CAPE COAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGIEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

MIGUEL APPIAH ODOOM 0102101420

TRACY OTWUA ARTHUR 0102102220

FRANCIS TAKYI MENSAH 0102100820

PROGRAMME: CIVIL ENGINEERING(B-TECH), 400

COURSE CODE: BCE 411

 Soil Investigation
Soil investigation is a comprehensive process that involves studying the physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties of soil at a specific site. It is crucial for various engineering and
construction projects to ensure the suitability of the soil for the intended purpose and to mitigate
potential risks associated with soil-related issues.

Objectives of Soil Investigation

1. Assessing Soil Suitability: Determine the suitability of the soil for various engineering
and construction purposes, such as foundation support, earthwork, and infrastructure
development.
2. Identifying Soil Types: Classify soil types based on their physical and chemical
properties, including grain size distribution, plasticity, organic content, and mineral
composition.
3. Evaluating Bearing Capacity: Assess the ability of the soil to support loads from
structures or foundations without excessive settlement or failure. This involves
determining the safe bearing capacity of the soil under different loading conditions.

4. Analyzing Shear Strength: Determine the resistance of the soil to shear stresses, which is
critical for stability analysis of slopes, retaining walls, embankments, and other earth
structures.

5. Characterizing Permeability: Measure the rate at which water can flow through the soil,
which is essential for designing drainage systems, evaluating groundwater flow, and
assessing the potential for seepage or groundwater contamination.

6. Predicting Settlement: Predict the amount and rate of settlement that may occur under the
weight of structures or fills, considering factors such as soil compressibility,
consolidation, and time-dependent behavior.

7. Identifying Soil Hazards: Identify and mitigate potential soil-related hazards, such as
expansive soils, collapsible soils, liquefaction susceptibility, landslides, and soil erosion.
 8. Providing Design Recommendations: Offer recommendations for engineering design and
construction practices based on soil properties and behavior, including foundation types,
earthwork specifications, soil stabilization measures, and drainage requirements.

9. Supporting Regulatory Compliance: Ensure compliance with regulatory requirements and

industry standards governing soil-related aspects of construction, environmental
protection, and land development.

Methods and Techniques

a) Soil sampling: Collecting soil samples from different depths and locations for laboratory
analysis.
b) In-situ Testing: Conducting tests directly in the field to assess soil properties without
disturbing the soil structure. Examples include standard penetration tests (SPT), cone
penetration tests (CPT), and pressure meter tests.
c) Laboratory Testing: Analyzing soil samples in a controlled environment to determine
parameters such as grain size distribution, moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear
strength, and compressibility.
d) Geophysical Surveys: Using geophysical methods such as seismic refraction, electrical
resistivity, or ground-penetrating radar to infer subsurface soil properties.

Stages in Site Investigation

1. Site Reconnaissance
2. Preliminary site exploration
3. Detailed exploration
4. Preparation of soil investigation report

1. Site Reconnaissance
Site reconnaissance is the first stage of site investigation. In this stage, visual
inspection of the site is done and information about topographical and geological features
 of the site are collected. The general observations made in site reconnaissance are as
follows:

1. Presence of drainage ditches and dumping yards etc.

2. Location of groundwater table by observing well in that site.
3. Presence of springs, swamps, etc.
4. High flood level marks on the bridges, high rise buildings, etc. are observed.
5. Presence of vegetation and nature of the soil.
6. Past records of landslides, floods, shrinkage cracks, etc. of that region.
7. Study of aerial photographs of the site, blueprints of present buildings, geological maps,
etc.
8. Observation of deep cuts to know about the stratification of soils.
9. Observation of Settlement cracks of existing structures.

2. Preliminary Site Exploration

Preliminary site exploration is carried out for small projects, light structures, highways, airfields,
etc. The main objective of preliminary exploration is to obtain an approximate picture of sub-soil
conditions at low cost. It is also called general site exploration.

The soil sample is collected from experimental borings and shallow test pits and simple
laboratory tests such as moisture content test, density, unconfined compressive strength test, etc.
are conducted. Simple field tests such as penetration methods, sounding methods, geophysical
methods are performed to get the relative density of soils, strength properties, etc.

The data collected about subsoil should be sufficient enough to design and build light structures.
Following are some of the general information obtained through primary site exploration.

1. Approximates values of soil's compressive strength.

2. Position of the groundwater table.

3. Depth and extent of soil strata.

4. Soil composition.

5. Depth of hard stratum from ground level.

 6. Engineering properties of soil (disturbed sample)

3. Detailed Site Exploration

Detailed exploration is preferred for complex projects, major engineering works, heavy
structures like dams, bridges, high rise buildings, etc. A huge amount of capital is required for a
detailed site exploration hence, it is not recommended for minor engineering works where the
budget is limited. For such type of works, data collected through preliminary site exploration is
enough.

In this stage, numerous field tests such as in-situ vane shear test, plate load test, etc. and
laboratory tests such as permeability tests, compressive strength test on undistracted soil
samples are conducted to get exact values of soil properties.

