ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

CHAPTER 9

Topic 1 Investigation
Site Investigation
Ground
and Laboratory Testing of soil
1.

Primary Objective of Site Investigation :

1.1 Suitability
To assess the general suitability of the site and environs for the
proposed works.
1.2 Design
To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared.
1.3 Construction
To plan the best method of construction;
to foresee and provide against difficulties and delays that may
arise during construction due to ground and/or other local
conditions;
to explore sources of indigenous materials for use in
construction;
to select sites for the disposal of waste or surplus materials.
1.4 Effect of changes
To determine the changes that may arise in the ground and the
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CHAPTER 9

environmental conditions, either naturally or as a result of the

works,
and the effect of such changes on the works, on adjacent works,
and on the environment in general.
1.5 Choice of site
Where alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of
different sites, or different parts of the same site.
In addition, site investigations may be necessary in reporting upon
the safety of existing features and works, for the design of
extensions, vertical or horizontal, to existing works, and for
investigating cases where failure has occurred.
2.

Stages of Investigation

A site investigation will normally proceed in stages, as follows :

desk study;

site reconnaissance;

detailed examination and special studies;

review during construction.

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1.1-

Source: GeoGuide 2

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2.1

Desk Study

A desk study involves the collection and review of information

required for the planning of the project and of the site
investigation, which includes :

2.1.1 Maps, Plans and Charts

Topographic maps - for study the general features of the site

Tidal information - necessary for marine works

Old maps - to check the location of an old seawalls or a buried
stream course, etc.
Archaeological maps - may be required to establish the
boundaries of an archaeological site.
2.1.2 Ground Conditions
The following information is useful for studying the detail of the
ground conditions:
Aerial photographs
Geological maps and memoir
Past site investigation record

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Fig 2

A typical aerial photograph and a topographic map (source: Survey & Mapping Office)

2.1.3 Meteorological and Hydrological Information

Local rainfall records are useful for slope and drainage design.
Hydrological information is useful in drainage studies, and the
assessment of flooding risk.
Data on ambient temperatures (including air and ground
temperatures) and solar radiation are useful in the design
temperature sensitive structures.

2.1.4 Past Records

Site formation works such as construction of slopes, retaining
structures and basements.
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Foundation works such as piling.

Details of preventive or remedial works.
Tunnels and disused tunnels, including details of linings and
ground support.
2.1.5 Services and Utilities
Information on gas, electricity, telephone, cable television, water
supply mains, public stormwater drains, foul sewers and similar
services should be sought from the private companies or
government departments supplying these services for the
following purposes:
Assessment of the effect of the proposed works (including
ground investigation works) on the existing services and
utilities.
Provision of services and utilities for the project
Provision of temporary electricity and water supplies for the
ground investigation.
2.1.6 Lease and Engineering Conditions
These conditions govern the use of the site. They also set down
the requirement and restrictions on development, and define the
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responsibilities of the related parties and authorities, for examples:

restrictions on height of structures, and non-building areas
responsibilities of maintaining the stability of the land
2.1.7 Other Considerations before Ground Investigation
Before ground investigation works commence, a lot of factors
need to be studied or considered, for examples:
The effect of the ground investigation works on the ground, on
adjacent properties and structures and on existing services and
utilities.
Requirements and restrictions imposed by local statutes.

e.g.

restriction of the use of powered mechanical equipment

between 7 p.m. to 7 a.m..
Land matters such as land ownership and permission to enter
or transport through adjacent land.
Matters relating to 'fung shui' and burial ground.
Permission of felling or removing trees.
The approval of the Building Ordinance Office if the work falls
within the Mid-levels Scheduled Area.
Information on the as-built alignment of the Mass Transit
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Railway and its "protection boundary" if the work falls with

the protection boundary.
Road excavation permits from Highways Department where
the work may disrupt the use of public roads.
2.2

Site Reconnaissance

The purpose of the site reconnaissance is to confirm and

supplement the information collected during the desk study.

