THE DESIGN PROCESS

Civil engineering functions

The functions of the civil engineer can be divided
into three categories:
1. Those performed before construction
(feasibility studies, site investigations, and
design),
2. Those performed during construction (dealing
with clients, consulting engineers, and
contractors), and
3. Those performed after construction
(maintenance and research).
FEASIBILITY STUDIES
1. No major project today is started without an
extensive study of the objective and without
preliminary studies of possible plans leading to a
recommended scheme, perhaps with alternatives.
2. Feasibility studies may cover alternative
methods—e.g., bridge versus tunnel, in the
case of a water crossing—or, once the
method is decided, the choice of route. Both economic
and engineering problems must be considered.
SITE INVESTIGATION

Site Investigation is the gathering of the

information about the proposed location
of a project, e.g. highway or buildings.
The Purpose of Site Investigation

1. The site investigation is aimed at providing

sufficient reliable subsurface information for
most economical, satisfactorily safe foundation
for the proposed structure.

2. The site investigation should reveal sufficient

subsurface information for the design and
construction of a stable foundation safe from both
collapse and detrimental movements.
The Scope of Site Investigation

Topography
Soilprofile
Ground-water condition
SITE INVESTIGATION AND
SOIL TESTING
The Stages of Site Investigation

In general, a site investigation program should

comprise four stages, i.e. :
 Desk study and site reconnaissance,
 Preliminary ground investigation,
 Detailed ground investigation,
 Monitoring
Desk study and site reconnaissance

 The desk study is the first stage of the site

investigation process which involves researching the
site to gain as much information as possible, both
geological and historical.
 A good starting point is to use Ordinance survey
maps which allow the selection of the site by
obtaining accurate grid reference through the maps.
 In addition to present maps, old maps are used to
gain historical information such as former uses of
the site; concealed mine workings; in filled ponds;
old pits; disused quarries; changes in potential
landslide areas, etc.
The source of information that
useful in desk study:
1. Geological map
Geological maps are probably most important source of
information as these give an excellent indication of the sort of
ground conditions likely to be encountered.
2. Aerial photography
Aerial photography is another extremely useful source of
information on topography and ground conditions.
3. Records of previous investigation
Previous investigation reports are also helpful in a desk study.
The may be sourced from previous owners and Public Works
Department.
The reconnaissance phase of a site
investigation

 This site investigation is done through a site

visit or walk-over survey.
 Important evidences to look for are site lay out,
surface conditions, water levels, etc.
 Generally the desk study and reconnaissance
is aimed at the feasibility study of the
construction being planned.
 If the desk study shows that the site is feasible
for the structure, then preliminary investigation
should follows.
Preliminary Investigation
 Preliminary Investigation is aimed at predicting the
geological structures, soil profiles and the position of
ground water table by geophysical method or by
making a few boreholes.
 The investigation should give information on the
existence on ground structures that may need closer
examination: for example,
1. The extent of disturbed strata,
2. The location and extend of natural cavities and mine workings.
3. Fractures and river crossings or alluvial areas that may have
buried soft material or peat, their liability to cause subsidence,
surface movements or instability
4. Information on suitability of soil for fills work, ground water
condition and the possibility of flooding should be provided at
this stage.
Detailed Investigation
 At this stage, the extent of the test,
number and depth of boreholes,
selection of appropriate equipment for
field testing and the choice of
laboratory testing are made.
 Soil exploration consists of three steps:
1. Boring and in-situ testing,
2. Sampling,
3. Laboratory testing.
Monitoring
 Monitoring during construction and maintenance
period is required whether the expectations of the
proceeding investigation have been realize.
 No one can ensure that the soil parameters used for
design is the most representative of the soil conditions
at the site unless the response is observed.
 Field observation can help for early diagnosis and
redemption of any problem that might be encountered
during construction.
 Among the measurement made during the monitoring
stage are the settlement, displacement, deformation,
inclination, and pore water pressure.
Data collection and analysis

A. BORING
Soil borings are the most common method of
subsurface exploration in the field. A bore hole is used
to determine the nature of the ground in a qualitative
manner and then recover disturbed and undisturbed
samples for quantitative examination.
Some types of borings are hand/mechanical auger
borings, wash borings, percussion drilling, rotary
drilling, and core borings. An auger is a screw-like tool
used to bore a hole.
Some augers are operated by hand: others are power
operated
Boring tools

Auger boring Power drills

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SOIL BORING

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Boring
BoringLogs
Logs

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B. SAMPLING
 Sampling refers to the taking of soil sample
from bored hole.
 There are two types of samples:
1. Disturbed samples
This sample are usually needed for index properties
of soil.
2. Undisturbed samples
This sample are usually needed for determining the
engineering properties such as shear strength and
consolidation characteristic of the soil.
 The sampling procedures varies according to the type of
strata in which the investigation takes place. Undisturbed
samples are normally needed for clays at every 1.5 m
depth or change of stratum.
 If undisturbed sample cannot be retrieved at a specific
depth, then bulk samples should be taken.
 Undisturbed sample are not practical for sand and gravel
due to the lack of cohesion.
 Bulk samples to be taken every 1 m or every change of
stratum while alternate disturbed and undisturbed
samples should be taken for silt layer at 0.75 m intervals.
 Undisturbed sample may be possible for soft rock such
as chalks and marls.
IN SITU TESTING
 In some cases the data obtained from sampling and
laboratory testing is less reliable than those from in-
situ testing. Moreover, sampling can be more
expensive than in-situ testing or sounding.
 Therefore, the program of sampling may be planned in
combination with in-situ testing.
 Common types of field testing include the standard
penetration test (SPT), cone penetration test (CPT),
vane shear test (VST), pressure meter test (PMT), and
dilatometer test (DMT).
Observation of Ground Water
 Information on the groundwater level and
any artesian pressure in a particular strata is
very important and should be determined
carefully during site investigation.
 Several problems related to the presence of
ground water table:
1. Shear strength of a soil may be reduced below
water table.
2. Foundation may be uplifted by the water.
3. Possibility of dewatering if the structure should be
constructed in dry conditions, etc.
Laboratory Testing
 In site investigation program, the
determination of soil properties is generally
made in soil mechanics laboratory. To get a
good quality of testing results, the samples
retrieved from the ground should be tested as
soon as after arrival at laboratory.
Soil Exploration Report
 Soil exploration report should be presented upon the
completion of a soil exploration program.
 The report should include the scope of investigation,
description of the proposed structure, and general site
conditions.
 The report should present the general description of
soil strata, position of ground water table and other
information pertinent to the site.
 The detail of field exploration should include the
number of borings, lay-out and depth of boring, type
of boring and other specifications of field test
conducted during the exploration.