geologic picture in three dimensions.
• If a cross section is oriented perpendicular to the strike of the structure, it is termed a dip section.
• If the section is oriented parallel to the strike of the structure, it is called a strike section.
• If the orientation is oblique to the structural axis, it is termed an oblique section

51
CROSS SECTION – DATA TYPE REQUIRED

• Various data can be used to construct a

vertical cross section:
1. Surface data (dips)
2. Electric well log data (markers,
unit tops and bases, dips, and
faults)
3. Seismic data
4. Entirely from completed
subsurface map

52
 CROSS SECTION –
DATA TYPE
REQUIRED

Please see video on how to do a geological cross section:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vgo8Z63n60g&t=23s 53
CROSS SECTION - PLANNING

• What is the purpose of the cross section?

• solve problems related to faulting and structural dip, then the section required is a structural cross section
• solve stratigraphic problems relating to detailed correlations, permeability barriers, unconformities, facies
changes, or changes in depositional environments, then a stratigraphic cross section is needed
• Choose the orientation of the line of section. Dependent on:
• type of section you intend to prepare (structure or stratigraphic);
• type of geologic structure (i.e., diapiric, extensional, compressional, or strike-slip);
• the data to be used in the section (well logs, seismic data, structure maps, or surface data).
• The scales of the proposed section must be selected: horizontal and vertical.
• The scales used are dependent upon the type of section being prepared, the actual length of the section, data
used, and desired detail.
• Whenever practical, use the same horizontal and vertical scales. Special consideration may be required for
sections to have different vertical and horizontal scales.
• Often, the vertical scale is larger than the horizontal, and where this situation occurs, the section is said to
have vertical exaggeration.
54
CROSS SECTION - PROCESS

1. Decide the location of the cross-section

a. You want the best place to illustrate the structures present. You may wish to draw several intersecting cross-
sections to illustrate the changes in each direction. True dips will only be seen on cross-sections drawn
perpendicular to strike or parallel to the dip direction.
b. There are some standard usages for cross-section orientation: from left to right on your page, cross-sections
normally run W-E and S-N.
c. Draw the cross-section line on your map, labelling the end points clearly. Labels are usually A-A', B-B' etc.
2. Set up your cross-section framework on some graph or plain paper
a. Decide what vertical exaggeration to use (start with no vertical exaggeration, unless you have a reason to
use a different vertical scale).
b. Draw the vertical scale, horizontal scale and cross-section end-points on your paper. The scales can be taken
directly from the map scale.
3. Transferring elevation data
a. Place a strip of paper against the cross-section line, and mark the locations of the end points on the strip.
Then mark (and label) the locations along the strip where a structure contour crosses the cross-section line.
b. Place the strip on your framework, lining up the end points. For each point marked on the strip where a
structure contour crosses the cross-section line, place a dot at the correct elevation according to your scales
within your framework.
c. This can be done with a ruler rather than a strip of paper
55
CROSS SECTION - PROCESS

4. Creating the surface

a. Join the dots to create a smoothed surface for the structure. Note that when creating the top or base of an
anticline or syncline, the surface will gently curve over, but not go higher or lower than the next contour value
(or that contour would be seen on the map).
5. Adding structures
a. Faults that intersect the surface can be added as displacement of the strata. Note that (if available) dips should
be carefully plotted, the dip angle appearing on your cross-section will only be the same as measured dips
values if the cross-section is not vertically exaggerated and is drawn perpendicular to structural strike. Cross-
sections drawn not perpendicular to strike will have lower apparent dips.
b. Without actual dips for fault surfaces, faults can be drawn vertical, or given an interpretive dip depending on
what kind of fault is inferred, or if there is a gap marked in the surface, a dip angle can be suggested from that.
c. Some useful formulae to note:
• For calculating Apparent Dip (for use when your cross-section is not perpendicular to strike):
Tan (apparent dip) = Tan (true dip) Sin (angle between strike and cross-section).
• For calculating Exaggerated Dip (for use when your cross-section is being drawn with vertical exaggeration):
Tan (exaggerated dip) = (exaggeration factor) Tan (apparent dip)
56
CROSS SECTION - PROCESS

6. Using thickness
a. The basal surface of a geological unit can be drawn in if thickness information is supplied, by dropping
the drawn surface by the given thickness of the unit. Variable thicknesses can be transferred by a
similar method to transferring the structural contours.
7. Consistency
a. Make sure that your cross-section is consistent with your map – that the faults show similar offsets, the
dips are the same, and also that the geological setting you envisaged while drawing the map or
interpreting the map is the same as the setting illustrated by your cross-section.

