Food and Beverage Service Operation

Food and beverage service
Removal of spare covers
The cover should be removed in the correct manner or as per establishment rule using a
service plate or a service salver. When this has been done the position of the other covers
should be adjusted if necessary & the table appointments re- positioned.
Relaying of tables
It is often the case in a busy restaurant or dining room that a number of tables have to be
re- laid in order to cope with the inflow of customers. The table should be firstly be
completely cleared of all item or equipment & then crumbed down. At this stage if table
cloth is a little soiled or grubby a slip cloth should be placed over it. It can then relay in
the appropriate manner.
Types of cover
1. A LA CARTE cover
2. TABLE D’ hote cover
3. Outlet standard cover
4. Breakfast cover
Continental breakfast
American breakfast
English breakfast
Indian breakfast
5. Brunch cover
6. Hi-tea cover
7. Supper cover
8. Special cover
Rules of laying A LA CARTE, Table d’ hote cover
The following rules should be followed while laying cover on the table:
1. Before setting up the table, the tables and chairs should be in their correct
position.
2. The table in which cover is to be laid should be checked first to know weather
it is in service position or not.
3. The table top should be clean and the table in level, with care being taken to
ensure that it does not wobble.
4. Moulton should be fixed properly before laying tablecloth for the following
reasons:
a. To protect guest wrist and elbow from the sharp edges of the table.
B. To protect the tablecloth from slippage.
c. it absorbs if liquids spills on the table
.d. it reduces noise while placing cutleries and crockery’s on the table.
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5. The correct size of table cloth should be collected. Table cloth are folded in
as a screen fold. The waiter/ess must stand in the correct position to lay up the
table cloth properly that is between the legs of the table.
6. Tablecloth should be laid firmly on the top of moulton cloth.
7. Make sure that the corners of the tablecloth cover the legs of the table and do
not between the table legs.
8. The table cloth folded in the screen fold has one inverted fold and two single
folds and should be opened out across the table in front of the waiter/ess with
inverted and two single folds facing him/her and with the inverted fold on top.
9. The table cloth should be then being laid in the correct manner.
10. On the top of tablecloth slip cloth be laid to make it attractive.
11. If a table cover is being laid then the first item set on the table should the
serviette or side plate in the center of each cover. If the side plate were laid in
the center of each cover it would be moved to left-hand side of the cover once
all the cutlery and flatware have been laid. The purpose of placing something
in the center of the cover is to ensure the covers are exactly opposite to one
another and that the cutlery and flatware of each cover are the same distance.
12. Cutlery and flatware should be laid from a service salver or service plate. An
alternative to this is to use a service cloth and hold the items being laid in the
service cloth, giving a final polish with waiter’s cloth.
13. In some instances a cutlery trolley is used for storing the cutlery and tableware
and this should be pushed around the tables and then the cutlery and flatware
lay after a final polish with waiter’s cloth.
14. The cutlery and flatware should be laid from the inside to the outside of the
cover. This ensures even spacing of the cover and normally lessens the
chances of having to handle the items laid more than necessary.
15. While laying knives and spoons should be placed on the right hand side of the
cover and forks on the left hand side of the cover. Cutleries for dessert should
be placed on the top of the cover.
16. Side plate (B&B plate) and butter knife should be placed on the left hand side
of the cover.
17. Serviette should be placed in the center of the cover between the cutleries.
18. After the covers have been laid, the table layout should be completed by the
addition of the following items: cruets, ashtrays, table numbers, etc
19. The waiter/ess must ensure that where applicable all cutlery and flatware is
laid (½ inches) from the edge of the table and that badged crockery has the
badge or crest at the head or top off the cover.
20. The glass after polishing should be placed upside down at the top right hand
corner of the cover.
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Unit 7:WINE
Wine is an alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. The natural
chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the
addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, or other nutrients.
Grape wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes
using various types of yeast. Yeast consumes the sugars
in the grapes and converts them into alcohol. Different
varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different
types of wine. It produces from the district of origin
according to the local customs and tradition without any
foreign additives.
Only the relatively small area of the world is “wine

producing”. This is because the grape will only provide
juice of the quality necessary for conversation into a
drinkable wine where two climatic conditions prevail:
 There must be enough sun to ripen the grape

