CE-882 DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Instr: Dr. Mazhar Iqbal Arshad

Introduction to CE-882 Deep Foundat

ions

GEOMECHANICS
Measure it with micrometer
Mark it with chalk
Cut it with an axe
An admonition to maintain
a consistent degree of precision throughout analysis, design
and construction phases of a project

SOIL TYPES & BASIC INDEX PROPERTI

ES

What is Soil?
5

Soil : A particulate medium, with particle

s resulting from a variety of geologic proces
ses, and is composed of a variety of minera
ls, with particle sizes ranging from the orde
r of magnitude of 1 u to 1 m. The space bet
ween soil particles, referred to as the pore s
pace, is filled with one or more of the follo
wing: air, some other gas, water, or some o
ther liquid

What is Soil?
6

Fundamental difference between soil and

most of other engg material is ?

Another important characteristics of soil, t

hat differentiate from other engg material i
s that it contains ?

What are Soil Constituents?

7

Rock Fragments Granite, lime-stone and basalt

Rock Minerals Quartz, Feldspar, Mica and Gypsum

Clay Minerals Kalonite, Scemitite and Illite

Organic Matter such as decomposed plant materials

Cementing Agent Calcium Carbonate

Misc Materials Man-Made Debris of other construction material, was

te

Basic Soil Types

8

Soil names associated with particle size.

The soil classification is very important as particle size are strong determin
ant of soil behavior.

Particular interest is transition from sand to clay fraction

Separation of sizes is done using sieves

Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

9

A soil consists of an assemblage

of discrete particles of different
shape and size.

The objective of the particle size

analysis is to GROUP these part
icles into separate ranges of size
s and determine the relative pro
portions by dry mass

Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

10

Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

11

Particle Size Analysis ( AST

M D422)

Sieve Analysis for soil above

No. 200 sieve (0.075mm)

Hydrometer Analysis for ma

terial passing No. 200 sieve

Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

12

Particle Size Analysis using sieves ( AS

TM D422)

Mean particle size - D50 (0.385 mm)

Coefficient of Uniformity
Poorly-graded - <2 (1.57)
Well-graded - >4

Impact on hydraulic conductivity, shear and s

tiffness

Coefficient of Curvature
Well-graded : 1-3 (0.41)

Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

13

Particle Size Analysis using sieves ( AS

TM D422)

Mean particle size - D50

Coefficient of Uniformity
Poorly-graded - <2
Well-graded - >4

Impact on hydraulic conductivity, shear and s

tiffness

Coefficient of Curvature
Well-graded : 1-3

Index Properties of Soils

14

Physical and index properties of soil are a simple and cheaper means
of determining suitability or other wise of a soil deposit for a particul
ar project.

Physical properties of soils are studied in order to have an idea of sui

tability of soil as:

Construction Material

Load bearing Material

Basic Soil Properties

15

Soil Properties require modification:

Strength

Compressibility

Volume stability

Permeability

Frost effect

Shrinkage & swelling potential

Basic Soil Properties

16

Main Soil Indices

Basic Soil Properties

17

Important Phase Relationships

Porosity

Void ratio

Moist Unit Weight

Vv
V
Vv
Vv
n

Vs V Vv
1 n
V
1 v
V
Vv
Vv
n

V Vs Vv

Vv

Vs

Vv
1
Vs

e
1 e

Basic Soil Properties

18

Phase Relationship A example

Show that

Solution :
where =

V = Vs + Vv = ( ) =( 1+ e)

=)

Basic Soil Properties

19

Phase Relationship

Show that

Hint: definition of degree of saturation

And assume Vs =1

Basic Soil Properties

20

Specific Gravity (Gs):

The ratio of weight of a given volume of
soil solids at a given temperature to the
weight of an equal volume of distilled
water at that temperature.
It is ratio of unit weight of soil solids to
that of water

Pycnometer
Iodine flask

Basic Soil Properties

21

Specific Gravity (Gs):

Relative Density (DR)

22

Measure of how loose and dense soil is in its na

tural state ( typical : 0.45 -0.95)

Can be obtained from maximum, minimum and

field void ratios

Maximum void ratio (emax)

Minimum void ratio (emin)

DR

Relative Density (DR)

23

Relative density and typical degree of compactn

ess of coarse grained soil

Atterberg Limits
24

Based on concept, the fine

grained soil can exist in four
possible state depending upon
the water content

Solid state

Semisolid

Plastic

Liquid

Atterberg Limits
25

Liquid Limit (LL) ( ASTM D4318)

