Foundation Engineering

BCE 3153

Eng. Janaka Priyantha Wickramasooriya

B.Sc. Eng. (Hons), (University of Moratuwa)
M.Sc.Eng(Geotechnical Engineering) (University of Peradeniya)
C.Eng , MIE(SL) , C.P.Eng (Australia), MIEAus, IntPE(SL)
Reading for M.Phil. (University of Moratuwa)
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Site Investigation & Soil Exploration:

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 1. PLANNING SITE INVESTIGATION

Site investigation is carried out to investigate stability of a site for a proposed project.
The proper design of Civil Engineering structures requires adequate knowledge of
subsurface conditions at the sites of the structure and when the structures are to
consist of earth or rock fill materials of subsurface conditions at the possible sources of
construction materials. The structures may be divided into three categories:
i. Structures for which the basic problem is the interaction of the structures and the
surrounding ground. Such structures include foundations, retaining walls, bulk heads,
tunnel linings, and buried pipes. The main point of interest is the load deflection
characteristics of the interface.
ii. Structures constructed of earth such as highway fills, earth and rock fill dams, bases
and sub bases of pavements and backfill behind retaining walls. Besides the interaction
of the earth structures with the adjacent ground, properties of the construction materials
are required for determining the action of the earth structure itself.
iii. Structures of natural earth and rock as natural slopes and cut slopes. In this case
knowledge of the properties of the natural materials is required.

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A site investigation of one form or the other is necessary for any project.
The extent of investigation will vary depending on the importance of the
structure complexity of the soil and rock conditions and information
available on the behavior of existing foundations on similar soils.
The investigation may be a simple examination of the surface soils with
or without a few shallow trial pits. On the other hand it may be a
detailed study of the soil, rock and groundwater conditions to a
considerable depth below the surface by putting boreholes and insitu
and laboratory tests on the soil and rock encountered.
In areas where adequate knowledge of soil conditions and soil bearing
pressures are available, it is generally not the practice to put down
boreholes and carryout soil tests for one or two storey buildings.
However if difficult foundation conditions such as layers of peaty soils or
loose fill material are present, it would then be necessary to sink deep
boreholes and carry out laboratory and field tests.

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 1.1 PURPOSE OF THE SITE INVESTIGATION
The purpose of site investigation is to provide the Engineer with knowledge of the subsurface
conditions at the site of an Engineering project. The explorations provide information required
for the economic and safe design of a project and inform the construction engineer about the
materials and site conditions he will encounter in the field. For a complete site investigation the
following three more or less overlapping and independent phases have to be considered; the
stratigraphical survey, physical survey and evaluation.
(I) The Stratigraphical Survey
It consists of subsurface exploration and sampling.

(a) Determination of the sequence, thickness, extent and visual identity of the strata to the
required depth below the ground surface.

(b) Measurement of groundwater levels.

(c) Collection of samples of soil rock and ground water of a size and condition adequate for
positive identification of materials and for the test of physical survey.

(ii) Physical survey

Carrying out field and laboratory tests to determine the physical properties of the materials.

(iii) Evaluation
Evaluation of data from stratigraphical and physical survey and the formulation of definite
solution to the problems mentioned earlier.

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 1.2 Data Required from Site Investigation
(i) General topography and site conditions as they affect foundation design and construction.
• Surface configuration
• Adjacent property
• Presence of water courses, ponds swamps, bushes, trees and rock outcrops.
• Availability of access for construction plants and vehicles.
• Site drainage pattern.

(ii) Location of buried services

Pipe lines, power cables and water mains
(iii) General geology of the area
Types of rocks, geologic structures, joints, faults, sink holes in karstic formation.
(iv) Previous history of the site
Information on any defects or failure of existing buildings attributable for foundation
conditions. Site usage such as dumping ground or chemical storage area etc.