4. Preparation of Report of Sub-Soil Exploration

After performing preliminary or detailed site exploration methods a report should

be prepared. A sub-soil investigation or exploration report generally has the
following sections:

1. Introduction
2. Scope of site investigation
3. Description of the proposed structure, purpose of site investigation
4. Site reconnaissance details
5. Site exploration details such as number, location and depth of boreholes, sampling
details etc.
6. Methods performed in site exploration and their results.
7. Laboratory tests performed and their results.
8. Details of Groundwater table level and position.
9. Recommended improvement methods if needed.
10. Recommended types of foundations, structural details, etc.
11. Conclusion.
Soil Exploration
is a crucial aspect of geotechnical engineering and involves the physical investigation and
sampling of soil layers beneath the ground surface to understand their properties and
characteristics.
Purpose and Objectives:
Soil exploration aims to obtain accurate and representative data about the subsurface soil
conditions at a specific site. The primary objectives include:
 Characterizing soil types, stratigraphy, and layering.
 Assessing soil properties such as density, moisture content, grain size distribution,
plasticity, and strength.
 Identifying geological features, such as bedrock, faults, and groundwater levels.
 Collecting soil samples for laboratory testing to determine engineering properties and
behavior.
4. TYPES OF SAMPLES

a) Sampling by standard split spoon

A split spoon sampler includes a driving shoe (to cut the soil), a split barrel (to contain the soil sample),
an optional liner (to protect the soil), a top sleeve (to connect to the drill rod) and a plastic catcher (to
prevent the soil from falling out of the sampler). The plastic catcher is secured between the split barrel
and the driving shoe. The split spoon sampler is driven into the soil by hammers of different types.
Therefore, the soil collected in split spoon samplers is disturbed due to the hammering of the sampler.
The most commonly used split spoon samplers are the SPT sampler and the modified California sampler.

b) Sampling by thin wall plate (Shelby tube)

Sampling by thin-wall tube is used for obtaining fairly undisturbed soil samples. The thin wall tubes are
made of seamless, thin tubes ad commonly are referred to as Shelby tubes. To collect samples at a given
depth in a borehole, one first must remove the drilling tools. The sampler is attached to a drilling rod
and lowered to the bottom of the borehole. After this, it is pushed hydraulically into the soil. It then is
rotated to shear off the base and is pulled out. The sampler with the soil inside is sealed and taken to
the laboratory for testing. Most commonly used thin-wall tube samplers have outside diameters of
76.2mm. The vacuum created by the check valve and the cohesion of the sample in the tube keeps the
soil sample retained in the tube while the tube is withdrawn.

c) Sampling by Piston samplers

When sampling soft soils. The soil sometimes may enter the sampler before the sampler is pushed into
the soil. In addition, when a sampler containing soft soil is lifted out of the borehole, the soil may fall out
of the sampler. To avoid these two problems, a piston sampler was invented. A piston sampler is a thin-
walled metal tube (such as Shelby tube) that contains a piston at the tip. When the sampler is first
introduced into the borehole, the piston prevents the soil from entering the sampler before the sampler
starts. As the sampler is steadily pushed into the soil at a constant speed by hydraulics on the drill rig,
the soil sample enters the sampler and pushes the piston upward. When the sampler is pulled out of the
borehole, the tendency of the soil to fall creates a vacuum, which keeps the soil in the sampler. The
piston sampler is mainly used to retrieve undisturbed soft soil samples.

d) Sampling by Pitcher barrel samplers

It is a double-tube sampler. The core sizes are usually 3,4 and 6 inches in diameter with lengths of 3 or 5
feet. The pitcher sampler contains a high-tension spring that is located between the inner and the outer
barrel above the inner head. The inner barrel (or tube) can extend or retract relative to the outer barrel,
depending on the soil’s stiffness. The Pitcher sampler is suitable for sampling alternating hard and soft
layers or soils of variable hardness.
5) Location and spacing of boring

a) Location of boring

i. For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare (i.e., 400m 2), one bore hole in
each corner and one in the center (i.e., 5 boreholes in all) should be adequate.
ii. For smaller areas and less important buildings and even one bore hole in the center should be
sufficient.
iii. For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of the
terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes. Dynamic or static cone penetration tests
may be performed at every 100m by dividing the area in a grid pattern and numbers of bore
holes are decided by examining the variation in the penetration curves.
iv. For exploration purposes, the minimum depth is taken as 1.5m because the weathering
processes affect the soil up to this depth. But where industrial processes affect the soil
characteristics this depth may be more.
v. Normally the depth of exploration should be taken 1.5 to 2 times the estimated width of the
largest footings (single or combined), form the base level foundation; but in weak soils, the
exploration should be continued to a depth at which the loads can be carried safely (generally
up to the hard stratum).

6) Depth of Exploration and Sample Requirements

a) Depth of soil exploration

Exploration of soil, in general, should be carried out to a depth up to which the increase in pressure due
to a structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlement or shear failure of foundation. This depth
is known as depth of exploration, which depends upon the following factors;

i. Type of structure
ii. Load on structure
iii. Size and shape of foundation
iv. Position of loaded areas
v. Soil profile and its properties

The depth of exploration at the start of the work may be decide according to the thumb rule given
below, which may need modification as exploration proceeds.