Material passing No. 200 sieve, is mixed with w

ater and paste is prepared

Moisture content corresponding to 25 blows is o

btained using Casagranda apparatus

LL defines the lowest water content at which th

e viscous behavior is observed

Plastic Limit (PL)

PL defines the lowest water content at which pla

stic behavior is observed

Rolling the soil into 3/8 inch thread at various

wc , without crumbling or cracking

Atterberg Limits
26

Plasticity Index (PI)

Difference PI = LL -PL

Liquidity Index (LI)

w PL w PL
LI

LL PL
PI

Activity (Skempton)

Typical values for A = 0.45-0.5 for kalonite clays,

A = 0.95 London Clay

A = 0.75-1.25 illite clays

A>2.0 for montmorillonite clays

Amount of attracted water depends upon % age of clay

Typical value of Atterberg limits

27

Engineering use of Atterberg limits

28

Useful for soil identification and classification

Control specification for embankment & fill

Semi-empirical design

=0.11+0.0037(PI)

PI(%)

Done on thoroughly worked out sample no indi

cation for bond or fabric

Engineering use of Atterberg limits

29

Qualitative Classification of OCR of fine grained

soils

Engineering use of Atterberg limits

30

Effect of water content on clay properties

Soil Classification in Foundation design

31

Sorting soils in similar like behavior is called soil classification

The correlation of behavior within classification group is empirical based on e

xperiences

Detailed testing of soils for determining their suitability as a load supporting

material or as construction material is difficult, expensive and time consumin
g.

Engineers, on the basis of their experience, therefore, have divided soils into v
arious groups.

Each group of soil has its own peculiar engineering properties.

This segregation of soils into various groups on the basis of their engineering
properties is known as soil classification.

Soil Classification in Foundation design

32

To be able to use the database of others in predicting foundation performance

To build ones own local database of successes (or any failures)

To maintain a permanent record that can be understood by others, should pro

blems later develop and outside parties required to investigate the original de
sign.

To be able to contribute to the general body of knowledge in common termino

logy via publications.

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- ASTM D2487

33

Major
divisions
Coarse-grained
soils
More than 50%
retained on the
0.075mm (No.
200) sieve

Group
Symbols
Gravels 50% or
more of coarse
fraction retained
on the 4.75mm
(No.4) seive

Sands 50% or
more of coarse
fraction passes
the 4.75 mm (No.
4) seive

Typical Group Names

Clean gravels
Cu4 and/or 1Cc3

GW

Well-graded gravels and gravel-sand

mixtures, little or no fines

Less than 5% fines

Cu<4 and/or 1>Cc>3

GP

Poorly-graded gravels and gravel-sand

mixtures, little or no fines

Gravels with fines

PI<4

GM

Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures

Gravels > 12% fines

PI>7

GC

Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures

Clean sands
Cu6 and/or 1Cc3

SW

Well-graded sands, and gravelly sands,

little or no fines

Less than 5% fines

Cu<6 and/or 1>Cc>3

SP

Poorly graded sands and gravelly sands,

little or no fines

Sands with fines PI<4

SM

Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures

> 12% fines and PI>7

SC

Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- ASTM D2487

34

Major
divisions
Fine-grained soils
More than 50%
passes the 0.075mm
(No. 200) sieve

Group
Symbols
Silts and
clays
Liquid
limit 50%
or less

Silts and
clays
Liquid
limit
greater
than 50%

Highly organic
soils

Typical Group Names

Inorganic , PI<4 & plot

below A-line

ML

Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock flour, silty

or clayey fine sands

PI>7 and plots above Aline

CL

Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity,

gravelly/sandy/silty/lean clays

Organic, LL-Oven
dried /LL-not dried
<0.75

OL

Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures

PI plots below A-line

MH

Inorganic silts, micaceous or diatomaceous fine

sands or silts, elastic silts

PI plots on or above Aline

CH

Inorganic clays or high plasticity, fat clays

Organic, LL-Oven
dried /LL-not dried
<0.75

OH

Organic clays of medium to high plasticity

PT

Peat, muck and other highly organic soils

First symbol: G = Gravel , S = sands, M= Silts, C = Clays, O = organic

Second Symbol: W= well-graded, P= poorly graded, L= LL < 50% and, H= LL>50%

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- ASTM D2487

35

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- ASTM D2487

36

Class Work:

Classify soil A & B as per USCS

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- ASTM D2487

37

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- Procedure

38

Borderline Classification
Borderline Classification
Fine Grained Soils

Gravel

GW
GP

Sand

SW
SP

0 5 12

GW
Gravel
GP

Sand

SW
SP

Borderline case

Coarse Grained Soils

Borderline case

45 50 55

Silt

ML
MH
OH

Clay

%age passing No. 200 sieve

CL
CH
OL

100

Only two group symbols may be used to describe a soil,

border line cases can exists within each of above groups

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- Procedure

39

Determine soil is fine or coarse grained, or highly organic visual inspection

or %age passing #200 sieve (>50% Fine, <50% Coarse)

For Coarse Grained

Perform sieve analysis and plot PSD curve, (Gravel >50% retained on No.4 ) otherwise Sa
nd

Determine the %age passing N0. 200 sieve, if less than 5% , examine the shape of PSD cur
ve, for well graded classify as GW/ SW, for poorly graded GP / SP

If between 5% and 12% of material passing No. 200 sieve, it is borderline case the dual cla
ssification depending upon gradation and plasticity characteristics (GW-GM or SW-SM et
c)

If more than 12% of material passing N0. 200 sieve, perform Atterberg limits on minus N
0.40 sieve fraction, use plasticity chart to classify (GM, GC, SM, SC or SM-SC, GM-GC)

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- Procedure

40

Determine soil is fine or coarse grained, or highly organic visual inspection

or %age passing #200 sieve (>50% Fine, <50% Coarse)

For Fine Grained

Perform Atterberg limits on minus N0.40 sieve fraction and classify as L for LL<50 and H
for LL>50

For L : if plasticity plots below A-line, see color, odor or change in LL & PL when oven dry
ing, whether it is organic (OL), or inorganic (ML). If limits plots hatched zone in plasticit
y chart classify as ML-CL or if it is above A-line classify as CL

For H: if limits plot below A line classify for organic (OH) or inorganic (MH), if limits plot
s above A-line , classify CH

If limits plots in hatched zone or along A-line use dual classification

Additional information: Color, Moisture, Density/Consistency, Soil type, addi

tional coarse or fine fraction - Dark Brown, moist, stiff to very stiff SANDY CL
AY with little trace of gravels

Comparisons of Soil Classification Systems

41

Based on PSD

Field Identification of soil

42

Coarse grained soil:

Size of grain (coarse- or fine-grained)

Shape of grain (For coarse-grained soil)

Angular

Sub-angular

Sub-rounded

Rounded

Feel test

Color or odor

Sedimentation test

Field Identification of soil

43

Fine grained soil:

For Fine-grained soil individual grains cannot be seen with naked eye distinctio
n between silt and clay is made by observing its reaction with water

Dry strength test rolled in ball and air dried, crushed with thumb

Dilatancy test Kneading a ball and observing the shining none to rapid

Plasticity test rolling thread

Toughness - A pressure required to roll a 3mm thread- ASTM D 2488 table 9

Dispersion test (mixing with water in a glass, shaking & noting down the settling t
ime)

Sand 15-30 mins

Silt 30-60 mins

Clay take hours to

Approximate Field Procedure for Identification of soil

44

Differentiate gravel and sand by visual inspection

Differentiate fine sand and silt using Dispersion test (mixing with water in a glass,
shaking & noting down the settling time)

Sand 15-30 mins

Silt 30-60 mins

Clay take hours to

Differentiate between silt and clay as follows:

Clay lumps are more difficult to crush using the fingers than silt

Moisten a spot on surface of lump and feel it, if it is smooth it is clay, if marginally streaked it is si
lty clay, if it is rough it is silt

From plastic ball of soil material and shake it is horizontally by jarring your hand, if the surface b
ecome shiny from water coming out of surface, than it is silt

Differentiate between organic and non-organic by visual inspection or odor test

Some Local Terminologies for Identification of soil

45

Adobe : A clayey material found in Southwest

Caliche: A conglomeration of sand, gravel, silt and clay bond

ed by carbonates and usually found in arid areas.

Glacial Till: A mixture of material that may include sand, gra

vel , silt and clay deposit by glacial action

Gumbo: A clayey or loamy material which becomes very stick

y when wet

Some Local Terminologies for Identification of soil

46

Hardpan : Dense firm deposit

Loam: A mixture of sand , clay and silt, Top soil.