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(v) Special features of the area
Possibility of earth quakes, flooding, soil erosion, seasonal swelling and shrinkage.
(vi) Availability and quality of local constructional materials
Such as sand, rubble, natural earth, aggregate and ground water.
(vii) For maritime and river structures information on extreme high and low tide ranges, seasonal
river levels and discharges, river current velocities and hydrological and meteriological data.
(viii) Detailed record of soil, rock and groundwater conditions.
(ix) Results of insitu and laboratory tests of soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular
foundation design and constructional problems.
(x) Results of chemical analysis on soil and groundwater samples to determine the possible
deleterious effects on foundation structures.
Example: saline water accelerates corrosion of foundation reinforcements and sulphate in water
attacks the concrete.
Items (і) to (vii) can be obtained from general reconnaissance survey of the site, study of geological
maps, memoirs, topographic maps and other published reports related to the soils of the area.
Items (viii) to (x) are generally obtained from boreholes or other methods of subsurface exploration
together with field and laboratory testing of soils or rocks.

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 1.2 Data Required from Site Investigation
(i) General topography and site conditions as they affect foundation design and construction.
 Surface configuration
 Adjacent property
 Presence of water courses, ponds swamps, bushes, trees and rock outcrops.
 Availability of access for construction plants and vehicles.
 Site drainage pattern.

(ii) Location of buried services

Pipe lines, power cables and water mains
(iii) General geology of the area
Types of rocks, geologic structures, joints, faults, sink holes in karstic formation.
(iv) Previous history of the site
Information on any defects or failure of existing buildings attributable for foundation
conditions. Site usage such as dumping ground or chemical storage area etc.

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 1.3 Subsurface Exploration methods
The procedure for obtaining subsurface information may be divided into the following three
groups:
(i) Indirect methods
These comprise geophysical methods and sounding methods. The stratigraphy is determined
by surface measurements of changes in certain physical properties such as electrical
resistivity, seismic wave velocity or resistance to the penetration of a sounding rod.
(ii) Semi-Direct Methods
These are common boring and drilling methods combined with intermittent sampling. The
major strata can be identified approximately but not definitely by these observations and
sampling. Generally only depths to strata of appreciable thickness and at which major
changes in the character of the subsurface materials occur can be determined reliably by
semi-direct method.
(iii) Direct methods
These are boring and sampling methods which provide practically continuous representative
or undisturbed samples, and all accessible explorations such as test pits, trenches, adits,
shafts, large diameter borings, and tunnels which permit direct examination and mapping of
the strata insitu. The direct methods of exploration provide the most detailed and reliable
data of all methods.

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 1.4 Planning the Exploration Programme

Site Investigation is normally carried out in a phased sequence as follows:

• Reconnaisance survey

• Preliminary site investigation.

• Detailed site investigation

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 1.4.1 Reconnaissance survey
This provides information for prefeasibility studies and for planning the exploration
for the preliminary design. This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which
can reveal information on the type and behavior of adjacent structures. It may also be
in the form of a study of the various sources of information such as aerial maps,
geological maps, water well logs, hydrological data, soil reports and publications.
When a dam or highway project is under consideration, several alternative sites or
alignments must be considered.

The information obtained in this phase aids in the selection of the alternative sites or
alignments for investigation. The type of information to be obtained includes
accessibility of the site, topography, soil profile, bedrock lithology and structure, and
surface and subsurface drainage.

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 1.4.2 Preliminary site investigation

In this a few borings are sunk or some trial pits are opened to establish in a

general manner the stratification, types of soil to be expected and the

location of groundwater table if any. One or more borings should be taken to

rock or competent strata. If the initial borehole indicates the upper soil is

loose or highly compressible. This amount of exploration is usually the

extent of the site Investigation for small structures.

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 1.4.3 Detailed Site Investigation

The subsurface information from the Reconnaissance survey and preliminary

site investigation are combined and it should be adequate to establish the

feasibility of the project and of plans and specifications for construction. The

precise locations of structures are set and additional borings and probings are

made so that adequate numbers of test points are located at each structure.