 The winter must be moderate, yet sufficiently
cool to give the vine a chance to rest and restore
its strength for the growing and fruiting season.
The three quarters of the world’s wine produced in Europe. France and Italy produce the most
wine. Next in order come the former Soviet Republics, Argentina, Spain, USA and Germany.
Wines made from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the fruit from
which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically called
fruit wine or country wine. Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (i.e., sake), are made from
starch-based materials and resemble beer and spirit more than wine, while ginger wine is
fortified with brandy. In these cases, the term "wine" refers to the higher alcohol content rather
than the production process.
Gapes have become the standard for wines for two reasons. First, there is an acid found in grapes
but not other fruits which preserves the juice for decades or even centuries. Second, there is a lot
more sugar in grapes than in other fruits and this helps produce stronger wines because almost all
the sugar is transformed into alcohol.
The colour, bouquet, flavour, strength and quality of any wine depends upon a number of factors,
they are:
1. Grape variety
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2. Blending varieties together
3. Fermentation time
4. Fermentation container (wood, steel)
5. Length of time of contact with grape skins
6. Maturation time
7. Maturation container
Then there are the geographical factors which, taken all together, the French call terroir:
1. Soil type
2. Topography (steepness of the slopes)
3. Weather conditions
4. Farming techniques
What Is Fermentation?
The fermentation which creates wine is the process by which yeast consumes sugars and
produces alcohol (and carbon dioxide). The more sugar that's in the grapes, the more alcohol
there will be in the resulting wine (if the process is allowed to continue to completion). Yeast
exists naturally on grapes and grape vines, which are why fermentation occurs naturally, but
wine makers, may also add yeasts to better control the process.
History
Wine has evolved as part of European life, culture and diet since time immemorial. Wine making
emerged in Europe with the expansion of the Roman Empire throughout the Mediterranean,
when many major wine producing regions that still exist today were established. Even then wine
making was a precise husbandry that fostered the development of different grape varieties and
cultivation techniques. Barrels for storing and shipping emerged, bottles were used for the first
time, and even a rudimentary appellation system developed as certain regions gained a reputation
for fine wine. As wine production became progressively refined, its popularity increased, and
wine taverns became a common feature in cities throughout the Empire.
The culture of wine in Europe predates the Romans: in ancient Greece, wine was praised by
poets, historians and artists, and was frequently referred to in the works of Aesop and Homer. In
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Greece, however, wine was considered the privilege of the upper classes. Dionysus, the Greek
god of wine, represented not only the intoxicating power of wine, but also its social and
beneficial influences. He was viewed as the promoter of civilization, a lawgiver, and lover of
peace — as well as the patron deity of agriculture and the theatre. Indeed, according to ancient
Greek historian Thucydides, “the peoples of the Mediterranean began to emerge from barbarism
when they learnt to cultivate the olive and the vine”.
With the passing of the centuries, the art of wine making spread to France, Spain, Germany and
parts of Britain. By this time, wine was considered an important part of daily diet and people
began to favor stronger, heavier wines. European appreciation of wine endured throughout the
Dark Ages. Partly because drinking water was still unreliable, wine was the preferred alternative
to accompany meals. At the same time, viticulture and viniculture advanced thanks to the
husbandry of Church monasteries across the continent, which gave rise to some of the finest
vineyards in Europe. The Benedictine monks, for example, became one of Europe’s largest wine
producers with vineyards in France’s Champagne, Burgundy, and Bordeaux regions, as well as
in the Rheingau and Franconia regions of Germany. The merchant and noble classes had wine
with every meal and maintained well-stocked cellars.
During the 16th century wine became appreciated as a more sophisticated alternative to beer and
as wine products began to diversify, consumers began to value the concept of varying their
drinking habits. People began to discuss the virtues and vices of wine with greater gusto than in
previous centuries. Elizabethan England’s celebrated bard Shakespeare remarked that “good
wine is a good familiar creature if it be well used”, implicitly commenting on the misuse of wine
at this time. The Shakespearian era saw the availability of fresh drinking water in London, a
breakthrough that moved the wine industry into a new age.
Improved production techniques in the 17th and 18th centuries resulted in the emergence of finer
qualities of wine, glass bottles with corks began to be used, and the corkscrew was invented. The
French wine industry took off at this point, with particular recognition being given to the clarets
of the Bordeaux region by merchants from the Low Countries, Germany, Ireland and
Scandinavia. Bordeaux traded wine for coffee and other sought-after items from the New World,
helping to cement the role of wine in emerging world trade.
While the 19th century is considered the golden age of wine for many regions, it was not without
tragedy. Around 1863 many French vines suffered from a disease caused by the Phylloxera
aphid, which sucked the juice out of the roots. When it was discovered that vines in America
were resistant to Phylloxera it was decided to plant American vines in affected French regions.
This created hybrid grapes that produced a greater variety of wines. Also at this time French
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winemakers moved to the Rioja region in northern Spain and taught the Spanish people to make
wine from local grapes.
Over the last 150 years wine making has been totally revolutionized as an art and science. With
access to refrigeration it has become easy for wineries to control the temperature of the
fermentation process and produce high quality wines in hot climates. The introduction of
