Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

CHAPTER ONE
SITE EXPLORATION
1.1 PURPOSE OF SITE EXPLORATION
Soil profile or stratification and hence its characteristics vary both with respect to depth from the
ground surface and stretch in the horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime objective of soil
exploration for a building, bridge or other civil Engineering works, to analyze the nature of soil
in all respects. In general, the purpose of site exploration is to assess the suitability of a site for a
particular project or to investigate the cause of failure of an existing structure.
The primary objectives of soil exploration are:
1. Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.
2. Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata (stratification) and their
extent in their horizontal direction.
3. Determination of the location of the ground water table.
4. Obtaining soil or rock samples from the various strata.
5. Determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affect the
performance of the structure, and
6. Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.
The information gathered will be used as a basis for:
1. Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
3. Estimating the settlement of the structure.
4. Determining potential foundation problems (e.g., expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary
landfill, and so on).
5. Selection of alternative methods of construction.
6. Location and selection of construction materials.
1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon:
 The nature of sub-soil
 The type of structure
 The importance of structure
The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration program, the
purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost of site investigation
generally varies between 0.05 - 0.2% of the total cost of the entire structure. In some unusual
conditions, the cost may even go up to 1%. It is always advisable to spend a little more on soil
investigation to understand clearly the nature of the soil so that suitable foundation can be

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

recommended. Often an indication of the extent of an exploration of program can be estimated

from the history of foundations successes and failures in an area are very helpful. Also, for
planning the program, the engineer should be well acquainted with the current methods of soil
boring, sampling and testing and should have some idea about the limitations on both the field
and laboratory equipment and methods.
The actual planning of an exploration program includes some or all of the following steps:
A) Desk study or collection of primary information.
B) Reconnaissance survey.
C) Site Investigation.
Desk Study or Collection of Preliminary Information
This step involves obtaining information regarding the type of structure to be built and its
general use. For example, for the construction of buildings, the approximate column loads and
their spacing and the local building-code and basement requirements should be known. The
construction of bridges requires determining the lengths of their spans and the loading on piers
and abutments.
A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered near and around the
proposed site can be obtained from soil maps and geologic maps.
Reconnaissance Survey
The engineer should always make a visual inspection of the site to obtain information on
geology, terrain and exploration equipment access, existing structures and their condition,
existing utilities, and potentially hazardous conditions.
To obtain this information:
1. Examine exposures of soils and rocks in cuts (highways, rail-roads, building excavations,
gravel pits, quarries, stream banks, and terraces) and on the surface, and note effluent
groundwater seepage.
2. Examine slopes for signs of instability (creep ridges, tilted and bent trees, tilted poles, and
slope seepage).
3. Examine existing structures and pavements for signs of distress (e.g, cracks on the wall).
4. Note evidence of flood levels along streams or on structures.
5. Note soil conditions, and on-site utilities.
6. Note site conditions imposing constraints on access for exploration equipment.
7. Note the type of vegetation, which may indicate the type of soil.
The nature of stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby can also be obtained from
any available soil exploration report for existing structures.

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Site investigation
The subsoil exploration should enable the engineer to draw the soil profile indicating the
sequence of the strata and the properties of the soils involved. This stage is the detailed
investigation phase and it involves:
 Making Test pits and /or Boreholes.
 Collecting soil samples.
 Conducting field and laboratory tests.
1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION
In general, the methods available for soil exploration may be classified as follows:
 Direct Methods: Test pits.
 Semi-direct Methods: Borings.
 Indirect Methods: Soundings or Penetration tests and geophysical methods.
1.3.1 Test Pits
Test pits or trenches are the simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration. It involves
digging a test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m. Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be
examined visually, thus the boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabric can be
accurately determined. It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples: in
cohesive soils block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and tube samples can
be obtained from the sides of the pit. Test pits will also be useful for conducting field tests such
as the plate-loading test.
Test pits are considered suitable only for small depths; the cost of these increases rapidly with
depth. For greater depths, especially in granular soils, lateral supports or braking of the
excavations will be necessary. Ground water table may have to be lowered. Hence, test pits are
usually made only for supplementing other methods or for minor structures.
1.3.2 Soil Boring
Drilling boreholes into the ground to obtain soil or rock samples from specified or known depth
is called “boring”. This is the most widely used method. They are made to:
 Obtain samples soil and rock from shallow to deeper depths for visual inspection,
classification, and laboratory testing.
 Conduct in situ tests at different depths
 Obtain information on groundwater conditions
The most commonly used methods or types of boring are: -
A) Auger boring
B) Wash boring
C) Percussion drilling
D) Rotary drilling

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Auger boring
Auger boring is the simplest method of making exploratory boreholes. They can be hand or
power operated. Hand operated augers (15 to 20cm in diameter) are of two types, Post-hole and
helical augers. They are used for shallow borings of depth 3 to 7.5m. This boring method
provides highly disturbed soil samples.
Portable power operated helical augers (76 mm to 305 mm in diameter) can be used to great
depths, even to 30m, and can be used in almost all types of soils above water table.