The

general procedure of site reconnaissance:

Traverse the whole area, preferably on foot, and take
photographs of the site and its surroundings.
Set-out the proposed location of work.
Record differences and omissions on plans and maps.
Inspect and record the details of all existing structures.
Record

potential

obstructions

(e.g.

transmission

lines,

telephone lines, historical features, large trees, gas and water

pipes, electricity cables and sewers).
Check access, including the effects of construction loads on
existing roads, bridges and services.
Note water levels, direction and rate of flow in nullahs and
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streams and also flood levels and tidal and other fluctuation.
Record features of the adjacent property.
Inspect and record old structures, and any other features.
Interview local inhabitants about the history of the site.
2.3

Detailed Examination and Special Studies

Detailed ground investigation will be discussed in section 3.

Other special studies may include:
detailed topographic survey
hydrographic survey
influences of weather - e.g. wind speed
sources of materials for construction
sites for disposal of wastes or surplus materials
2.4

Review during construction

It is difficult to forecasting the ground conditions very

accurately since only a small proportion of the ground is
examined.
Sometimes amendment of the design or the construction
procedures is necessary and further investigation will be
carried out.
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3.

Ground Investigation

Methods chosen will depend on several factors :

1. size of contract.
2. size of proposed foundation.
3. type of sample required.
4. type of subsoils which may be encountered.
3.1

Methods of Ground Investigation

3.1.1 Trial Pits

usually dug by hand,
square in cross-section of about 1.5
1.2 x 1.5
1.2 m and up to 34m deep

timber
shoring
is required
when
the2m
trial
pit and
is excavated
to 1.2m deep
can stand
unsupported
if less
than
deep
in firm soil
in soft ground or deeper than 2m, timber support is required
Functions:
to permit the ground condition to be examined both
laterally and vertically
to provide access to take undisturbed samples
to provide access to carry out insitu tests
to ascertain the exact position of buried utilities and
services
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1.1a

Page 8

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1.5

3.0

1.5

Fig.3
Trial Pit
(source: R. Chudley)

Hand auger Hole

Hand auger

3.1.2 Hand Auger Boring

auger driven into the ground by hand
up to 200mm diameter and 5m deep
no casing is used
used in self-supporting ground with no gravel or boulder
used for ground water observation and
to obtain disturbed samples and open tube samples
3.1.3 Mechanical Augers
comprising a continuous-flight auger and a hollow stem driven
by a machine
of limited use in soils with boulders or corestones (therefore
seldom used in Hong Kong)
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b.

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3.1.4 Rotary Drilling

the most common method of subsurface exploration used in
Hong Kong.
drill bits or casing shoes are rotated on the bottom of the
boreholes,
drilling fluid is pumped down to the bit through hollow drill
rods, lubricates the bit and flushes the drill debris up the
borehole

Fig. 4

Typical Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig (source: Geoguide 2)

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two basic types of rotary drilling :

open hole drilling (or full hole drilling): the drill bit cuts all
the material within the diameter of the borehole, samples
may be obtained between drill runs by open tube samplers.
core drilling: an annular bit fixed to the outer rotating tube
of a core-barrel cuts a core that is returned within the inner
stationary tube of the core-barrel and brought to the
surface for examination and testing.
Drill casing is normally used to support unstable ground.

Fig. 5

Drill bit
Fig. 6
(Source: GeoGuide 2)

Casing Shoe

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Extent of The Ground Investigation

Depth of Exploration
for shallow foundations: the depth should be at least one and a
half times the width of the load area measured below the base
of the footing or raft.
for piled foundations: the length of pile usually cannot be
decided until an advanced stage of the project, but it may be
possible to gain an early indication from standard penetration
test (SPT) blow counts.
for end bearing piles in strong rock: boreholes should be
penetrated into bedrock of at least 5 m, or two and a half times
the diameter of the pile, whichever is larger.

Bore hole data

The information obtained from trial pits or bore holes can be
recorded on a pro forma sheet or on a drawing showing the
position and data from each bore hole.
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Fig. 7

Location plan of bore holes

(source: R. Chudley)

Bore holes can be taken on a 15 to 20 m grid covering the whole

site or in isolated positions relevant to the proposed foundations.