Loess: A uniform silt size deposit formed by wind action

Muck: A thin watery mixture of soil and organic material

Some Local Terminologies for Identification of soil

47

Alluvial Deposits : Soil deposits formed by sedimentation of s

oil particles from flowing water

Black Cotton Soil: Semitropical soils found in areas where an

nual rainfall 500-700mm

Shale: A fine grained sedimentary rocks composed essentiall

y compressed/cemented clay particles. The parallel orientati
on of clay particles

Soil Type

%tage

1. Loamy and sandy stratified soils

2. Loamy and clayey non-calcareous soils

0.1
0.6

3. MOUNTAINS: Loamy shallow soils VALLEYS :

Loamy non-calcareous soils
4. Loamy sandy stratified soils
5. Loamy clayey non-calcareous soils

2.3
0.2
1.0

6. Loamy non-calcareous soils of alluvial/loess plains

2.3

7. MOUNTAINS: Loamy and shallow soils VALLEYS :

Laomy soils
8. MOUNTAINS: Rock out-crops loamy and shallow
soils VALLEYS : Loamy soils
9. Loamy partly gravelly soils
10. MOUNTAINS: Loamy shallow soils and rock outcrop VALLEYS : Loamy soils
11. MOUNTAINS: Rock out-crop and loamy very
shallow soils VALLEYS : Loamy soils
12.MOUNTAINS:Rock outcrop, some loamy very
shallow
soilsVALLEYS : Mainly loamy soils

1.3

13. Laomy sandy stratified soils

14. Loamy clayey soils
15. Loamy soils of old river terraces
16. Laomy clayey mainly dense saline sodic soils
17. Loamy and clayey partly slaine sodic soils

2.1
0.1
0.3
5.2
2.9

2.4
11.4
2.8
0.3
6.6

18. Mainly loamy saline soils

19. Silty and calyey saline soils
20. Rolling to hilly sandy soils
21. Mainly loamy partly gravelly soils

1.9
0.7
14.7
5.8

22. Mainly loamy partly gravelly soils

2.1

23. MOUNTAIND: Rocky out-crop with patchy

soils VALLEYS : Mainly loamy partly gravelly soils
24. Clayey and loamy severly slaine sodic soils

48

25. Glaciers and snow caps

30.6
0.3
0.4

Classic Soils
49

Classic Soils

Clays and sands, particularly as found in transported soil deposits, are the "classic"
Soils that have been extensively written about both in books and technical articles , As a
result, they are well understood

Gravels and silts are also generally well understood; there is also substantial test data in
the literature regarding their mechanical behavior

Gravels and non-plastic silts behave in general like sand, while plastic silts behave in ge
neral like clay

Classic Soils
50

Silica Sand

Particles made of silicates, mostly Quartz

Uncrushable due to strong three dimensional ato

mic bond of Quartz

Coarse, medium-course and fine sands

Classified as well-graded or poorly graded sand

Silica Sand
51

Visual classification chart

Sphericity =
Roundness =

Silica Sand
52

Particle Shape

ASTM20-30

#2Q-ROK

Ohio Gold Frac

Silica Sand
53

Particle Shape & size

Affects the degree of packing

Silica Sand
54

Particle Size & Shape

Affects the degree of packing

The strength

Compressibility

Silica Sand
55

Silica Sand formation

Alluvial, Aeolian and lacustrine deposits

Characteristics & soil grain fabric depends upon the geological environment

Non-plastic silt behaves like sand, but they drain more slowly

Non-plastic silt has particle angularity similar to sand

Sand Fabric when mixed with fines?

Silica Sand
56

Non-Floating Fabric fines (silt or clay)content is small, they may simply occupy t
he voids between the sand particles, not getting in between them
Still behave like sand but changed property due to fines

Floating-Fabric If the fines content is large, the sand particles may be completely s
eparated so that they are now floating in a silt or clay matrix

This soil then no longer behaves as a sand but as a silt or clay

How much %age of fines needed for change from sand to clay behavior?