Fig. 1.1: Hand Augers.

When power is available, continuous-flight augers are probably the most common method used
for advancing a borehole. The power for drilling is delivered by truck- or Tractor-mounted
drilling rigs. Boreholes up to about 60 to 70 m can easily be made by this method.
Wash boring
Soil exploration below the ground water table is usually very difficult to perform by means of
pits or auger-holes. They are usually power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting
action of a light chopping bit and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure.
Loosened soil particles rise as suspended particles through the annular space between casing and
drill rod. This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e.
boulders) and rocks. Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.
Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of
out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be
obtained by use of proper samplers.
Rotary drilling
They are Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which cuts the material at
the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating fluids, which may
be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid method for penetrating highly
resistant materials (e.g. bed rock). In this method undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired
depths by using suitable samplers. Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Fig. 1.2: Wash boring.

Percussion drilling
They are Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy chisel into the bottom
of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer or sand
pump. Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not favored. Casing
is generally required. Maximum depth of boring is 60m.
1.3.2.1 Number (Spacing) and Depth of Investigation
Number (Spacing) of Investigation Points
The required number (spacing) of investigation points for a particular project must be based on
judgment and experience. Obviously, the more borings that are performed, the more knowledge
that will be obtained about the subsurface condition. But boring is an expensive task, hence one
should minimize the number of borings for a given project site.
Annex B.3 of ES EN 1997-2 provides guidance on the spacing of investigation points for
geotechnical investigations, as summarized in Table 1.1 below.
Project Spacing Arrangement
High-rise and industrial structures 15 - 40m Grid
Large area structures ≤ 60m Grid
Linear structures (roads, railways, channels,
20 - 200m ---
pipelines, dikes, tunnels, retaining walls)
Dams and weirs 25 - 75m Along relevant sections
Special structures (Bridge piers, abutments,
2–6 investigation points per foundation
television towers, stacks, machine foundations)
Table 1.1: Recommended spacing of investigation points as per ES EN 1997-2.

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

Guidance on the number (spacing) of investigation points is also available from other sources.
As an example, Teng has suggested the guidelines shown in Table 1.2 below for preliminary
exploration based on experience.
Distance between boring (m) Minimum number
Project Horizontal stratification of soil of boring for each
Uniform Average Erratic structure
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
One or two story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge piers, abutments, 1 or 2 for each
---- 30 7.5
television towers, etc. foundation unit
Highways and Runways 300 150 30 -------
Borrow pits (for compacted fill) 150–300 60–50 15- 30 -------
Table 1.2: Guideline for preliminary exploration as per Teng, W. C.
Note that, all such guidance is provided as a starting point for assessing the scope of
investigations and will need modification to account for site specific requirements. In particular,
the spacing of exploration points will need to reflect the expected variation in the underlying
geology of the site as well as the type and size of structure. Additional borings may be required
in very uneven sites or where fill areas have been made and the soil varies horizontally rather
than vertically.
Depth of Investigation
Unlike the number (spacing) of exploration points, the depth of investigation needs to consider
factors other than geometrical criteria. In other words, the depth of investigation depends not
only on the dimension of the structure but also on the anticipated loading.
For example; unless bed rock is encountered at shallow depth, the boring depth should extend
below the depth where the net stress increase due to foundation loading will be less than 10% of
the average foundation contact pressure, qo. For square footing this is about 2B (where B is the
width of the foundation). Since footing sizes are rarely known in advance of borings, a general
rule of thumb is twice the least lateral dimension of the structure or 10m below the lowest
building elevation. For a warehouse or store, boring depth of 6 to 15m may be adequate.
Annex B.3 of ES EN 1997-2 provides recommended minimum depth of investigation, Za. When
estimating Za, note that;
 The reference level for Za is the lowest point of the foundation of the structure or structural
element, or the excavation base. Where more than one alternative is specified for establishing
Za, the one that gives the largest value should be applied.
 Greater depths of investigation should always be selected for very large or highly complex
projects or where unfavorable geological conditions are encountered (such as weak or
compressible strata below strong strata).