57
 CROSS SECTION - PROCESS

Method of drawing a simple cross-section from a structure 58

contour map
CROSS SECTION – VERTICAL EXAGGERATION

• The degree of vertical exaggeration is defined as:

where
VE = Vertical exaggeration
VL = Length of unit distance on the vertical scale
HL= Length of unit distance on the horizontal scale

• Example
To prepare a cross section with a horizontal scale of 1 in. =
10,000 ft and a vertical scale of 1 in. = 2000 ft. By using the
equation, the vertical exaggeration for this cross section is:

59
CALCULATING BED THICKNESSES

• Thicknesses of the sedimentary beds in the

plan-view map (viewed from overhead) are
different from the thicknesses of these beds in
the cross-section view.
• Generally, the cross-section view will show that
the true thicknesses of the beds are thinner
than what they appear to be in plan-view, the
latter of which would be an apparent
thickness.
• But true thicknesses are only displayed in cross-
sections that are constructed perpendicular to
strike. Any other cross-sectional view will also
result in a distorted or apparent thickness that
appears thicker than the true thickness of the
bed.

60
CROSS SECTION - STRUCTURAL

• Structural cross sections illustrate structural features such as dips, faults, and folds.
• They are usually prepared to study structural problems related to subsurface units, fault
geometry, and general correlations.
• Structural cross sections are drawn in the direction of interest
• line of section to be laid out in the dip direction or over the crest of a structure.
• A line of section parallel to the dip of a fault is best for solving fault problem
• It is recommended that structural cross sections be drawn with the same horizontal and vertical
scales whenever possible.
• At times, however, exaggeration is required to permit legible vertical detail.

61
 CROSS SECTION -
STRUCTURAL

Structural cross section prepared

from electric log data.
(Modified from Oil and Gas Fields
of Southeast Louisiana, v. 3, 1983.
62
CROSS SECTION - STRATIGRAPHIC

• Stratigraphic cross sections are drawn to illustrate stratigraphic correlations, unconformities,

permeability barriers, stratigraphic thickness changes, facies changes, and other stratigraphic
characteristics.
• Vertical and horizontal scales must be assigned
• The line of section must be laid out based upon the intent of the section,
• A datum must be chosen; the choice of an appropriate marker bed or beds to use as the datum is
extremely important. More than one datum could be utilized in one bed at different sections

• The logs must be prepared to place on the cross section

• For stratigraphic cross sections, the actual well logs must be used, since the work involves solving
problems related to the lithology; unlike structural cross section where the actual log and stick
representations could be used.

63
CROSS SECTION - STRATIGRAPHIC

Stratigraphic correlation sections prepared to evaluate stratigraphic complexities in the Morrowan Sandstones.

64
CROSS SECTION - FINISHED
ILLUSTRATION (SHOW)

• A finished illustration (show) cross

section illustrates the final
interpretation.
• It is constructed after all the fault and
structure maps have been prepared, and
it is used to complement the fault and
structure maps.
• Finished illustration cross sections also
serve as visual aids to communicate and
present the final geologic interpretation.

Finished illustration cross section constructed from completed

fault and structure maps 65
CROSS SECTIONS – CORRELATION SECTION

• Correlation section is a special type of stratigraphic cross section that is primarily used as a
detailed correlation aid.
• A correlation section can serve as an excellent correlation aid in defining the lateral and vertical
continuity of permeable units within a specific area and stratigraphic interval.
• These sections can also be used as good prospecting tools to evaluate and illustrate the potential
for hydrocarbons.
• There are several important guidelines helpful in preparing this type of section.
1. Choose a stratigraphic datum that best serves the intended purpose of the correlation cross
section. A reliable shale marker is usually a good choice for a stratigraphic datum.
2. Limit the section to a short vertical log interval in order to show significant correlation detail.
3. Position the logs as closely as possible with no horizontal scale to include as many logs as
needed in the section.