harvesting machines has allowed vineyards to become larger and more efficient. Although the
wine industry faces the challenge of meeting the demands of an ever-larger market without
losing the individual character of its wines, technology helps to ensure a consistent supply of
quality wines. Modern wine appreciation pays homage to the timeless art of wine making and
demonstrates the importance of wine in the history and diversity of European culture.
Factors affecting taste and quality of wine
1. Grape Variety
Thegrape variety used to make a wine is the single most influential factor
determining its taste. The factors that determine the quintessential flavor of any grape
variety are the same as those that determine the parietal taste of any fruit, and their
importance to the taste of wine are outlined below:
i. Size
The smaller the fruit, the more concentrated the flavor, therefore, most classic
grape varieties have smaller berries, although some varieties that rely more on
elegance than power of concentration may yield large berries.
ii. Skin structure
The skin contains most of the aromatic characteristics with which we
associate the parietal identify of any fruits.
iii. Skin color and thickness
The colored thick – skinned produces very deep colored wine, while the
lighter colored thin – skinned produces less intensely colored wines.
iv. Acid/ sugar and presence of other constituents
The grape’s sugar content dictates the alcohol level and whether any natural
sweetness is possible, and this, together with the grape’s acidity level,
determines the balance.
v. Rootstock
Hundreds of rootstock varieties have been developed from various vine
species, usually BERLANDIERI, RIPARIA or RUPESTRIS. The choice of
rootstock is dependent on its suitability to the vine stock on which it is to be
grafted.
2. Location
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The location of the vineyard basically determines whether or not its climate is
suitable for viticulture. Virtually all the wine producing areas of the world are located
between 30 and 50 latitude in both the hemispheres. These are the temperature zones
where the annual mean temperature is between 10 c (50 F) and 20 c (68 F).
3. Climate
It is one of the most important factors influencing the growth of grapes for quality
wines. Although various species of vine survive under extreme conditions, every
vineyard needs the following:
i. Heat
Vines will not provide grapes suitable for wine making if the annul
temperature is less than 10 c (50F). The ideal is 14 – 15 c (57 – 59F), with an
average of not less than 19 c (66F) in summer and -1 c (30 F) in winter.
ii. Sunshine
While light is required for photosynthesis, the important biological process of
green plants, there is sufficient light for this even cloudy condition. Sunshine
is needed more for its heat then its light. Approximately, 1500 hours
preferable sunshine is required per growing season.
iii. Rainfall
A vine requires 675 ml (27 inches) of rain per year. Ideally, most of the rain
should fall in the spring and the winter.
iv. Frost
Surprising, as it may seem, some frost is desirable, providing it is in the
winter. It hardens the wood and kills spores and pests, which the bark may be
harboring.
4. Aspect
The aspect of vineyard refers to its general topography - which direction the vines
face, the angle and height of the slope, and so on - and how it interrelates with the
climate. There are few places in the world where wine making grapes are
successfully grown under the full effect of a prevailing climate.
i. Sunshine
South facing slopes (north facing in the southern hemisphere) attracts more
hours of sunshine. In hotter areas, however, the opposite facing slopes tend to
be cultivated.
ii. Sun strength and drainage
In temperate regions the sun is not directly overhead, even at noon, and
therefore its rays are more or less perpendicular to a slope, because of its
angle. Another superior aspect of a sloping vineyard is that it affords natural
drainage.
iii. Temperature
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It plays a vital role to ripen the grapes and need not to consume extra time.
Because of the extra time, acidity will be relatively higher.
5. Soil
Just as various garden flowers, shrubs and vegetables perform better in one soil type
as opposed to another, so do certain grape varieties. Top soil is of primary
importance to the vine because it supports most of its root system, main roots
penetrate several layers of subsoil. The structure of which influences drainage, the
root system’s depth, and its ability to collect minerals.
The Grapes
The grape is the beginning of the wine. It provides the liquid, the sugar to be
fermented, the color ant the acid vital to the wine’s taste and balance, and the tannins
that give red wine their nuances of taste and their structure and longevity.
Different grapes varieties differ in these components in many ways, and these differences
determine the characteristics of the wine made from them. The color of the skins
immediately divides wine in to two large categories – red and white. Grapes with red or
black or purple skins, fermented with their skins, give their color and their tannins to the
wine.
White grapes, fermented without their skin, derive their color from the grape itself and lack
the tannins in red wines. They therefore light in color, lighter in flavor and body then reds
and have shorter life span.
White wines are also made from red grapes by separating the juice from the skin before
fermenting. They then have the similar general characteristics as other white wines
Types of Grapes
1. Riesling
 Districts: the classic German grape of the Rhine and Mosel, Riesling grows in all wine
districts. Germany’s great Rieslings are usually made slightly sweet, with steely acidity
for balance. Riesling from Alsace and the Eastern USA is also excellent, though usually
made in a different style, equally aromatic but typically drier (not sweet). California
Rieslings are much less successful, usually sweet and lacking in acidity for balance.
 Typical taste in varietal wine: Riesling wines are much lighter than Chardonnay wines.
The aromas generally include fresh apples. The Riesling variety expresses itself very
differently depending on the district and the winemaking. Rieslings should taste fresh. If
they do, then they might also prove tastier and tastier as they age.
 Food-wine pairing: Dry versions go well with fish, chicken and pork dishes.
2. Chardonnay (Shar-doe-nay)
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 Districts: chardonnay makes the principle white wine of Burgundy (France), where it