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 If the structure is built on competent strata with ‘distinct’ (i.e. known) geology, the depth of
investigation can be reduced to Za = 2m. But if the geology is ‘indistinct’, at least one
borehole should be taken down to a minimum of Za = 5m. If a bedrock formation is
encountered at the proposed base of the structure, this should be taken as the reference level
for Za. Otherwise, Za refers to the surface of the bedrock formation.
Keeping in mind theses three rules, the recommendations of ES EN 1997-2 for Za are listed
(from 1-8) below for different structures.
1) For spread foundations (widely spaced strip or pad foundations).
3B
Za  
6 m
Where, B is the width of the foundation.
2) For mat (raft) foundations and structures with several foundation elements whose effects in
deeper strata are superimposed on each other (closely spaced strip or pad foundations).
Z a  1.5 B
Where, B is the width of the mat foundation or the structure.
3) For pile foundations, Za measured below the base of the deepest pile is given by:
 Bg

Z a  3DF
5m

Where, Bg is the width of the pile group on plan and
DF is the base diameter of the largest pile.

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4) For embankments and cuttings

A) For embankments (dams) B) For cuttings
0.8h  Z a  1.2h 0.4d
Za  
but Z a  6m  2m

5) For linear structures

A) For roads and airfields Z a  2m

1.5b
B) For trenches and pipelines Za  
 2m
Where relevant, the recommendations for embankments and cuttings should be followed.
6) For retaining walls (excavations):
A) If the ground water table or the piezometric surface is
below the formation level (excavation base):
0.4h
Za  
t  2m
B) If the ground water table or the piezometric surface is
above the formation level (excavation base):
 H  2m
Za  
t  2m
In Case-B, if all the strata encountered within the depth of
investigation suggested above are impermeable, then the
depth of investigation should also satisfy: Z a  t  5m
Additionally, if H is small and t is under-estimated, there
is a danger that the rule of Case-B will result in an
investigation that does not go deep enough. It therefore
seems advisable to ensure also that; Z a  0.4h

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

7) For embedded walls and cut-off walls

The same as for retaining walls (excavations) mentioned above.
If the wall is designed to cut off water flow into the excavation,
then the investigation should extend at least 2m into the
impermeable stratum.
8) For small tunnels and caverns
b  Z a  2b but Z a  2m

The groundwater conditions described for retaining walls (excavations)

should also be taken into account.

Guidance on the depth of investigation is also available from other sources. As an example,
according to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes for various foundation conditions may
be used.
A) For widely spaced strip or pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times
the width of the foundation.
B) For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be used.
C) For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones of
pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used.
D) For group of pile foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times width of
pile group, the depth being measured from a depth of two-thirds of the length of the piles.
E) For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3m inside bedrock.
According to Teng,
 For high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but should be extended
below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts.
 For deep excavation projects, the depth of boring should be at, least 1.5 times the depth of
excavation.
There are also empirical formulas that can be used to determine the depth of boring. As an
example, for hospital and office buildings, the following equations can be used.
For narrow concrete buildings D b  3S 0.7
For wide concrete buildings D b  6S 0.7
Where, Db = depth of boring.
S = number of stories.

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

1.3.3 Soil Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or test pits.
These are: - Disturbed and Undisturbed samples.
Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment. Disturbed
samples, however, need to be truly representative of the stratum. Disturbed samples are
satisfactory for performing:
 Grain-size analysis
 Determination of liquid and plastic limits
 Specific gravity of soil solids
 Determination of organic content
 Classification of soil
Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-
situ structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining
reliable information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a soil
deposit. Undisturbed samples in cohesionless deposits are extremely difficult to obtain. Because
of this the above characteristics are provided by field tests.
1.3.3.1 Types of Samplers
It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate to deep
holes. The process of boring, driving the coring tool, raising and withdrawing the coring tool and
extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance. In addition,
samples taken from holes may tend to swell as a result of stress relief. Samples should be taken
only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole, with care being taken to avoid contact with
water. As soon as they are brought to the surface, core tubes should be labeled inside and
outside, the ends sealed with wax and capped, and then stored away from extremes of heat or
cold and vibration.
Although sample disturbance depends on factors such as rate of penetration, whether the cutting
force is obtained by pushing or driving, and presence of gravel, it also depends on the ratio of the
volume of soil displaced to the volume of collected sample, expressed as an area ratio (AR).
Do2 - Di2
AR   100%
Di2
Where, Do = outside diameter of the sampling tube
Di = inside diameter of the sampling tube
When the area ratio is 10% or less, the sample generally is considered to be undisturbed.
The types of tube samplers in common use are discussed below.