66
 CROSS SECTIONS – CORRELATION SECTION

Correlation section is first laid out by hanging the logs on a reference datum and correlating all recognizable
67 shale
markers.
CROSS SECTIONS – CORRELATION SECTION

Completed correlation section shows the lateral and vertical continuity (or
68
lack of continuity) of the individual sands seen in each well
 CROSS-SECTIONS FROM SEISMIC LINES

• The geophysical techniques give information about the physical properties of the rocks of the subsurface.
• The figure shows a seismic profile (a) in which the so-called reflectors can be observed. The vertical scale of the seismic profiles refers to the time the
seismic waves take to go from an emission source situated on the surface, to a horizon that reflects them and back in order to be registered by a receptor;
the time of this vertical scale, graduated in milliseconds, is a two way travel time (TWT). To be able to transform the vertical scale in TWT of the seismic
waves into a vertical scale in meters is necessary to know the density of the medium through which the waves move and their speed

69
 CROSS-SECTIONS FROM SEISMIC LINES

• The line drawing (b) identifies the reflectors which can be observed in the seismic profiles and shows the
disposition of the rocky formations in the subsurface

70
CROSS-SECTIONS FROM SEISMIC LINES

71
MANUAL DETERMINATION OF GRV FROM MAPS

• The gross rock volume (GRV) is the total volume of rock between the mapped top surface that
defines the top of the reservoir or potential reservoir and the hydrocarbon contact or expected
hydrocarbon contact.
• The GRV of a reservoir can be determined from structural maps either manually or by computer
(subtracting the oil-water contact grid surface from the top structure grid surface).
• Manual methods are time consuming, but when computer methods are not available are the
default method ,and also represent the process by which the computer is calculating the volume.
• The manual methods of determining GRV rely on using an area versus height graph of the
reservoir.
• If area versus height is plotted, then the zone under the graph represents the gross rock volume
• This only applies when the thickness of the reservoir interval is much greater than the oil column height
(that is that the base of the reservoir is within the water leg).
• If the reservoir is a thin interval, then the GRV is the zone between an area versus height graph of the
top of the reservoir, and an area versus height graph of the base of the reservoir

72
MANUAL DETERMINATION OF GRV
FROM MAPS

• Area versus height graphs for the case where

reservoir thickness exceeds column height (A), and
where the reservoir unit is much thinner (B).
• The true graph is represented by the data points in
A, but is commonly approximated when performing
a quick calculation by assuming a triangular shape
(black line), which simplifies the calculation of the
zone under the graph to a triangles area (1/2 base x
height), but commonly leads to a slight over-
estimation of the volume.
• When a quick result is not so necessary, then the
zone under the graph can be calculated by
interpolation or by geometry.

73
MANUAL DETERMINATION OF GRV FROM MAPS

Determining area of contour

• One method uses a planimeter to measure around each contour and create the area versus height graph
required.
• The planimeter can also be used on the area vs height graph to get the volume.
• Another method is to lay a grid over your map, and count how many grid blocks are covered by each
contour, starting with the oil water contact (OWC).
• In order to do this accurately, it is often necessary to subdivide squares into a smaller grid
• It is important at all times to be aware of the scale of the map, as this determines the amount of actual area
represented by each grid-block.
• The procedure is to count up all the grid blocks and fractions of grid blocks covered by the field and
then multiply by a factor based on the scale that converts that number into real area. This is then repeated
for all contours in the field, to create the area vs height graph
• A final method is to subdivide the area covered by your contour into regular shapes (squares, triangles etc)
and then use trigonometry and geometry to calculate the area by totaling the areas of each shape
74
 MANUAL DETERMINATION OF GRV FROM MAPS

• Figure shows an example of counting squares,

using subdivision of squares to enable a more
accurate result.
• The subdivision depends on the shape of the
contour, sometimes only a very
basic subdivision will be required, sometimes
more complex subdivisions are necessary.
• It is often easier to count how many subdivisions
are not covered by the contour in question,
and then subtract from 1 to create a fraction of a
grid block covered.
• Then all fractions and whole grids are added
together to create a total, and multiplied by the
conversion factor to real area
• for example in this map, each grid block equals
250,000 m2, so the total number
of grid blocks would be multiplied by this to obtain
the total area.

75
 MANUAL DETERMINATION OF GRV FROM MAPS

• If time is pressing it is common practice to

assume that the area vs height graph has
a triangular shape
• in order to calculate the GRV, you only
need the OWC area and the height
of the structure to get an estimate
.

76
GRV

• Filled to spill

77
 HYDROCARBON IN
PLACE

Metric:
No 7758 or 43560
constants
A = square meters
h = meters
φ=%
Soi = %
Boi = m3/m3

78