Fig. 8

Bore hole data (source: R. Chudley)

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Figure 1.11 -

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Figure 1.11 -

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Figure 1.12 -

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Sampling The Ground

Sample Quality
Disturbed soil samples
The method of extraction disturbs the natural structure of the
subsoil.
suitable for visual grading, establishing the moisture content
and soil classification tests.
Disturbed soil samples should be stored in labelled air tight
jars.
Undisturbed soil samples
The method of obtaining preserve the natural structure and
properties of the subsoil.
suitable for soil strength tests, e.g. triaxial test.
The extracted undisturbed soil samples should be labelled and

stored
secured
location
for dispatch
to a laboratory
for testing.
laid
in in
wooden
boxes
for dispatch
to a laboratory
for testing.

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Undisturbed soil samples

The method of obtaining preserve the natural structure and

propertied of the subsoil.

Suitable for soil strength tests, e.g. triaxial test.

The extracted undisturbed soil samples should be labelled and

stored in secured location for dispatch to a laboratory testing.

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Table 1.2-

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Techniques for Obtaining Samples

There are four main techniques for obtaining samples :
1. taking disturbed samples from the drill tools or from excavating
equipment in the course of boring or excavation,
2. drive sampling, in which a sampling tube having a sharp
cutting edge at its lower end is forced into the ground either by
a static thrust or by dynamic impact,

Fig. 9
General purpose
100mm diameter open-tube
sampler (U100 sampler)
(source: GeoGuide 2)

Fig. 10
A non-retractable
core-barrel (source: GeoGuide 2)

triple-tube

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3. rotary sampling, in which a tube with a cutter at its lower end is

rotated into the ground, thereby producing a core sample,
4. taking block samples specially cut by hand from a trial pit,
shaft or heading.

Fig. 11

Block sampling

(source:

GeoGuide 2)

Insitu Soil Tests

Insitu tests to obtain the density or shear strength of soils are very
valuable since they can be carried out without disturbing the soil.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

This test measures the resistance of a soil to the penetration of

a split barrel sampler driven into the bottom of a bore hole.
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The sampler is driven into the soil to a depth of 150 mm.

The sampler is further driven through 300mm by free falling a
standard weight of 65 kg through a distance of 760 mm.
SPT = the number of blows counted.
The test gives an index of density of the soil
Sands Cohesionless Materials
Clays
No. of Blows Relative Density No. of Blows Relative Density
0-4
very loose
0-2
very soft
4 - 10
loose
2-4
soft
10 -30
medium
4-8
medium
30 - 50
dense
8 - 15
stiff
over 50
very dense
15 - 30
very stiff
over 30
hard

Fig. 12

Standard Penetration Test Setup

(source: GeoGuide 2)

Fig. 13

A Split Barrel SPT Sampler

[]

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Figure 1.8b

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CHAPTER 9

Vane test

This test measures the shear strength

of soft cohesive soils.
The vane is pushed into the soil and
rotate by hand at a constant rate.
The amount of torque necessary for
rotation is measured and the soil shear
strength can be calculated.

Fig. 14 Vane Apparatus

(source: http://www.ele.com)

A test used to evaluate soil

strength and consistency.

After a hole is drilled into
the earth, a spinning fourbladed shaft is inserted and
the soil's resistance to the
shaft's vanes is measured.

>300mm if Diamater of
the borehole is 100mm

Fig. 15 Vane Test Setup

(source: GeoGuide 2)

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To test the soil
remoulded cohesive
strength

Plate bearing test

This test determines the bearing capacity of the soil for shallow
foundation.
Procedure:
Excavating a pit to the level of the proposed foundation
Loading a steel plate (600 x 600 mm) on the bottom of the pit
by a hydraulic jack bearing against a kentledge.
The load is applied in increments and each increment would be
1/5 of design load

breadth
Failure load is attained when settlement reaches 10% of breath
of the plate
The safe load should be taken as one-third of the failure load.

