GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION

EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES

Four major categories of exploration techniques:-

(i) Hydrogeological maps and reports compiled by government institution and private firms.
The topographic and hydrogeological maps provide information on surface elevations,
stratigraphic sections and typical yields of aquifer. The tracing of fracture zones (lineaments)
by general photography in limestone, dolomite or crystalline rock terranes increase the
success of water well drilling. Consultants and government water resource planners often
use satellite. Phonographs are used to see if groundwater supplies are likely to be found.
(ii) Geophysical survey conducted at the ground surface. Geophysical instrument provide
information on the physical and chemical character of the subsurface.
(iii) Borehole sampling procedure. Examination of borehole cuttings is useful in estimating the
yield from an aquifer.
(iv) Geophysical logging of the borehole. Geophysical well logging equipment is used to select
the most productive zones of wells that must be screened.

Hydrogeological reports

The hydrogeological information can be obtained from several publications available that address
groundwater. Where it exist. Its quality and how it flows towards wells. Information can also be
obtained from professional groundwater consultants’ government agencies and private firms.

Maps

The type of geologic materials and the topography of the earth´s surface in an area influence the
location of groundwater, i.e. groundwater will exist nearer the surface and large quantities in valleys
rather than in upland areas.

Topographical maps provide information on the size, shape and distribution of features of the land
surface, the location of lakes, swamps, spring and streams. Elevation on the maps can be used to
construct a profile section indicating high and low areas in the regions of interest.

Vegetation also may indicate where near surface groundwater exist, especially in arid climates. The
density of stream and patterns of surface drainage usually suggest where infiltration is occurring is
occurring and also may reveal certain structural features such as faults, folds or joint system.

Geologic maps indicate the nature of consolidated or unconsolidated materials comprising the area
investigated. They show rock type and distribution of geologic structures. Some specific geologic
maps show location of the formation and the structural contours of the subsurface geologic material
(structure contour map).
 Many geological maps have column sections that show various formations their thickness and their
stratigraphy relationships to other formations, which can be assessed on the basis of this potential
to yield water to wells. All saturated formations are classified as aquifers. Hydrogeological maps
show rock types and location of buried bedrock, indicating sequence of sand and gravel ideal for
locating high-capacity wells. In some cases hydrologic characteristic of faults are presented. Usually
potentiomentric surface is given for each aquifer. Cross-section is also provided which give an
excellent in-depth view of the aquifers.

Geochemical maps indicate chemical characteristics of groundwater. This map is useful in identifying
high quality water for drilling and other specialized purposes. Examples of types of water:
bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride waters. Sometimes these maps are accompanied by cross-
sections or 3-dimentional phase diagrams that suggest spatial occurrence of geohydrochemical
features.

Aerial photographs

Aerial photographs are of two types: those taken near the earth’s surface and those taken from
satellite which orbit the earth at approximately 35km above the earth’ surface. Aerial photos often
reveal important hydrogeologic information that cannot be seen clearly at the ground surface. For
example, faults, joints system, river course and outwash plains.

Aerial photography has been especially useful in fracture trace analysis. The trace is usually
designated by aligned sinkholes or other depression. Thus, fracture traces represent zone of
increased porosity and hydraulic conductivity in carbonate terrains. Crustal movements along faults
in igneous and metamorphic terrains create rubble zones in which relatively large volumes of water
may be stored in these massive rocks. Recharge areas and discharge zones, as well as difference in
groundwater levels can be identified.

Geological formation sampling

In groundwater investigations, analysis must be made of geological information on material,

formation samples are taken during drilling operation, interpreting results of various geophysical
test and by test pumping the aquifer. The surest way to learn the character of information beneath
the earth surface is to drill through them, obtain samples, while drilling, and record the date.
Lithologic logs record characteristics properties of the various strata encountered in the borehole.
The logging method applied depends on the drilling method. Common lithologic logs consist of the
driller’s description of the geologic character of each formation, the depth at which changes were
observed, the thickness of the formation and the depth to water.

TEST DRILLING METHODS

a) Direct rotary method

Suitable for unconsolidated formations that do not include cobbles or boulders. A general disadvantage
of the rotary methods is that the depth to static level usually cannot be measured unless casing is
installed and most of the drilling fluid removed. The samples taken become less representative with
depth.

In the common sampling method, the fluid is circulated without drilling until all cuttings have been
removed from borehole. Next the bit is allowed to penetrate the formation for a predetermined
distance. All cuttings from these sample interval are then caught as circulation is continued further
drilling.

b) Side well coring

Used to verify the material present at certain depth. Depending on the coring device used, the cores can
either be continuous or be spaced evenly down the hole. In soft formation, a special gun loaded with
sample taker bullets is lowered into the hole.

c) Llecting samples by cable tool method involves driving casing a short

Auger drilling is used in drilling test holes for foundation studies for bridges, roads and other structures.
The use of auger has increased for relatively shallow groundwater exploration purposes because the rig
can be set quickly, the rate of penetration is rapid and reliable samples can be taken at any depth as
drilling proceeds. The auger is lowered into the hole and is rotated to cut required sample. The augeris
lowered into the hole and is rotated to cut required sample. The auger is then pulled out of the hole and
sample material adhering to auger bit or cutter head are taken being unmixed samples.

d) Cable tool drilling

It is used for test drilling of relatively shallow holes or when drilling in continuous limestone,basalt or
hard tuff. The principal drawback of the cable tool method is its comparatively slow rate of penetration
and need for casing a short distance, and then using a bailer to clean out the plug of material.

Geophysical exploration Methods

These methods are used before or during well construction. The efficiency of each method relies on the
constrasting physical and physical – chemical properties of the water and various layers of earth
materials.

Surface and borehole geophysical techniques determine the density and electrical, magnetic, nuclear,
and acoustic properties of the geologic medium in which groundwater may exist. Surface methods
include seismic refraction, seismic reflection, gravity, magnetic, resistivity, radar and electromagnetic
techniques.

Borehole techniques include: caliper, flow meter, temperature, resistivity, conductivity, spontenous
potential (SP), natural gamma, gamma-gamma, neutron and acoustic(sonic). Each of these methods is
particularly suitable in describing certain stratigraphic, lithologic and other aquifer properties.