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 1.5 Bore hole layout
• The location, spacing and number of borings, soundings and geophysical profiles should be
such that the soil profiles obtained will permit a reasonably accurate estimate of extent and
character of the intervening materials. It should also disclose important irregularities in
subsoil conditions. Whenever possible, boreholes should be sunk as close as possible to the
proposed foundations. Where the layout of the structures has not been decided at the time
of the investigation a suitable pattern of boreholes is an evenly spaced grid of holes. For
extensive areas it is possible to adopt a widely spaced grid of boreholes with some form of
insitu probes such as static cone penetrometer tests at a closer spacing within the borehole
grid. Suitable borehole layouts for various sites are shown in Fig 1.1 (a), (b) and (c).

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• Project sites could be grouped into compact and extended sites. Compact sites include
bridge sites, building, dam, docks, habour etc. - for which closely spaced and deep borings
are required. Extended sites include roads, railways, tunnels, sewers, transmission lines and
pipe lines etc. - shallow widely spacing borings are sufficient. The required number of
boreholes which need to be sunk on any particular location is a difficult problem which is
closely bound up with the relative coasts of investigation and the project for which it is
undertaken. If more boreholes are sunk, then more details about the soil conditions will be
known and greater economy in the design of foundations can be achieved. Risks of meeting
unforeseen and difficult soil conditions which would greatly increase the costs of
foundation work become less. However an economic limit is reached when the costs of
boring outweighs any savings in the foundation costs merely adds to overall cost of the
project. For an economical project cost of site investigation is limited to less than two
percent of the project cost. Except for small structures a minimum of three boreholes should
be sunk to determine the dip of the strata.

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 1.6 Depth of Investigation
• The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed to a large extent on the character
and sequence of the subsurface strata and to some extent on the size and type of the
proposed structure and on certain design considerations, ex: safety against foundation
failure, excessive settlement, seepage, earth pressure etc. The boreholes should be extended
to strata of adequate bearing capacity and should penetrate all deposits which are unsuitable
for foundation purposes- ex: unconsolidated fill, peat, organic silt and very soft
compressible clay. The soft strata should be penetrated even when they are overlain by a
surface layer of higher bearing capacity.
•
• When structures are to be founded on compressible strata which has adequate strength to
carry the structure but subject to considerable settlements, the borehole should penetrate the
compressible strata or be extended to such a depth that the stress increase in deeper strata
becomes negligible.

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• When structures are to be founded on rock, you should verify that bed rock and not
boulders have been encountered. It is advisable to extend one or more boreholes by about
5m in order to ensure what is encountered is rock and not a boulder and to determine the
extent and character of the weathered zone of the rock.
• For foundations of structures the depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by
the depth of soil affected by foundation pressures. The vertical stress on the soil at a depth
of one and a half times the width of the loaded area is still one fifth of the applied vertical
stress at foundation level, and the shear stress at this depth is still appreciable. Thus borings
in soil should always be taken to a depth of at least one and a half time the width of the
loaded area. Depths of boreholes for some common cases are shown in Fig 1.2.

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2. METHODS OF SUB-SURFACE EXPLORATIONS

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 2.1 Excavation Methods for Exploration

• Excavations which are large enough to permit the entrance of one or more

persons represent the direct method of site investigation and the most

valuable and dependable means of exploration. Theory permit detailed

examination and mapping of the insitu materials. They also provide a

means to obtain for laboratory testing, large size undisturbed and

disturbed, samples of the materials encountered.

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 2.1.1 Test Pits and Test Trenches
• Trial pit digging is the cheapest method of exploration to shallow depths.
Pits can be excavated by hand using any local labour or mechanical
excavators. In water bearing soils particularly in sands there is likely to be
difficulty in excavating below the water table. Trial pits enable a clear
picture to be obtained of the stratification of the soils. Also hand cut
undisturbed samples of soils giving the minimum of disturbance can be
taken. Test pits normally have cross sections 1.0 m to 2 m square and
depths are limited to a maximum of 6 m in a favorable soil conditions due
to economical reasons. Test trenches are usually 1.0 m to 2.0 m wide and
may extend for any length required to reveal condition along a specific
line. In general test trenches are relatively shallow compared to test pits.
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 2.1.2 Exploratory adits and Test shafts.

An exploratory adit is a horizontal or near horizontal excavation made by

mining methods. In general these adits are excavated predominantly in rock.