Fig. 16 Plate bearing test (source: R. Holmes)

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limitation
The bulb pressure from this test is usually far smaller than the
bulb pressure from the actual foundation.
This could lead to error in detecting settlement of a weak
stratum

Fig. 17

Showing difference in bulb pressure between plate test and actual foundation.
(source: R. Holmes)

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Unconfined Compression Test

A 75 mm long x 38 mm diameter soil sample is loaded in the
apparatus until failure occurs.
This test can be used to establish the shear strength of a
non-fissured cohesive soil sample.

Fig. 18

Unconfinded compression test apparatus

(source: R. Chudley)

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Dynamic Probing

C. Probe is commonly used

In H.K., G.E.O.
The apparatus comprises a sectional rod fitted at the end with a
cone.
It is driven into the ground by a standard mass falling through
a fixed distance
The number of blows per each 100 mm penetration is recorded.
Probe results are useful for assessing the depth and degree of
compaction of buried fill

Fig. 19

G.E.O. Probe

(source: GeoGuide 2)

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Fig. 20

G.E.O. Probe Record

(source: Geoguide 2)

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Insitu Density Tests

Two methods are commonly used for determining insitu density:
Sand Replacement Method
A hole of about 150mm x 100mm

is dug and the soil is

collected for weight and moisture content determination.

The exact volume of the hole is measured by filling standard
sand of known bulk density into it.
Dry Density of the soil can be then determined
Commonly carried out for earth filling works

Fig. 21

Insitu Density Test - Sand Replacement Method

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Nuclear Method
The nuclear density gauge comprises radioactive materials in a
sealed capsule which emit gamma rays and neutrons
The degree of absorption of gamma ray / neutron is measured
and correlated to density / moisture content of the soil
The method is very fast but safety precaution must be
followed.

Fig.22 Nuclear Density Gauge

(source: ELE)
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CHAPTER 9

Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing is undertaken to establish the following
characteristics of soils :
1. identification and classification
2. measurement of their engineering properties
3. chemical content

Identification and classification

Visual examinations
Visual examinations are made to note the
colour
texture
consistency

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1.6.7

1.6.7.1

1.6.7.2

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1.6.7.3

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Particle Size Distribution

This is the percentage of the
various particle sizes present in a
soil sample.
It is determined by sieving and/or
sedimentation method
The grading of a soil helps to
estimate its engineering properties

Fig. 23

Fig. 24

Sieves and Shaker

(source: ELE)

Particle size distribution chart

(source: ELE)
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Measurement of Engineering Properties of Soils

Shear Box Test
The apparatus comprises two bottomless boxes which are filled
with the soil sample.
A horizontal shearing force is applied against a vertical load
causing the soil sample to shear along a line between the two
boxes.
This test determines the shear strength of soils (C,

Fig. 25

Shear Box Test and typical test result

values).

(source: R. Chudley)

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Triaxial Test
An undisturbed soil sample (150mm x 75 mm ) is placed in a
plastic cell and confined by lateral hydrostatic pressure.
The sample is then loaded vertically
Usually three tests are made with different confined pressure
and the results are plotted in the form of Mohr's circles.
It is the most popular method to establish the shear strength of
soils (C,

Fig. 26

values)

Triaxial test apparatus and Mohr's circle

(source: R. Chudley)
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Consolidation
The apparatus is called Oedometer
A soil sample is placed in a metal ring and loaded vertically.
The load is increased in stages and the time-settlement curve is
plotted
It is used to estimate the movement of soil under foundations

Fig. 27 Oedometer
(source: ELE)

Fig. 28
Consolidation Test
(source: ELE)

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Chemical Content
Some chemicals exist in the soil may have some harmful effects
on the materials used in the proposed works.
It is necessary to find out their quantities:
sulphate content - sulphate attack of concrete
chloride content - corrosion of steel
pH value - acids attack steel and concrete
organic matter - settlement and hygiene

Reference
GeoGuide 2 - Guide to site Investigation (1993), Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong
Government
R.Chudley, Building Construction Handbook (1992) BH Newnes
Roy Holemes, Introduction to Civil Engineering Construction (1983), College of Estate
Management
Civil and Environmental Engineering Test Equipment 9th Edition Catalogue, ELE International
http://www. ele.com/index.html

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