originated. Chardonnay is grown with success in most viticultural areas under a variety of
climatic conditions.
 Typical taste in varietal wine: often wider-bodied (and more velvety) than other types of
dry whites, with rich citrus (lemon, grapefruit) flavors. Fermenting in new oak barrels
adds a buttery tone (vanilla, toast, coconut, toffee). Chardonnay should give citrus fruit
flavors, hints of melon, vanilla, some toasty character and some creaminess.
 Food-wine pairing: It is a good choice for fish and chicken dishes.
3. Sauvignon blanc(So-vee-nyon Blah):

 Districts: New Zealand produces some excellent Sauvignon Blancs. Some Australian
Sauvignon Blancs, grown in warmer areas, tends to be flat and lack fruit qualities. Of
French origin, sauvignon blanc is grown in the Bordeaux district where it is blended with
semillon. It is also grown extensively in the upper Loire valley where it is made as a
varietal wine.
 Typical taste: In varietal wine: generally lighter than Chardonnay — Sauvignon blanc
normally shows a herbal character suggesting bell pepper or freshly mown grass. The
dominating flavours range from sour green fruits of apple, pear and gooseberry through
to tropical fruits of melon, mango and blackcurrant. Quality unoaked Sauvignon Blancs
will display smokey qualities; they require bright aromas and a strong acid finish; they
are best grown in cool climates.
 Food-wine pairing: A versatile food wine for seafood, poultry, and salads
4. Shiraz or syrah (Sah-ra or Shi-raz): Shiraz or syrah are two names for the same variety.
Europe vine growers and winemakers only use the name syrah
 Districts: Syrah excels in France’s Rhône Valley, California and Australia.
 Typical taste: In varietal wine: aromas and flavours of wild black-fruit (such as
blackcurrant), with overtones of black pepper spice and roasting meat. The abundance of
fruit sensations is often complemented by warm alcohol and gripping tannins.
 Food-wine pairing: Meat (steak, beef, wild game, stews, etc.)
5. Merlot (Mer-lo): Easy to drink. Its softness has made it an "introducing" wine for new red-
wine drinkers.
 Districts: a key player in the Bordeaux blend, merlot is now also grown on the US West
Coast, Australia, and other countries.
 Typical taste in varietal wine: black-cherry and herbal flavors are typical. The texture is
round but a middle palate gap is common.
 Food-wine pairing: any will do.
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6. Cabernet sauvignon(Ka-ber-nay So-vee-nyon): Widely accepted as one of the world’s best

varieties. Cabernet sauvignon is often blended with cabernet franc and merlot. It usually
undergoes oak treatment.
 Districts: cabernet sauvignon is planted wherever red wine grapes grow except in the
Northern fringes such as Germany. It is part of the great red Médoc wines of France, and
among the finest reds in Australia, California and Chile.
 Typical taste in varietal wine: full-bodied, but firm and gripping when young..
 Food-wine pairing: best with simply prepared red meat.
7. Pinot noir(Pee-no Nwar):

 Typical taste in varietal wine: very unlike Cabernet Sauvignon. The structure is delicate
and fresh. The tannins are very soft; this is related to the low level of polyphenols. The
aromatics are very fruity (cherry, strawberry, plum), often with notes of tea-leaf, damp
earth, or worn leather.
 Food-wine pairing: excellent with grilled salmon, chicken, lamb and Japanese dishes.
SN Name Types of wine Regions
1 Cabernet Sauvignon Red wine grape Brodeaux, California, Australia
2 Pinot Noir Red wine grape Burgundy, Champagne, Australia
3 Chardonnay White wine grape Burgundy, Chablis, California, Australia,

Newzaland, Bulgaria, Italy and Spain
4 Riesling White wine grape Germany, Alsace of France, california
[These are major name of the four grapes that make the best wine in the world.]
Other type of Grapes
S Name Type of wine Regions