The shaft is a vertical excavation generally in rock. The purpose of each of

these methods of investigation is to permit a detailed insitu examination of

the nature of rocks and its structural features such as joints, fractures, faults,

and shear zones. The dimensions of the adits are 1.2m×1.8m or 1.5m×2.1m

when hand mucking and hauling equipment are used and 1.8m×2.4m

minimum when power mucking equipment are used.

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 2.2 Soil Boring
A boring may be defined as any vertical, inclined, or horizontal hole drilled
in the ground for the primary purpose of obtaining samples of the
overburden or rock materials, present and thereby to permit the
determination of the stratigraphy, the engineering properties of those
materials. The hole may be utilized additionally for the determination of
engineering properties such as shear strength, permeability and
compressibility. The procedure used to make exploratory borings may be
divided into two basic operations:
(i) Advancing the hole to depths at which samples are to be taken
(ii) Sampling of the soil or rock
For advancing the hole the techniques commonly employed are displacement
boring, continuous sampling, augering, wash boring, percussion drilling,
shell & auger boring, rotary drilling and hammer drilling. The samplers in
common use include spiral, bucket and hollow stem augers, solid and split
tube drive samplers, Shelby tubes, stationary piston, retractable plug and
Denison double tube core barrel samplers, single and double tube rock core
barrels with diamond or drill bits.Eng.Janaka Priyantha
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 2.2.1 Hand Auger Boring
• Hand auger borings are also a cheap means of sub-surface exploration in
soils which have sufficient cohesion to stand unsupported in an unlined
auger hole and there must be no large cobbles, boulders or other
obstructions which would prevent rotation of auger. Holes can be sunk to
5m to 7m in soft to firm clays or sands possessing some cohesion. Most
commonly used hand augers include the Iwan, helical, closed and open
spiral augers.Fig.2.1 shows these augers.
• Iwan augers are available in 75mm to 225mm diameters and are used in all
types of soils except cohesion less materials below water table and hard
table. These augers are available for hand operation in diameters from
50mm to 90mm. Closed spiral auger is used in dry clay and gravelly soils
and open spiral auger is used in loosely consolidated deposits.

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 2.2.2 Power auger boring
• Engine driven augers may be classified as flight augers, hollow stem
augers or bucket augers. Flight augers are available in sizes ranging from
50 mm to 1200 mm diameter and are made in several types depending on
their use. A single flight auger shown in Fig 2.2.(a) is designed for use in
clay and other unconsolidated deposits. The double flight auger shown in
Fig 2.2.(b) & (c) may be use din both soil and rock,. In t6he operation of
all the above augers are attached to a drilling rod referred to as the kelly
rod which is rotated and pressed downward to achieve penetration.
Generally depths are limited to 3 m to 6 m depending on the length of
kelly rod. Continuous flight auger shown in Fig2.2.(e) are used to advance
holes to about 30 m depths. In hollow stem augers shown in Fig2.2.(f),
samples are relatively more representative than that obtained with the
continuous flight auger. Augers of this type are available with inside
diameters from 70 mm to 150 mm. Sometimes continuous flight hollow
stem auger is used not as sampling device but to advance and case the hole
simultaneously. Through the hollow stem sampling tools may be inserted
to obtain undisturbed samples.
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 2.2.7 Wash Boring
The soil is loosened and removed from the borehole by a stream of water or drilling mud
issuing from the lower end of the wash pipe which is worked up and down and rotated. The
water or mud flow carries the soil up the annular space between the wash pipe and the casing,
and it over flows at ground level where the soil in suspension is allowed to settle in a tank and
the fluid is recirculated. This method cannot be used in soils containing gravels or boulders. It
is best suited for uniform sands and clays. Wash boring has the advantage that the structure of
the soil below the bottom of the hole is not disturbed by the blows of the boring tools. The use
of mud instead of water allows the hole to remain uncased in cohesion less soils. Fig.2.5
Shows a wash boring operation.