Silica Sand
57

Can be estimated from phase relationship if we assumed water is associat

ed with clay phase

GSG = 2.67
GSC= 2.75
eG= 0.9-0.5

C = 48.4 1.42w
C = 34 1.82w

58

CLAY MINERALS & FABRIC

Clay Minerals
59

Clays are soils made up of small, clay-sized particles usually constituted of clay m
inerals

Clay minerals form most commonly from the chemical weathering of other mine
rals, mainly feldspar, mica, and ferromagnesian mineral

Clay minerals are quite resistant to any further weathering; as they are the end-p
roducts of the weathering of different rock mineral

Clay minerals exist in the form of very small particles that typically contain a net
negative charge that is balanced by the adsorption of cations from solution

Clay Minerals Basic Silicates Unit

60

Silicon Tetrahedron
1-O -2
1-Si +4
3-O -6

Aluminum/Magnesium Octahedron
3-O -3
1-Al/Mg +3/+2
3-O -3

Clay Minerals Basic Silicates Sheet

61

The basic tetrahedron / octahedron unit are repeated /interconnected to form silicate sheet

Different clay mineral groups are characterized by the stacking arrangements of sheets (some
times chains) of these units and the manner in which two successive two- or three-sheet laye
rs are held together

Differences among minerals within clay mineral groups result primarily from differences in t
he type and amount of isomorphous substitution within the crystal structure

Possible substitutions are nearly endless in number, and the crystal structure arrangement m
ay range from very poor to nearly perfect

Clay Minerals Basic Silicates Sheet

62

G
Tetrahedral sheet

Octahedral sheet

Clay Minerals Basic Silicates Sheet

63

isomorphous substitution is substitution of one kind of atom for another

In an ideal gibbsite sheet, only two-thirds of the octahedral positions are filled,
and all of the cations are aluminum.

In an ideal brucite sheet, all the octahedral spaces are filled by magnesium.

In an ideal silica sheet, silicons occupy all tetrahedral spaces.

In clay minerals, however, some of the tetrahedral and octahedral spaces are occu
pied by cations other than those in the ideal structure. Common examples are alu
minum in place of silicon, magnesium instead of aluminum, and ferrous iron (Fe
2) for magnesium.

This presence in an octahedral or tetrahedral position of a cation other than that

normally found, without change in crystal structure, is isomorphous substitution.
The actual tetrahedral and octahedral cation distributions may develop during ini
tial formation or subsequent alteration of the mineral

Net charge deficiency results per substitutions

Distortions of crystal lattice

G
B

Clay Minerals
64

Inter layer Bond Forces

65

Primary valence (covalent, ionic & metalic) ~ very strong bond

Neutral parallel layers are held by van der Waals forces. Bonding is weak

In some minerals (e.g., kaolinite, brucite, gibbsite), there are opposing layers of oxygen and
hydroxyls or hydroxyls and hydroxyls. Hydrogen bonding then develops between the lay
ers as well as van der Waals bonding. Hydrogen bonds remain stable in the presence of wate
r Intermediate strong

Clay Minerals : 1:1 Clay minerals

66

Kaolinite Al4 [Si4]O10 (OH)8

Repeating layers of silicon tetrahedral and aluminum

octahedral sheet

Formed by stacking of two basic sheets so called 1:1 mi

neral

The bonding between successive layers is due to van -d

er - waals forces and hydrogen bond

The bonding is sufficient strong and no interlayer swel

ling in the presence of water

Clay Minerals : 1:1 Clay minerals

67

The single layer thickness is 0.72 nm and it can extends ind

efinitely in other two directions

A Kaolinite crystal consists of stacks of several layers of basi

c 0.72 nm unit layer

A typical Kaolinite crystal consists of 100-140 layer thick

The specific surface area is 10-20 m2/g of dry clay & CE

C is 3-15 meq/100g

Primary constituent of China Clay, used in paper, paint and

pharmaceutical industry

Favored for Lab experiments

Clay Minerals : 1:1 Clay minerals

68

Halloysite Al4 [Si4]O10 (OH)8. (4H2O)

In hydrated form the Kaolinite sheet are separated by th

e water molecules during formation

Presence of water causes mismatch in Gibsite and Silicat

e sheet, formed tubed structure

Easily dehydrated by oven/air drying and process is irre

versible

At high water content has low density (~70 pcf) even aft
er compaction, a good light backfill material

The specific surface area is 35-70 m2/g

Hydrrated

Clay Minerals : 2:1 Clay minerals (Scmectite Group)

69

Montmorillonite Al3.3 Mg0.7 [Si8]O20 (OH)4

The aluminum octahedral sheet is sandwiched betwee

n two tetrahedral silicon sheets

Formed by combining the tips of tetrahedrons sheets

with Hydrooxyl of octahedral sheet

The bonding between successive layers is due to van -d

er waals forces and is weak bond

Since the bonding is very weak & there is net negative

charge in octahedral sheet, attracts water & cations

Clay Minerals : 2:1 Clay minerals (Scmectite Group)