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A) Standard Split-Spoon Sampler

This sampler is used during standard penetration test (SPT). Split-spoon samplers can be used in
the field to obtain disturbed samples of soft rock, cohesive and cohesionless soils. A section of a
standard split-spoon sampler is shown below. It consists of a steel driving shoe, a steel tube that
is split longitudinally in the middle, and a coupling at the top. The coupling connects the sampler
to the drill rod.

Fig. 1.4: Standard Split Spoon Sampler

When a borehole is drilled to a predetermined depth (usually at an interval of 1.5m) during
standard penetration test (SPT), the drill tools are removed and the sampler is lowered to the
bottom of the hole. The sampler is then driven 450mm into the soil by hammer blows to the top
of the drill rod. The sampler is then withdrawn, and the shoe and coupling are removed. Finally,
the soil sample recovered from the tube is placed in a glass bottle or sealed plastic bags and then
transported to the laboratory.
B) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler
Thin-walled tubes are sometimes referred to as Shelby tubes. They are made of seamless steel
tube and are frequently used to obtain undisturbed clayey soils. The most common thin-walled
tube samplers have outside diameters of 50.8 mm and 76.2 mm. The bottom end of the tube is
sharpened. The sampler attached with drill rod is lowered to the bottom of the borehole, and the
sampler is pushed downward into the soil by static force instead of being driven by a hammer.
The sampler is then withdrawn. The two ends are sealed, and the sampler is sent to the laboratory
for testing.

Fig. 1.5: Thin-walled (Shelby) tube sampler.

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C) Piston Samplers
They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their cutting ends. While taking sample,
the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed down. The piston aids the retention of the soil
in the tube during withdrawal. Piston samples provide best undisturbed samples of cohesive
soils.

Fig. 1.6: Piston Sampler (a) sampler is set in drilled hole. (b) Sample tube is pushed
hydraulically into the soil. (c) Pressure is released through hole in piston rod.
D) Rock core sampling
When a rock layer is encountered during a drilling operation, rock coring may be necessary.
Rock coring is the process in which a sampler consisting of a tube (core barrel) with a cutting bit
at its lower end (the cutting bits may be diamond, tungsten carbide) cuts an annular hole in a
rock mass, thereby creating a cylinder or core of rock which is recovered in the core barrel. Rock
cores are normally obtained by rotary drilling. Water is circulated through the drilling rod during
coring, and the cutting is washed out. Two types of core barrel are available: the single-tube core
barrel and the double-tube core barrel (Figure 1.7). Rock cores obtained by single-tube core
barrels can be highly disturbed and fractured because of torsion.
The primary purpose of core drilling is to obtain intact rock samples for further laboratory test
(Unconfined compressive strength). The behavior of a rock mass is affected by the presence of
fractures in the rock, the size and spacing of fractures, the degree of weathering of fractures, and
the presence of soil within the fractures. When the core samples are recovered, the depth of
recovery should be properly recorded for further evaluation. Based on the length of the rock core
recovered from each run, the following quantities may be calculated for a general evaluation of
the rock quality encountered:
Length of core recovered
Recovery ratio 
Length of core advance

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Foundation Engineering-I Site Exploration

 Length of recovered pieces of core  10cm

Rock Quality Designation, RQD   100%
Length of core advance

Fig. 1.7: Rock coring: (a) single tube core barrel (b) double-tube core barrel
RQD (%) Rock quality
0 – 25 Very poor
25 – 50 Poor
50 – 75 Fair
75 – 90 Good
90 - 100 Excellent
Table 1.3: Relation between RQD and in situ rock quality.
1.3.3.2 Borehole Log
Information on the subsurface conditions obtained from the boring-operation is typically
presented in the form of a boring record, commonly known as “borehole log”. The borehole log
should provide the following information:
 A continuous record of the various strata identified at various depth of the boring.
 Description or classification of the various types of soil or rock encountered.
 Data regarding ground water level.
 Size of borehole.
 Method of excavation or boring.
 The dates at which the work was carried out.
 The types and depths of samples taken.
 In-situ tests carried out and the depth at which they were conducted.
 Problems or any special conditions encountered during boring.

