Chapter 5: Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

Geological and geophysical investigations are closely related and often conducted together in civil
engineering projects to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the subsurface conditions. While geological
investigation focuses on the properties and behavior of rocks and soils, geophysical investigation involves the
use of physical principles and techniques to gather data about the subsurface.

A. Site investigations are an essential part of civil engineering projects and involve the detailed study
and assessment of a specific location where construction or development is planned.

Here are the key components and objectives of site investigations in civil engineering:
1. Desk Study: It involves a review of available documents, records, maps, and geological or
environmental data related to the site. This helps gather preliminary information and identify potential
issues or constraints that may affect the project.
2. Geological Investigation: This includes analyzing the soil and rock types, their properties,
composition, and stratigraphy. Geological investigations help determine the stability of slopes,
potential for landslides or subsidence, groundwater conditions, and the suitability of the site for
construction.
3. Geotechnical Investigation: This includes conducting field tests, sampling, and laboratory
analysis to determine parameters such as soil strength, compaction characteristics, permeability,
and settlement potential. The data obtained from geotechnical investigations is crucial for foundation
design, slope stability analysis, and overall structural stability.
4. Environmental Assessment: This may involve assessing soil and water contamination,
identifying protected habitats or species, evaluating the impact on air and noise quality, and ensuring
compliance with environmental regulations. The findings guide the design and implementation of
appropriate mitigation measures to minimize environmental damage.
5. Infrastructure and Utility Surveys: This includes locating underground pipelines, cables, and
other utilities that may impact construction activities. Understanding the existing infrastructure helps
in planning construction processes, determining potential conflicts, and coordinating with utility
providers for relocation if necessary.
6. Site-Specific Assessments: These can include topographical surveys, hydrological studies,
traffic assessments, archaeological surveys, and seismic evaluations. These investigations provide
important data for designing drainage systems, transportation networks, and ensuring the overall
safety and functionality of the project.
B. Geological investigation/exploration methods

1. Geologic mapping is a highly

interpretive, scientific process that can
produce a range of map products for
many different uses, including assessing
ground-water quality and contamination
risks; predicting earthquake, volcano, and
landslide hazards; characterizing energy
and mineral resources and their
extraction costs; waste repository siting;
land management and land-use planning;
and general education.

2. Sampling and Analysis: Sampling is a

fundamental technique in geological
exploration. It involves collecting rock,
soil, or sediment samples from the
surface or subsurface for laboratory
analysis. These samples are then
analyzed to determine their mineralogy,
geochemistry, and physical properties,
providing valuable information about the
potential resources present.

C. Geophysical investigation methods:

1. Seismic Methods involve generating and recording seismic waves to obtain information about
subsurface structures.
 There are two main types of seismic methods:

a. Reflection Seismic: This method involves creating controlled vibrations (such as through a
seismic source) and recording the reflected waves from subsurface interfaces. It helps
determine the depth and geometry of rock layers, identify faults, and locate potential
hydrocarbon reservoirs.
b. Refraction Seismic: Refraction seismic surveys measure the travel time and direction of
seismic waves refracted at interfaces between different subsurface layers. It helps determine
the depth to bedrock, velocity variations, and subsurface layering, which are important for
engineering projects like foundation design.

2. Electrical methods utilize the electrical properties of rocks and soils to gather information about
subsurface conditions.

Two commonly used electrical methods are:

a. Electrical Resistivity method measures the ability of rocks and soils to conduct electrical
current. By injecting electrical current into the ground and measuring the resulting voltage,
variations in subsurface resistivity can be identified. It helps in mapping subsurface lithology,
detecting groundwater, and locating potential mineral deposits.

b. Induced Polarization (IP) surveys measure the time-dependent voltage response of rocks
and soils after applying a current. It helps in identifying chargeability contrasts associated
with mineralization, such as sulfide ores.
3. Direct penetration techniques involve physically probing the subsurface to obtain information
about the soil or rock layers. One commonly used direct penetration method is:
a. Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) involves pushing a cone-shaped penetrometer into the
ground and measuring the resistance to penetration. It provides data on soil stratigraphy,
shear strength, and compaction characteristics. CPT is frequently used for geotechnical
investigations to assess soil properties and design foundations.