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 2.8 Rotary Drilling
In rotary drilling method the hole is advanced by rotating a drill string consisting of a series of
hollow drill rods to the bottom of which is attached a cutting bit or a core barrel with a coring
bit. Drilling fluid under pressure is introduced into the bottom of the hole through the hollow
drill rods and passages in the bit as it enters the hole and removing the cuttings from the
bottom of the hole as it returns to the surface in the annular space between the drill rods and
walls of the hole. In an uncased hole it also acts to support the walls of the hole.

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 2.2.9 Equipment Used for Borings.
The machinery used to advance the hole and take samples commonly referred to as a drill rig
in general consists of the following.

(i) A motor which provides power to operate a winch to raise and lower the drilling and
sampling tools to drive casing provides rotary motion where required to turn augers or coring
equipment also provides downward pressure to push samplers into the ground.
(ii) Drilling and sampling tools and clean out equipments.
(iii) Drill rods or cables connecting these to the operating equipment at the ground
surface.
(iv) Casing when required to stabilize the hole.
(v) A tripod four legged frame mast or derrick equipped with a sheave for use in
conjunction with the winch to raising and lowering drill rods.
(vi) A water pump or air compressor where required which provides water or air under
pressure for the removal of the cuttings from the drill hole and for the cooling of rotary bits.

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 2.2.10 Selection of Boring Methods
Boring methods and rigs are available in a wide variety of sizes and configurations and the
unit selected depends upon.
(i) The availability of specific rig
(ii) The location of the work
(iii) The materials to be penetrated
(iv) The type of sampling required
(v) The size and depth of the borehole
(vi) The method of penetration

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 2.2.11 Stabilization of Boreholes
• Two common problems in exploratory work are caving of the sides of the drill hole and
heaving of the bottom of the hole. Uncased dry holes are generally stable when are shallow
and lie above ground water table. The danger of caving increases with depth and the
presence of free ground water. In firm cohesive soils, the borehole may remain open for a
limited length of time. The following methods are used for stabilization of the borehole
during site investigation.
•
(i) Lining the borehole with steel casing.
(ii) Stabilization with drilling fluid such as water or mixtures of water and fat clay such as
bentonite.
(iii)Stabilization by grouting, used to materials extremely susceptible for caving.
(iv)Stabilization by freezing.

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 2.2.12 Backfilling of Borehole
• Open boreholes as well as other open exploratory excavations are a hazard and should be
backfilled when they are no longer required. In a large number of cases backfilling
boreholes with locally available soil tamped in place will be sufficient. However under
certain circumstances backfilling with grout or bentonite is advisable.

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 3. SOIL SAMPLING AND BACK
CORING

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 3.1 Soil Sampling
• Samples are collected from boreholes and test pits to determine the stratigraphy of the
subsoil and also to determine the physical properties of the strata encountered through
visual description and laboratory testing. In general samples recovered from boreholes or
trial pits are categorized as disturbed and undisturbed. Samples disturbance depends on
factors such as rate of penetration of the samplers, whether the cutting force is obtained by
pushing or driving, presence of gravel and on the dimension of the samplers. The variability
of the materials encountered and the need of samples with various quality for different
purposes have resulted in the development of many different techniques of sampling and
samplers.

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 3.1.1 Disturbed Sample
• A disturbed sample may be defined as one which contains all the insitu materials but whose
structure or fabric has been disturbed. These samples are taken from boring tools auger
parings content of split spoon sampler in the SPT test, sludges from shell and clay cutter,
hand samples dug from trial pits. These samples are taken from boring tools – auger
parings, content of split spoon sampler in the SPT test, sludges from shell and clay cutter,
hand samples dug from trial pits. These samples are placed in air tight jars or bags and
labeled to identify the project, location, borehole number, sample number, depth of sample
and date of sampling. These samples are used for visual identification and classification
tests such as Atterberg’s limits, Particle size distribution, specific gravity compaction and
CBR tests.

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 3.1.2 Undisturbed Sample
• The true undisturbed sample is that its physical structure and properties should be
unchanged from the insitu conditions. The soil fabric water content and configuration of the
individual strata must be preserved. There must be no distortion or contamination of the
sample. The areas of disturbance to which a soil sample may be subjected have been
reviewed by Hvorslev (1949):
(i) Changes in stress conditions
(ii) Changes in water content and voids ratio
(iii)Disturbance of the soil structure
(iv)Chemical changes
(v) Mixing and segregation of soil constituents.
•
• Undisturbed samples include those obtained by thin wall tube drive samplers, piston
samplers, Denison samplers and careful excavation of block samples from trial pits.