N
1 Barber Black Red wine grape Italy, California
2 Merlot (black) Red wine grape Italy, California, Brodeaux
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3 Gamoy (black) Red wine grape Beaujolais
4 Zinfondel (black) Red wine grape California
5 Syrah or shiraz (balck) Red wine grape Rhone France, Australia
6 Grenache (black) Red win grape California, Rhone, Spain, Australia
7 Nebbiolo Red wine grape Italy
8 Sangiovese (black) Red wine grapes Italy
9 Chenin blanc White wine California, Loire

grapes
10 Gewürztraminer White wine Alsace, Australia, New Zealand

grapes
11 Muller-Thurgau White wine Germany

grapes
12 Pinot blanc White wine Italy, Alsace, Champagne

grapes
13 Sauvignon Blanc White wine California, Bordeaux, Chile

grapes
14 Semillon White wine California, Bordeaux

grapes
15 Silvaner White wine Alsace, Germany

grapes
16 Trebbiano White wine Italy

grapes
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17 Muscat White wine Italy, Alsace, Bulgaria

grapes
18 Gutadel White wine Germany

grapes
19 Palomino White wine Spain

grapes
20 Fendent White wine Switzerland

grapes
Composition of Grapes and its Effect on the Wine

The grape is a unique fruit in the sense that it is perfect for the production of alcohol. It provides
the liquid, the sugar to be fermented, the color and the acids vital to the wines taste and balance,
and the tannins that give red wine their nuances of taste and their structure and longevity.
The grape itself may be broken into a number of elements:
 Skin: tannins and color

 Stalk: tannins
 Pips: bitter oils
 Pulp: sugar, fruit acids, water, pectin
The color in wine comes from the skin of the grape, being extracted during the fermentation
process. Red wine can only be made from red grapes, but white can be made from white or red
grapes. White grapes, fermented without their skins, derive their color from the grape itself and
lack the tannins of red wines. They are therefore light in color, lighter in flavor and body than
reds and have a shorter life span. White wines are also made from red grapes by separating the
juice from the skins before fermenting then they has the same general characteristics as other
white wines.
Beyond these broad differences, the individual character of each grape variety had its own. It is
these that determine the individuality and largely the quality of the wines made from them.
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Part Weight Content Effect on the wine
Skin 10% Pigment, tannins Color, preservative
Stalk 07% Tannins Preservative, Aroma, Flavor
Pulp 83% 02% mineral Salty taste
51% water Nourishment
30% sugar sweetness
Life Cycle of the Vine
Any well established vine seeks to reproduce through the production of grapes, along with a
commentary on man’s cultivation of the vine in order to encourage it to produce the best possible
grapes for wine making. The vines yearly routine generally starts and finishes with end and
approach of winter respectively although mans activity is almost year-round, with vineyard
maintenance continuing into winter.
How it Grow
i. WEEPING
Northern Hemisphere – February
Southern Hemisphere – August
Weeping is the vine’s first external sign of its awakening after a winter of relative dormancy.
When the soil temperature at a depth of 25 centimeters (10 inches reaches 10.2C (50F), the roots
being to collect water and the vine pushes its sap up to the vary limits of its branch system,
oozing the sap out of the winter-pruned cane-ends in manifestation called weeping.
ii. BUD-BREAK
Northern Hemisphere – March to April
Southern Hemisphere – September to October
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In the spring some 20 to 30 days after the vine starts weeping, the buds being to open. This is
known as the bud-break, and different varieties bud break at different times; for example
chardonnay-early bud breakers, Pinot Noir mid season and Merlot late bud-breakers. The same
grape varieties can bud-break at different times in some years due to climate changes.
iii. THE EMERGENCE OF SHOOT< FOLIAGE AND EMBRYO BUNCHES
Northern Hemisphere – April to May
Southern Hemisphere – October to November
Following bud-break, foliage develops and shoots are sent out. After the fourth or fifth leaf has
emerged, miniature green cluster are formed. These are the vines flowers, but they have yet to
bloom. When they do, each successful blossom develops into a grape, thus they are commonly
called embryo bunches and as such they are the first indication of the potential; size of a crop.
iv. FLOWERING OF THE VINE
Northern Hemisphere – May to June
Southern Hemisphere – November to December
The embryo bunches break into flower after the fifteen or sixteen leaf has emerged on the vine.
This is normally some eight weeks after the bud break and involves pollination and fertilization.
It is essential for the weather to be dry and frost free, but temperature is the most critical
requirement and daily average of at least 15ºC (59ºF) is the minimum needed to enable a vine to
flower and between 20 – 25ºC (68 – 77ºF) is considered ideal.
v. FRUIT SET
Northern Hemisphere – June to July
Southern Hemisphere – December to January
After the flowering, the embryo bunches rapidly evolve into true clusters. Each fertilized berry
expands into a recognizable grape the first visible sign of the actual fruit that will produce the
wine. This is called fruit set.
vi. RIPENING OF THE GRAPES
Northern Hemisphere – August
Southern Hemisphere – January
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As the grapes develops it’s freshly fruit very little chemical change takes place inside the berry
until its skin begins to turn a different color. The ripening process begins in earnest the skin
charges color. The grapes begin to change color, the sing of true ripening.
vii. GRAPE HARVEST
Northern Hemisphere – August to October
Southern Hemisphere – February to March
The harvest usually begins mid to late September (mid to late February in the southern
hemisphere) and may least for a month or more, the timing is earlier nearer to the equator and is
dependent on the weather, picking may therefore start as early as August (February) and finish
no late as November (April). White grapes ripen before black grapes and must in any case be
harvested relatively earlier to achieve a higher acidity balance.
Classification of Wine
The main calcifications of wines are classified on the basis