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Fig. 1.8: Borehole Log

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1.4 FIELD (IN-SITU) TESTS

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and bearing
capacities of soils directly without the disturbing effects of boring and sampling. The most
commonly used field tests are; -`
 Penetration or sounding tests
 Vane shear test
 Plate loading and pile loading test
1.4.1 PENETRATION (SOUNDING) TESTS
Penetration tests are the most useful tests. They are normally carried out to supplement borings.
These tests are based on the fact that the relative density of a soil stratum is directly proportional
to the resistance of the soil against the penetration of the drive point. From this, correlations
between values of penetration resistance versus angle of internal friction (), bearing pressure,
density and modulus of compressibility have been developed. Penetration tests are classified as
static and dynamic penetration tests.
A) Static Penetration Tests
1) Rotary (Swedish) Weight Sounding Test
This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia. It is the most common
method of investigating ground strength for the construction of small-sized buildings. The
equipment consists of: screw shaped penetration point, driving rod (diam. 20-22 mm), a rotating
handle and six pieces of weights making a total of 100 Kg (5, 10, 10, 25, 25 and 25 Kg). The
depth of penetration is measured for each loading after which the number of half-turns is counted
by 100Kg load; the penetration depth is then measured after 25 half-turns. If the penetration after
25 half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

Fig. 1.9: Swedish weight sounding equipment, penetration diagram

Usually the test is supplemented by some method that allows sample recovery for a visual
comparison of the sounding test data to the soil type.

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Table 1.4: correlation between no. of half-turns per meter & density and consistency.
2) Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
The cone penetration test (CPT), originally known as the Dutch cone penetration test, is a
versatile sounding method that can be used to determine the materials in a soil profile and
estimate their engineering properties. The test is also called the static cone penetration test, and
no boreholes are necessary to perform it.

Fig. 1.10: Mechanical friction-cone penetrometer

There are a variety of shapes and sizes of penetrometers being used. The one that is standard in
most countries is the cone with an apex angle of 60° and a projected base area of 10 cm2. The
sleeve (jacket) has become a standard item on the penetrometer for most applications. For the
cone penetrometer with a projected base area of 10 cm2, the friction sleeve should have an area
of 150 cm2 as per standard practice.

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The sequence of operation of the penetrometer shown in Fig. 1.11 and is explained as follows:
Position 1: - The cone and friction jacket assembly in a collapsed position.
Position 2: - The cone is pushed down by the inner sounding rods to a depth a, until the collar
engages the cone. The pressure gauge records the total force Qc to the cone. Normally a=40mm.
Position 3: - The sounding rod is pushed further to a depth b. This pushes the friction jacket and
the cone assembly together; the force is Qt. Normally b = 40 mm.
Position 4: - The outside mantle tube is pushed down a distance a + b which brings the cone
assembly and the friction jacket to position 1. The total movement = a + b = 80 mm.

Fig. 1.11: Four positions of the sounding apparatus with friction jacket
The process of operation illustrated above is continued until the proposed depth is reached. The
cone is pushed at a standard rate of 20 mm/sec. The depth of CPT is measured by recording the
length of the sounding rods that have been pushed into the ground.
Cone penetration resistance, qc, is obtained by dividing the total force Qc acting on the cone by
the base area, Ac, of the cone.
Q
qc  c
Ac

In the same way, the local side friction fc is

Qf
fc 
Af
Where Qf = Qt - Qc = force required to push the friction jacket.
Qt = the total force required to push the cone and friction jacket together.
Af = surface area of the friction jacket.
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The measured point resistance and sleeve friction (or side friction) are used to compute the
friction ratio Fr as:
f
Fr  c  100 %
qc
Where fc and qc are measured at the same depth. Fr is expressed as a percentage. Friction ratio is
an important parameter for classifying soil.
The results of cone penetration tests appear to be most reliable for sands, silts and clays that are
not completely saturated. A special type of the cone penetrometer, known as piezo cone, has
porous elements inserted into the cone or sleeve to allow for pore water pressure measurements.
The Cone (Point) Resistance qc is correlated with different soil properties as shown below.

Point Resistance, qc (KN/m2) Relative Density

< 2500 Very loose soil
2500 – 5000 Loose soil
5000 – 10,000 Medium dense
10,000 – 15,000 Dense
> 15,000 Very dense
Table 1.5 Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of Frictional Soils
The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the undrained shear strength. One correlation
equation is:
qc   z
Su 
Nk
Where,
σz = total overburden pressure above the cone tip.
Nk = a cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of penetration.
Average values of Nk as a function of plasticity index Ip can be estimated from;
I p  10
N k  19  ; I p  10
5
Results of cone penetrometer tests have also been correlated with the friction angle. A number of
correlations exist. Based on published data for sand (Roberston and Campanella, 1983), you can
estimate  ' using:
 qc 
 '  350  11.5 log ' 
; 250   '  50 0
 30 z 0 
One of the greatest values of the CPT consists of its function as a scale model pile test. Empirical
Correlations established over many years permit the calculation of pile bearing capacity directly
from the CPT results without the use of conventional soil parameters.