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• The care in sampling procedure and the elaborateness of equipment depends on the class of
work which is being undertaken, the importance of the accurate results on the design of the
works and the funds allowed for the investigation. The Swedish Geotechnical Institute
recognizes three main classes of sampling namely:
•
(i) Research Class: Highest possible quality of sampling with little regard to class.
(ii) Routine Class: A fairly good quality of samples but with some attention paid to keeping
the equipment fairly simple and the time of operation reasonably short in order to avoid
excessive costs.
(iii)Simple Class: The sample must not be seriously disturbed but the chief consideration is
given to avoiding delay in boring and the use of simple apparatus to keep the costs as low
as possible.
•
• The research and routine classes of sampling require a good design of sampler such as a
piston or thin walled tube sampler which is jacked or pushed down into the soil and not
driven down by blows of a hammer. The simple class of sampling employs open drive
samplers which are driven into the soil by blows of a sliding hammer or careful hand cut
samples taken from trial pits.

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 3.3 Core Barrels
• Core samplers are used when drilling in very stiff soil or rock. Core drilling differs from
drive sampling in that sampling and advancing the hole is done simultaneously. The cutting
is done by diamond core bits or tungsten carbide bits. Rotation of the barrel by means of the
drill rods causes the core bit to cut an annulus in the hard soil or rock, the cutting being
washed to the surface by a stream of water pumped down the hollow drill rods. The wash
water also cools the drill bits. The barrels are also made in various lengths like 1.5 m and 3
m. The double tube core barrel overcomes the risk of erosion of the core and assists in
improving the core recovery. An inner tube is attached to the core barrel head by a swivel
connection which allows the inner tube to remain stationary, while the outer barrel and
drilling bit to rotate.

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 3.3.1 Denison double Tube Core Barrel Soil sampler
• This sampler is used primarily in stiff to hard cohesive soils. It is operated on a combination
of jacking and coring to obtain a sample. Fig 3.8 shows the basic components of the
sampler and are an outer rotating core barrel with a bit; an inner stationary sample barrel
with a cutting edge, inner and outer barrel heads; an inner barrel liner and an optional
basket type core retainer. The coring bit may be either a carbide insert bit or a hardened
steel saw tooth bit. The cutting shoe of the inner barrel has a sharp cutting edge which
permits it easily to displace soil in to the annular space cut by this bit. The cutting edge is
made to lead the bit by 12.7 mm to 76.2 mm through the use of coring bits of different
lengths. The longest lead is used in soft and loose soils because the shoe can easily
penetrate these materials and the longer penetration is required to provide the soil core with
the maximum protection against erosion by the drilling fluid used in the coring. The outer
and inner barrel heads are connected through thrust bearing which permit the application of
downward pressure on the stationary inner barrel while the outer barrel is rotated. The
sampler is lowered to the bottom of the hole and a downward pressure is applied by the
hydraulic feed mechanism of a rotary drill. The Denison sampler was originally developed
for taking 150 mm diameter cores but currently it is available in sizes which produce cores
having nominal diameters of 60 mm, 72 mm, 104 mm and 160 mm. standard core barrel
lengths are 0.6 m and 1.5 m.

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 3.3.2 TAMS Double Tube Core Barrel Soil Sampler
• This core barrel soil sampler is identical to the Denison sampler and is shown in Fig 3.9.
The major differences are; a ball check valve is used instead of the disk valve used in the
Denison sampler and the cutting edge of the inner barrel is made to lead the coring bit of
the outer barrel by varying amounts through the use of cutting shoes of various lengths
rather than the use of coring bits of various lengths. Also it contains a plastic liner tube,
which could be easily cut to recover the soil sample.