70

Montmorillonite Al3.3 Mg0.7 [Si8]O20 (OH)4

The thickness of one layer is 0.96nm

Formed by combining the tips of tetrahedrons sheets with H

ydroxyl of octahedral sheet

The bonding between successive layers is due to van -der w

aals forces and is weak bond

Since the bonding is very weak & there is net negative charge
in octahedral sheet, attracts water & cations

CEC (Cat ion exchange capacity) is high 80-150 meq/100 g

Saponite

Clay Minerals : 2:1 Clay minerals (Scmectite Group)

71

Sodium Montmorillonite (Bentonite)

Na+ do not glue together and one can get one layer

Flaky shaped particle , t/l = 100

Very high specific surface area SSA ~ 800 m2/g

(6 g is sufficient to cover a football field)

CEC (Cat ion exchange capacity) is high 80-150 meq/100 g

Major problematic soil as very expansive & low residual stre

ngth

High LL 500%

Clay Minerals : 2:1 Clay minerals (Muscovite Group)

72

Illite (hydrous Mica) - (OH)4K2 [Si6Al2] Al4O20

2:1 layer structure similar to Montmorillonite, but glued by p

otassium (K) cations

Have strong interlayer bond due to fixed potassium even in t

he presence of polar liquids

Less CEC as compared to Scmectite and is 10-40 meq/100 g

In the absence of fixed K, there is indicator of expansive beh

avior as the CEC 150 meq/100 g

SSA is 65-100 m2/g with t/l =30

Clay Minerals : 2:1 Clay minerals (Muscovite Group)

73

Vermiculites (Mica) -

2:1 layer structure consists of regular brucite mica , interlayer separat

ed by exchangeable cations and double layers of water molecules

Thickness of water layers depends upon exchangeable cations

High CEC and is 100-150 meq/100 g

Dehydration (> 1000 c) reduces the spacing to 10A0

Quickly rehydrates when exposed to moist air and regain spacing

SSA is 870 m2/g

Clay Minerals : Other Clay Minerals

74

Chlorite

structure consists of alternating mica layer , and brucite layer in

place of and double layers of water molecules in vermiculites

CEC and is 10-40 meq/100 g

Very strong glue between layers and low SSA

Microscopic grains of platy structure

Occurs in mixture with other clay minerals

Clay Minerals
75

Relationship between Soil Composition & Engineering properties

76

Mineralogy does affect the size and shape of particles in soil

For fine-grained soil the knowledge of composition is helpful in predicting/explaining un

usual or adverse behavior

Halloysite very low unit wt

Montrollomite expansive clay

Illite quick clays

Composition alone can not predict the engineering properties of most fine grained soil:

Variation in particle size of each mineral

Cementing agents like carbonates, organic mater etc can duce SSA

Usually several mineral in soil ( 50% sand & 50% clays)

Effect of pore fluid composition ( pH, type, conc of ions etc)

77

CLAY MINERALS & WATER INTERACTION

Elec charge on clay particle Net -ve elec charge

78

Isomorphous substitution

Surface disassociation of surface ions

Absence of cations in crystal lattice

Adsorptions of anions

Presence of organic matter

Net charge deficiency - TRY TO NEUTRALIZE

Diffused Double Layer

79

The typical clay particle contains 14000 exchangeabl

e monovalent ions in montmirrolonite & 40000 in k
aolinite

On hydration the sodium ions grows seven fold

To large to fit within crystal

Water moves away from mineral surface to the positi

on of equilibrium

Ions are attracted to satisfy existing net charge defici

ency but they also move away due to thermal energie
s Final position is compromise

Diffused Double Layer

80

The double layer of water is developed along the clay

particle surface

The thickness of this double layer is distance require

d to nebulize the electrical potential

Water in double layer is attracted to soil particle and

water is also attracted to other mineral surface by oth
er forces

Diffused Double Layer

81

Diffused Double Layer

82

Clay Fabric
83

Depends upon thickness of double layer

Flocculated

Dispersed

Salt flocculation

The thickness of diffused double layer governs the flo

cculated clay fabric & achieved by

Increasing electrolyte concentration

Increasing Ion valence

Increasing Temprature

Decreasing hydrated ion size

Decreasing pH & Dielectric constant

Non-Salt flocculation

Dispersion

Diffused Double Layer & Fabric

84

Thank You

85

86