of the grape juice fermentation. They are:
 Still wine / Table wines

 Aromatized wines
 Fortified wines
Sparkling wines
a. Still wine/ Table wine
This is the largest category of wine. A wine that does not bubble or do not have carbon dioxide
gas (CO2) or they lack carbonation is called still wine. The alcoholic strength may be between
9% - 15% by volume. The wines are further classified as dry, medium and sweet wines on the
basis of sugar content and also classified in basis of color.
Classification on the basis of color:
 Red Wines (Vin de rouge):
Red wines are color wines. Red wines are made from the red grape varieties. These wines
get their color by allowing the skin of the grapes to get contact with the grape juice
during the wine making process. Red wines are available in different varieties and taste.
Generally it is served at cool room temperature of 65ºF to 75ºF (18ºC to 21ºC). The most
popular red wines are: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, and Zinfandel. [eg.
Chateau Latour, Medoc, Beaujolais, Burgundy Rhone, Chianti, Claret, etc.]
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 White Wine (Vin de blanc):
White wines are generally colorless and they are made from the white grape varieties.
Some of the white wines can be made from the red grapes. In such a case the skin of the
grapes is not allowed to have any contact with the grape juice. The grapes are often
crushed and the macerated in a vinimatic for 12 to 48 hours to extract aromatics stored in
the skins. The white wines generally range from dry to sweet wines. White wines are
always served lightly chilled, weather by the glass or by the bottle. The most popular
white wines are: Chardonnay, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Gewurztraminer. [eg .Chablis
(Burgundy), Chateau d’ Bordeaux, etc.]
 Rose Wines (Vin rose):
A Rose wine refers to Pink wine, which is lightly red or pink in color, made from the red
grapes. Rose wine are made in three ways – from black grapes fermented on the skins for
up to 48 hours; by mixing red and white wines together; or by pressing grapes so that
some color is extracted. Generally fermentation with the skins usually takes less or
shorter period for the process in the making or pink wine so as to determined the color. It
may be dry or semi-sweet. These are called blush wines in the USA when made wholly
from red grapes. The most popular rose wine variety is: Zinfandel [eg. Rose tavel, Rose
de Anjou Bardolo, Meteus (Portugal), etc]
b. Sparkling Wines (Vin Mousseaux)
These are the wines containing carbon dioxide in them, which are achieved by secondary
fermentation in the bottle. When grape juice is fermented, sugar is converted into alcohol and
carbonic gas. In the production of still wines the gas is allowed to escape, but should it be
prevented from so doing, by putting a lid on a vat or a cone in a bottle, it will remain dissolved in
the wine itself until that laid or cork is removed when the
gas is released it rushes out of the wine in the form of
bubbles.
The outstanding characteristic of a sparkling wine is that is

bubbles. Sparkling wines may be white, red or rose. They
generally contain 10% to 15% alcohol. Most famous white
is champagne, red is sparkling burgurdy and rose is
spumante. Eg. Pol Roger, Dom Perignon, Korbel etc. Here
are the basic principles upon which sparkling wines are
made, using one of the following methods.
 Methode Champenoise: This refers to a sparkling