4. Core boring involves drilling boreholes

into the ground and extracting cylindrical
samples of the subsurface materials.
This method provides intact core
samples that can be analyzed in detail
to understand the geological and
geotechnical properties of the
subsurface. Core boring is commonly
used in geological and geotechnical
investigations to study rock composition,
rock strength, permeability, and other
parameters relevant to engineering
design.
5. Logging of Cores refers to the detailed examination and recording of information from the
extracted core samples. Geologists and engineers visually inspect the core and describe its
characteristics, including lithology, grain size, color, fractures, and other features. Logging of
cores helps in the interpretation of the subsurface conditions, identifying potential zones of
interest or hazards, and refining the geological models.
D. DAMS, TUNNELS, BUILDINGS, AND ROAD CUTTINGS
1. Dam
A dam is a structure built across a
stream or river to hold water back.
Dams can be used to store water,
control flooding, and generate
electricity.

Geological conditions required for the construction of Dam:

a. Foundation Stability: The geological conditions must provide a stable foundation for the
dam. This includes the presence of competent and stable rock or soil layers capable of
supporting the weight and load of the dam structure.
b. Impermeable Layers: Dams often require impermeable geological layers (such as clay or
low permeability rock formations) to prevent excessive seepage of water through the
foundation and abutments.
c. Geological Stability: The presence of stable geological formations is crucial to ensure
long-term stability and prevent risks of landslides or slope instability.

2. Tunnels

A tunnel is an
underground
passageway that is
excavated through
soil, rock or both.
Tunnels are used for
transportation, water
conveyance, sewage,
and utility conduits.
 Tunnels can be broadly classified into the following categories based on their purpose:
a. Transportation tunnels: These tunnels are constructed for vehicular traffic, rail transport, and
pedestrian use. Examples include road tunnels, railway tunnels, and pedestrian walkways.
b. Utility tunnels: These tunnels are used to carry pipes, cables, and other utility services, such
as water, gas, electricity, and telecommunications.
c. Mining tunnels: These tunnels are constructed in mining operations for the extraction of
minerals and ores.
d. Hydroelectric power tunnels: These tunnels are used to convey water to hydroelectric power
plants, where the force of the water is used to generate electricity.
e. Sewage tunnels: These tunnels are used to transport sewage from one location to another,
usually from a treatment plant to a discharge point.

Geological conditions required for the construction of Tunnel:

a. Rock Stability: Tunnels require stable geological conditions, especially if they are excavated
through rock formations. The presence of strong and competent rock with minimal fracturing and
faulting is essential.
b. Groundwater Conditions: Geological conditions should consider groundwater levels and the
potential for water inflows during tunnel excavation. Proper drainage and waterproofing
measures may be required.
c. Geological Hazards: Assessment of geological hazards such as fault zones, shear zones, and
potential for rockfalls is necessary to ensure the safety of the tunnel.

3. Buildings
 Geological conditions required for the construction of buildings:

a. Foundation Support: Buildings require stable and load-bearing foundations. The geological
conditions should include competent soil or rock layers capable of supporting the weight of the
structure.
b. Soil Settlement: The settlement characteristics of the soil should be considered to prevent
excessive settlement and differential movement, which can lead to structural damage.
c. Groundwater Conditions: Understanding the groundwater table and potential for water-related
issues, such as soil liquefaction or swelling, is important for building construction.

4. Road Cutting
Road cutting refers to the process of excavating or removing a section of a road or pavement to
perform various activities such as repairs, maintenance, installations, or expansions of underground
utilities. These utilities can include water pipes, gas lines, electric cables, or telecommunication
infrastructure. Road cutting is commonly carried out by utility companies, construction crews, or
municipal authorities.

Geological conditions required for the construction of road cutting:

a. Soil Stability: The geological conditions should provide stable and competent soils or rocks to
ensure the stability of road cut slopes.
b. Slope Geometry: The natural slope angle of the geological formation should be considered,
and appropriate slope angles and stabilization measures should be implemented to prevent
slope failure.
c. Geological Hazards: Assessment of geological hazards like landslides, rockfalls, or soil erosion
is necessary to minimize risks and ensure the safety of the road cutting.