Thumb Rule for Deciding Depth of Exploration

i. The depth of exploration should be one and half times to two times the estimated width (lower
dimension) of the footing, single or combined, from base level of the foundation.
ii. . In case of weak soils, the exploration should be continued to a depth at which the loads can be
carried by the stratum without excessive settlement or shear failure.
iii. Isolated spread footing or a raft: one and a half times the width.
 iv. Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width: one and half times the length
v. Pile foundation: 10 to 30 meters, or more, or at least one and a half times the width of the
structure.
vi. Base of the retaining wall: one and a half times the base width or one and a half times the
exposed height of face of wall, whichever is greater.
vii. For floating basement, the depth of construction should be equal to the depth of construction.
viii. In any case, the depth to which weathering process affect the soil should be regarded as a
minimum depth for exploration of sites and this should be taken as 1.5 meters. In case of black
cotton soil, the minimum depth of exploration is 3.5 meter

Boring Methods for sample collection

Boring methods are widely used for subsurface investigations to collect samples, in almost all types of
soil, for visual inspection or laboratory testing. There are several boring techniques like auger boring,
rotary drilling, wash boring, percussion drilling, auger drilling, and test pits that are employed to collect
disturbed and undisturbed samples of soils.

These boring methods are selected based on the soil types, the efficiency of boring technique, types of
soil sample (disturbed or undisturbed), and the availability of facility and accuracy by which soil and
groundwater variations can be determined.
Methods of exploration
These techniques are used to take soil samples at a certain practical depth, for example, auger boring
collects undisturbed soil sample at a depth of 35m, whereas, the sampling depths for percussion drilling,
wash boring, and rotary drilling are around 70There are several methods for soil exploration, which can
be broadly classified into three categories: direct, semi-direct, and indirect methods.
1. Direct methods: These methods involve physically examining the soil by digging pits or trenches.
Test pits, trial pits, and trenches are some examples of direct methods.
2. Semi-direct methods: These methods involve drilling into the soil to obtain samples for testing.
Boring is an example of a semi-direct method.
3. Indirect methods: These methods involve using geophysical techniques to study the soil without
physically disturbing it. Soundings or penetration tests are examples of indirect methods.

Other methods of soil exploration include inspection, probing, and trail pit method. However, these
methods are not commonly used in soil exploration. Inspection is a visual examination of the soil surface,
and probing is a method of determining the depth of the soil by inserting a rod into the ground. Trail pit
method is a type of direct method that involves digging a small pit to examine the soil.
Soil investigation is carried out to estimate the engineering properties of soils, which depends on soil
structure, i.e., nature of soil grains and their arrangement, volume of air and water (degree of saturation
and porosity). Since these properties of soil varies from one location to another, the program of soil
investigation needs to be evolved for each project1.
The planning of soil investigation
The planning of soil investigation should provide adequate data and make appropriate recommendations
supported by proper calculations in respect of the following:
The type of foundation required

 Allowable bearing capacity for the foundation

 Total and differential settlement that would occur in the foundation
 Highest groundwater level ever reached
 Anticipated construction problems and suggested solutions (sheep piling, dewatering,
boulder/rock excavation, differential settlement, damage to adjacent property, environment etc.)

Depth of exploration and number of holes

The depth of soil exploration and the number of boreholes required depend on the nature of the project,
the type of foundation required, the allowable bearing capacity for the foundation, the total and
differential settlement that would occur in the foundation, the highest groundwater level ever reached, and
anticipated construction problems and suggested solutions.
The depth of exploration should be one and a half to two times the estimated width (lower dimension) of
the footing, single or combined, from the base level of the foundation. In case of weak soils, the
exploration should be continued to a depth at which the loads can be carried by the stratum without
excessive settlement or shear failure.
The number and depth of borings for soil investigation depend on the geological nature of the ground, the
importance of the structure, the structural loads, and the availability of equipment. The minimum number
and depth of borings may be specified by building regulations and regulatory authorities in the local area.
Whenever possible, boreholes should always be dug close to the intended foundation location. Where the
bearing stratum’s depth is uneven, this is crucial. The boreholes should be precisely positioned in relation
to the proposed structures, both in terms of level and location. A grid of holes that are evenly spaced
serves as an appropriate design of boreholes when the layout of the structures has not been established at
the time the soil investigation is being conducted. It is feasible to use a grid of boreholes with in-situ
probes of some kind, such as dynamic or static cone penetration tests, spaced more closely apart within
the borehole grid for large areas.
References

The Constructor. (n.d). What is Site Investigation or Soil Exploration? Objectives and Stages.
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/site-investigation-soil-exploration/312/

"Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices" by Donald P. Coduto, Man-chu Ronald

Yeung, and William A. Kitch.

"Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice" by Karl Terzaghi, Ralph B. Peck, and Gholamreza
Mesri.

"Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Handbook" by Roy E. Hunt.

"Site Investigation in Construction" by C.R.I. Clayton and M.J. Simons.