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B) Dynamic Penetration Tests

1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was developed around 1927 and it is perhaps the most
popular field test performed mostly in coarse grained (or cohesionless) soils. In this test, a
standard split-spoon sampler is driven 450mm into the ground by blows from a drop hammer of
mass 63.5 kg falling from a height of 760mm. The blows required to produce the first 150mm
penetration are usually ignored since the ground is considered to be disturbed during drilling
activity. The number of blows required driving the sampler further 300mm is recorded as
standard penetration number; N, at that depth or simply “the N-value” or “Blow count”. SPT test
is usually conducted at an interval of 1.5m.
The N-value should be recorded as “refusal” and the test is halted if
 50 blows are required for any 150-mm increment.
 100 blows are obtained (to drive the required 300 mm).
 10 successive blows produce no advance.
The SPT N-values should be corrected for different factors before using them. Among these
factors are the SPT hammer efficiency, rod length, type of sampler used and borehole diameter.
The SPT N-values are corrected using:
N'cor  C N  N  n1  n2  n3  n4
Where,
N’cor = Adjusted (corrected) N value.
N = Measured (observed) N value.
CN = Adjustment for overburden pressure, and is given by;

95.76
CN 
 'o
σ’o = Effective overburden pressure (KPa).
n1= hammer efficiency correction, and is given by;
Er
n1 
E rb

Er = Average energy ratio that depends on the hammer system.

Erb= Standard energy ratio (commonly 55%, 60% or 70%).
n2 = rod length correction.
n3 = sampler correction.
n4 = borehole diameter correction.

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Department of Civil Engineering
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Table 1.6: Correction factors for the SPT-N value

In the field, the magnitude of Erb can vary from 30 to 90%. The standard practice is to express
(standardize) the N-value to one of the following average energy ratio.
 Erb = 55%, hence n1=Er/55 and N’cor will be expressed as N’55.
 Erb = 60%, hence n1=Er/60 and N’cor will be expressed as N’60.
 Erb = 70%, hence n1=Er/70 and N’cor will be expressed as N’70.

Fig. 1.12: Standard penetration test

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The N value is used to estimate the relative density, friction angle, and settlement in coarse
grained soils. Typical correlation among N values, relative density, and  ' for coarse grained
soils are given in Table 1.7 below.
N N60 Description  (KN/m3) Dr (%) ϕ’ (0)
0–5 0–3 Very loose 11 – 13 0 – 15 26 – 28
5 – 10 3–9 Loose 14 – 16 16 – 35 29 – 34
10 – 30 9 – 25 Medium 17 – 19 36 – 65 35 – 40
30 – 50 25 – 45 Dense 20 – 21 66 – 85 38 – 45
> 50 > 45 Very dense > 21 > 86 > 45
Table 1.7: Correlation of N, N60, Dr,  , and Φ’ for coarse grained soils
The SPT is mostly used in coarse grained soils. However, in some countries, for example, Japan
and the United States, it is also used in fine-grained soils. Table 1.8 below shows, correlation of
N60 and Su for saturated fine grained soils.
N60 Description Su (KPa)
0–2 Very soft < 10
3–5 Soft 10 – 25
6–9 Medium 25 – 50
10 – 15 Stiff 50 – 100
15 – 30 Very stiff 100 – 200
> 30 Extremely stiff > 200
Table 1.8: Correlation of N60, and Su for fine grained soils.
In Ethiopia, the SPT is widely used to obtain the bearing capacity of soils directly. Assuming an
allowable settlement of 25mm, Meyerhof proposed the following equations to calculate the
allowable bearing capacity for shallow foundations.
For Isolated Footing : Where, F1  0.05 & F2  0.08 if N is N '55 or N '60
qall 
N
K d KW if B  1.2 F1  0.04 & F2  0.06 if N is N '70
F1
 Df 
2 K d  1  0.33    1.33
N  B  0.3   B 
qall    K d KW if B  1.2
F2  B 
  DW 
0.5 1   if DW  B
For Mat Foundation : KW    B 
N 1 if DW  B
qall  K d KW 
F2
Where, B = Width of footing.
Df = Depth of footing from the ground.
DW = Depth of ground water from the footing base.
N = The statistical average value of the corrected SPT N-value (N’55, N’60 or N’70)
in the footing influence zone, which is taken to be the zone between 0.5B above
the base of the footing up to 2B below the base of the footing.