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 3.3.3 Pitcher Sampler
• The pitcher sampler shown in Fig 3.10 is basically a Denison sampler in which the inner barrel is
spring loaded so as to provide for the automatic adjustments of the distance by which the cutting
edge of the barrel leads the coring bit. The primary components of this sampler as shown in Fig
3.10 are an outer rotating core barrel with a it and an inner stationary, spring loaded, thin wall
sampling tube which leads the outer barrel drilling bit depending on the hardness of the soil
being penetrated. The sampler is lowered to he bottom of the hole (Fig 3.10 a). During this
operation the thin wall sampling tube is suspended from the outer barrel and the sliding valve at
the top of the barrel remains open. When the sampler reaches the bottom of the hole the inner
tube meets resistance first and the outer barrel slides past the tube until the spring at the top of
the tube contacts the top of the outer barrel. At the same time the sliding valve closes so that the
drilling fluid is forced to flow downward in the annular space between the tube and the outer
barrel and then upward between the sampler and the wall of the hole. If the soil to be penetrated
is soft the spring will compress slightly and the cutting edge of the tube will be forced in to the
soil as downward pressure is applied. This forces the cutting edge to lead the bit of the outer
barrel.

• If the material is hard, the spring compresses a greater amount and the outer barrel passes the
tube so that the bit leads the cutting edge of the hole. The amount by which the tube or barrel
leads is controlled by the hardness of the material being penetrated. The tube may lead the barrel
by as much as 150 mm and the barrel may lead the tube by as much as 12.7 mm. The pitcher
sampler is manufacture in sizes which will enter holes from 112 mm to 197 mm in diameter to
obtain samples of 64 mm to 114 mm diameters. Samplers capable of producing 0.91 m to 1.5 m
long samples are available.

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 3.4 Rock Coring
• Rock coring is the process in which a sampler consisting of a core barrel with a cutting bit
at its lower end cuts an annular hole in a rock mass thereby creating a cylinder or core of
rock which is recovered in the core barrel or with a second or inner tube within the core
barrel. Rotary drilling method is used in core drilling. The behaviour of a rock mass is
affected not so much by the type and hardness of the rock material but more significantly
by the size and spacing of discontinuities such as fractures, degree of weathering.
•
• Core barrels currently in use are of three types- namely: single tube, rigid type double tube
and the swivel type double tube. Core barrels are available in sizes ranging from 21 mm to
150 mm. Basically core barrel assemblies comprise from top to bottom the following
components which are threaded to one another: core barrel and inner barrel, liners, reaming
shells and coring bits. Core retainers or lifters are devices located at the lower end of the
barrel and designed to hold the core in the barrel.

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 Coring Bits
• Four basic types of bits are in use: diamond bits, carbide insert bits, saw tooth bits and
calyx or shot bits. Diamond coring bits may be of the surface set or diamond impregnated
type. In the surface set diamond bit the diamonds are set in the metal matrix at the interior
and exterior faces of the bit near its bottom and on its cutting face. The diamond
impregnated bit has small pieces of diamond embedded through out the metal matrix of the
bit.
•
• Carbide insert bits are of several types. These bits use tungsten carbide instead of
diamonds. Bits of this type are used to penetrate soft to medium rock.
•
• In saw tooth bits the cutting medium comprises a series of teeth which are commonly cut in
to the bottom of the bit. The teeth are faced and tipped with a hard metal alloy such as
tungsten carbide to provide wear resistance and thereby to increase the life of the bit.

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• Reaming Shells
• The reaming shell is a metal sleeve threaded at both ends which serves as a coupling
between the core barrel and the bit. It is slightly larger in diameter than the core barrel and
its surface is set with diamonds, so that to protect the barrel from wear.
•
• Core lifters or Retainers
• These are two devices commonly used to retain the core as the core barrel is removed from
the bore hole. These are the split ring core lifter and the basket retainer. The split ring lifter
is a tapered split ring of tempered steel which is fluted on either its interior or exterior
surface. It is held in place by the tapered inner face of the coring bit. This type of core lifter
is used primarily to retain cores of sound rock. The basket retainer comprises a base ring to
the periphery of which are welded curved strips or fingers of sprig steel.

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