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2) Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Test

This is another useful test, which is normally used to determine the relative resistance offered by
the different soil layers. The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven
into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed. The number of blows required to
penetrate 30 cm depth is called Nc value. In the case of dynamic cone penetration test, no
borehole is used. Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional
resistance on the rod increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The maximum depth
suggested for this test is about 6 m. If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to
use drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the pipe and the cone as shown
in Fig 1.13. The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along the drill rod eliminating
thereby the frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The former method is called
as dry method and the latter wet method.

Fig. 1.13: Dynamic cone penetration testing equipment.

To decide the consistency of soils from Nc values, the general practice is to convert Nc to N
values of SPT.
1.4.2 Vane Shear Test
In soft and saturated clays, where undisturbed specimen is difficult to obtain, the undrained
shear strength is measured using the vane shear test. The vane shear test should be regarded as a
method to be used when: the clay is normally consolidated and sensitive and when only the
undrained shear strength is required. It cannot be applied to partially saturated soils to which the
angle of shearing resistance is not zero. It has been determined that the vane gives results similar
to those obtained from unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples.
The diagram of the vane shear apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.14. It consists of four thin metal
blades welded orthogonally (900) to a rod where the height H is twice the diameter D.
Commonly used diameters are 38, 50 and 75 mm.
When conducting the test, the vane is pushed into the soil either at the ground surface or at the
bottom of a borehole until totally embedded in the soil (at least 0.5 m). A torque T is applied by a
torque head device (located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane rod) and the
vane is rotated at a slow rate of 60 per minute (0.10/sec). As a result, shear stresses are mobilized
on all surfaces of a cylindrical volume of the soil generated by the rotation. The maximum torque
is measured by a suitable instrument and equals to the moment of the mobilized shear stress
about the central axis of the apparatus.

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Fig. 1.14: vane Shear apparatus

The undrained shear strength is calculated from results of vane shear test using:
T
Su 
 D ( H / 2  D / 6)
2

1.4.3 Plate Loading Test

In plate loading test, a circular (sometimes square) plate is seated on the stratum to be tested,
usually at the bottom of a trial pit, and loaded. Load is applied in the increments and maintained
until full settlement has taken place at each load increment.
The procedure used for performing the test is as follows:
 A pit is excavated with a minimum width or diameter of 4B (B is the diameter of the test
plate) to a depth of Df (the depth of the proposed foundation).
 The plate is placed at the center of the hole, and a load that is about one-fourth to one-fifth
of the estimated ultimate load is applied to the plate in steps by means of a jack. During
each step of the application of the load, the settlement of the plate is observed on dial
gauges. At least one hour is allowed to elapse between each application.
 The test should be conducted until failure or at least until the plate has gone through 25 mm
of settlement.
 Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to draw
the expansion curve).

Fig. 1.15: Plate loading test and its load-settlement curve

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Department of Civil Engineering
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From the results of plate loading test, the ultimate bearing capacity can be calculated using;

For tests in clay soil, qu ( F )  qu ( p )

BF
For tests in sandy soil, qu ( F )  qu ( p )
Bp
Where, qu(F) = ultimate bearing capacity of the proposed foundation.
qu(p) = ultimate bearing capacity of the test plate.
BF = width of the proposed foundation.
Bp = width of the test plate.
For sandy soils, the allowable bearing capacity of a foundation based on the maximum
permissible settlement, S, for a given intensity of load, qo; can be calculated by determining the
value of Sp using the following equation and then the loading intensity under the footing could be
read from the load settlement curve.
2
 2 BF 
S  Sp 
 B  B 
 F p 

The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation.

However, from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be
determined using the following expression;
B
S  Sp F
Bp
Limitation of Plate Loading Test
 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not fully occur
during the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially saturated or
rather unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not homogeneous
within the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation.
 Plate loading test should not be recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least
to depth of 1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation.

Unity University 24 of 27 Prepared by: Feysel N.

Department of Civil Engineering
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Fig. 1.16: Pressure bulbs for the plate and the actual foundation
1.4.4 Pile Loading Test
This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The load
arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test. From the
results of this test the allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a group of
friction piles can be estimated.
1.5 GROUND WATER TABLE MEASUREMENT
Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because of this its
location should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy. Water table level can be
determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a borehole.
Water levels in bore holes may take a considerable time to stabilize depending on the
permeability of the soil. This time is known as the response time. Measurements, therefore,
should be taken at regular intervals until the water level becomes constant.
The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole. The
depth can also be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open
ends of the leads touch the water in the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated by glow
of the indicator lamp.
1.6 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited to
establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or locating
gravel or sand deposits (by resistivity method). The seismic method is based on the fact that
sound waves travel faster through rocks than through soils. The resistivity method makes use of
the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or
gravel). These methods are normally employed as preliminary or supplementary to other
methods of exploration.

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1.7 LABORATORY TESTS

Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of
soils, stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical
characteristics of soils. Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole
records and results of field test.
The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are:
 Grain size analysis  Compaction test
 Atterberg limits  Unconfined compression test
 Natural moisture content  Direct shear test
 Unit weight determination  Triaxial compression test
 Chemical analysis  Consolidation test
1.8 THE GEOTECHNICAL REPORT
Reports broadly fall into two categories:
1. The basic “Factual”, site investigation report which simply records its findings of the site
investigation, and
2. The “Comprehensive” or “engineering” report, which, in addition, interprets those findings
and makes specific recommendations.
1.8.1 Factual Report
A factual report typically contains the items described below:
 Introduction: the project is briefly described and the scope of the report is defined. The
name of the client and his consulting engineers are given. Location of the site is often
included in this section.
 Topography and Geology: the site, and possibly the surrounding area, is briefly described.
This will include general descriptions (whether the area is flat, has rolling hills or
whatever); will mention specific features (such as stream or pond); and will state what is on
site (possibly trees or buildings). A briefly summary of published geological information is
normally also given in this section.
 Site Work: Details of the extent of the site work are given, including the number of trial
pits, boreholes and probes and the methods used. The types and numbers of any field tests
are also included. Overall dates of site working are given.
 Laboratory Testing: The types and numbers of laboratory tests are given, with overall dates
for the testing program.
 Summary of Ground Conditions: It is usual, even in a factual report, to summarize what
conditions were encountered during the site work.
 Test Results: Results of all field and laboratory tests are presented in the form of tables and
graphs.

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 Trial Pits and Borehole Records: Details of each trial pit and borehole are given
diagrammatically.
 Sit Plan: A plan or plans showing borehole and trial pit locations.
 Notes: At some point in the report there is usually a set of notes giving standard
abbreviations and symbols used. Details of some of the standard tests may be explained and
references may be made to the standards used in carrying out the work. There is usually a
general disclaimer to protect the site investigation contractor should problems arise later
due to ground conditions which were not revealed during the ground investigation.
1.8.2 Engineering Report
Engineering reports usually contain all the items given in the factual report, either as part of the
report itself or as an appendix, plus additional items outlined below.
 Description of project: This is usually discussed more fully than in the factual report. It will
include, where possible, such items as the size and type individual buildings and any
particular considerations such as permissible settlement.
 Results of the desk study: the desk study carried out by site investigation firms for a factual
report is usually fairly rudimentary and may only consist of checking the appropriate
geological maps. For the engineering report the desk study section may be substantial but
could be virtually non-existent, depending on how much information is available.
 Discussion of ground conditions: Again, this is much more fully covered than the sample
summary which usually appears in the factual report. Where appropriate, it will refer to
possible seismic, hydrological or mining problems, or any other special factors.
 Soil properties for Design: Design values of soil properties, such as shear strength and
compressibility, are given for each of the foundation soils encountered. Variations in
properties with a given soils, both across the site and with depth, should be indicated. The
extent and location of each of the soil types and their distinguishing features should also be
included.
 Foundation Design: Foundation types are recommended, along with suggested founding
depths, sizes, permissible loadings, expected settlement and any other relevant details.
 Calculations: The recommended values of the soil properties and foundation design details
given in the previous two sections should be supported by clearly laid out calculations. The
assumptions made and the design methods used should be stated so the work can be
checked by others and values can easily be amended if new information becomes available.
 Site Plans: These are usually more detailed that for the factual report and normally show
the proposed project layout.
 Other Items: These may include such items as a brief for the resident engineer; a warning
that specific problems may arise which will require special treatment or a redesign of
certain features; or a recommendation that further investigation be carried out.

Unity University 27 of 27 Prepared by: Feysel N.

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