wine that has undergone second fermentation in the
bottle in which it is sold.
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 Charmat method or method cuvee close or bulk method: Where the second
fermentation is done in bottles but the disgorgement is pressurized into tanks and then
filtered and transferred into bottles under pressure at (-3) ºC.
 Bottle fermented (transfer method): This refers to a wine produced thorough a second
fermentation in a bottle, but not the bottle in which it is sold. It is fermented in on bottle,
transferred to a vat where carbonation is carried on then transferred into bottles under the
pressure at minus (- 3)ºC (26ºF) into another bottle.
 Carbonation: This is the cheapest method of putting bubbles into wine and is simply
injecting with carbon dioxide in white wine.
 Method Rurale: This refers to the precursor of method champenoise; it involves no
second fermentation, the wine being bottled prior to the fermentation of the first alcoholic
fermentation.
The dryness or sweetness is indicated by the label:
Extra brut very very dry
Brut very dry
Extra-sec dry
Sec medium dry
Demi- sec medium sweet
Demi doux sweeter
Doux luscious
c. Fortified Wines
It is a wine which is blended with brandy or other spirit during, before or after fermentation
to create desire product. Any one of the following method may be used:
 Mutage: This is the addition of alcohol to fresh grape juice. This prevents
fermentation and produces fortified wines.
 Early Fortification: This is the addition of alcohol after fermentation has commenced.
 Late Fortification: this is the late fortification of alcohol after fermentation has
ceased.This wine may be sweet, semi sweet or dry fortified wines. Wines forfeited by
the addition of brandy are also called liqueur wines or vins de liqueur. They are
varying in strength from 15% to 22% GL. Sherry, Port, Madeira and Marsala are
some of the important types of fortified wines.
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 Sherry (from Spain) 15 – 18% - fino (dry), amontillado (medium), oloroso (sweet)
 Port (from Portugal) 18 – 22% - ruby, tawny, vintage character, late bottled vintage.
 Madeira (from Madeira; island of Portugal) 18% - Sercial (dry), Verdelho (medium),
Bual (sweet), Malmsey (very sweet)
 Marsala 18% - a dark sweet wine from Marsala in Sicily.
Another example is Muscat and Muscatel, made from the Muscat grape. Most are sweet
and raisin-like with a strong bouquet.
d. Aromatized Wine
These are flavored and forfeited wines. These wine are produced with the addition of herbs and
are sometimes fortified. The wine prepared by the blending with brandy or other spirits and
flavored with herbs, barks, flowers and other botanical extracts for distinct flavor is known as
aromatized wine. Their strength varies from 15% to 22% GL (Gay Lussac). Aromatic wines are
of red, white or rose types, ranging in taste from dry and sweet to bitter sweet. Vermouths and
aperitifs are the important examples of aromatized wines. It is traditionally served before meal as
an aperitif and also with mixed drinks.
 Vermouth : the four main type or vermouth are:

o Dry vermouth: often called French vermouth or simply French. It is made from
dry white wine that is flavored and fortified.
o Sweet vermouth/ bianco: made from dry white wine, flavored, forfeited and sweet
with sugar or mistelle.
o Rose vermouth: made in similar way to Bianco but it is less sweet and is colored
with caramel.
o Red vermouth: often called Italian vermouth, it is made from white wine and is
flavored, sweetened and colored with a generous addition of caramel.
[Eg. Cinzano red, Cinzano bianco, Martini bianco, Martini rose, Martini rosso,
Noilly Prat red – Sweet; Martini Cinzano, Chambery, Noilly Prat – Dry.]
 Chamberyzette: made in the Savoy Alps of France. It is flacvured with the juice of wild
strawberries.
 Punt-e-mes: from Carpano of Turin; this is heavily flavored with quinine, and has wild
contrasts of bitterness and sweetness.
 Dubonnet: Dubonnet is available in two varieties; blonde (white) and rouge (red) and it
flavored with quinine and herbs.
 St Raphael: red or white, bitter-sweet drink from France flavored with herbs and quinine.
 Lillet: popular French aperitif made from white Bordeaux wine and flavored with herbs,
fruit peel and fortified with Armagnac brandy. poIt is aged in oak casks.
 Pineau de Charente: Although not strictly an aromatized or fortified wine, Pineau de
Charente has gained popularity as an alternative aperitif or digestif. It is available in
19
white, rose or red and is made with grape must form the Cognac region and fortified with
young Cognac to about 17% alcohol by volume.
Vinification
Vinification is the process of fermentation of sugar into alcohol. This process is necessary to the
making of all alcoholic beverages – not only to still, sparkling and fortified wines, but also to
spirits, liqueurs and beers (although some variations and further processes will be applied for
individual beverages.). Winemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with
selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although
most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other fruit or non-toxic (harmless)
plant material. Mead is a wine that is made with honey being the primary ingredient after water.
Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without
carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation).
The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology. A person who makes wine is
traditionally called a winemaker or vintner.
Wine Making Process
Wine making has been around for thousands of years. In its basic form, wine making is a natural
process that requires very little human intervention. Mother Nature provides everything that is
needed to make wine; it is up to humans to embellish, improve, or totally obliterate what nature
has provided, to which anyone with extensive wine tasting experience can attest.
There are five basic components or steps to making wine: harvesting, crushing and pressing,
fermentation, clarification, and aging and bottling. Undoubtedly, one can find endless deviations
and variations along the way. In fact, it is the variants and little deviations at any point in the
process that make life interesting. They also make each wine unique and ultimately contribute to
the greatness or ignominy of any particular wine. The steps for making white wine and red wine
are essentially the same, with one exception. The making of fortified or sparkling wines is also
another matter; both require additional human intervention to succeed and at this time, will not
be part of this discussion.
i. The Harvest
Harvesting or picking is certainly the first step in the actual wine making process. Without fruit
there would be no wine, and no fruit other than grapes can produce annually a reliable amount of
sugar to yield sufficient alcohol to preserve the resulting beverage, nor have other fruits the
requisite acids, esters and tannins to make natural, stable wine on a consistent basis. For this
reason and a host more, most winemakers acknowledge that wine is made in the vineyard, at
20
least figuratively. In order to make fine wine, grapes must be harvested at the precise time,
preferably when physiologically ripe. A combination of science and old-fashioned tasting usually
go into determining when to harvest, with consultants, winemakers, vineyard managers, and
proprietors all have their say. Harvesting can be done mechanically or by hand. However, many
estates prefer to hand harvest, as mechanical harvesters can often be too tough on the grapes and
the vineyard. Once the grapes arrive at the winery, reputable winemakers will sort the grape
bunches, culling out rotten or under ripe fruit before crushing.
ii. Crushing and Pressing
Crushing the whole clusters (bunch) of fresh ripe grapes is traditionally the next step in the wine
making process. Today, mechanical crushers perform the time-honored tradition of stomping or
trod-ding the grapes into what is commonly referred to as must. For thousands of years, it was
men and women who performed the harvest dance in barrels and presses that began grape juice's
magical transformation from concentrated sunlight and water held together in clusters of fruit to
the most healthful and mystical of all beverages - wine. As with anything in life, change involves
something lost and something gained. By using mechanical presses, much of the romance and
ritual has departed this stage of wine making, but one need not lament too long due to the
immense (huge) sanitary gain that mechanical pressing brings to wine making. Mechanical
pressing has also improved the quality and longevity of wine, while reducing the winemaker's
need for preservatives. Having said all this, it is important to note that not all wine begins life in
a crusher. Sometimes, winemakers choose to allow fermentation to begin inside uncrushed whole
grape clusters (bunch), allowing the natural weight of the grapes and the onset of fermentation to
burst the skins of the grapes before pressing the uncrushed clusters.
Now crushing and pressing process is carried out more conveniently by mechanical crushers to
extract the juice called “must”. Up until crushing and pressing the steps for making white wine
and red wine are essentially the same While crushing the grapes, if red wine has to be made the
skins of red grapes are allowed to come in contact with the juice, which gets the color from the
skin, not from the juice. While red wine is left in contact with its skins to garner color, flavor,
and additional tannins during fermentation; which is next step. Essentially, white wine and rose
wine is allowed very little skin contact or separated immediately and tannins cannot leach into
the white wine.
iii. Fermentation
Fermentation is indeed the magic at play in the making of wine. If left to its own devices juice
(must) will begin fermenting naturally within 6-12 hours with the aid of wild yeasts in the air. In
very clean, well-established wineries and vineyards this natural fermentation is a welcome
phenomenon. However, for a variety of reasons, many winemakers prefer to intervene at this
stage by inoculating (give a vaccination to) the natural must. This means they will kill the wild
21
and sometimes unpredictable natural yeasts and then introduce a strain of yeast of personal
choosing in order to more readily predict the end result.
More commonly must (Juice) is pumped into another vat, where wine yeast called
“saccromyches Vinifera” is introduced to the must. Sulphuric dioxide (SO2) is added fairly in
the fermentation process to prevent oxidation caused by presence of bacteria in the year.
Regardless of the chosen path, once fermentation begins, it normally continues until all of the
sugar is converted to alcohol and a dry wine is produced. Fermentation can require anywhere
from ten days to a month or more. The resulting level of alcohol in a wine will vary from one
locale to the next, due to the total sugar content of the must. An alcohol level of 10% in cool
climates versus a high of 15% in warmer areas is considered normal. Sweet wine is produced
when the fermentation process stops before all of the sugar has been converted into alcohol. This
is usually a conscious, intentional decision on the part of the winemaker.
Iv. Clarification
Once fermentation is completed, the clarification process begins. Winemakers have the option of
racking or siphoning (drain off) their wines from one tank or barrel to the next in the hope of
leaving the precipitates and solids called pomace in the bottom of the fermenting tank. Filtering
and fining may also be done at this stage. Filtration can be done with everything from a course
filter that catches only large solids to a sterile filter pad that strips wine of all life. Fining occurs
when substances are added to a wine to clarify them. Often, winemakers will add egg whites,
clay, or other compounds to wine that will help precipitate (quick) dead yeast cells and other
solids out of a wine. These substances adhere to the unwanted solids and force them to the
bottom of the tank. The wine must be separated from the dead yeast, which decompose and give
an odd flavor to the wine. The dead yeast settles at the bottom of the casks. The wine is carefully
pumped into another cask without disturbing the dead yeast leaving some wine at the bottom
called lees, which is sent for distilling. The clarified wine is then racked into another vessel,
where it is ready for bottling or further aging.
v. Blending
Many wines are the blend of different varieties of grapes. This is an art that requires considerable
experience, judgment and sensitivity. It is a legitimate, natural and honest way of improving of
wine. Blending is done of wine from different vineyard and different years. This process ensures
consistent quality.
vi. Aging and Bottling
The final stage of the wine making process involves the aging and bottling of wine. After
clarification, the winemaker has the choice of bottling a wine immediately, which is the case for
Beaujolais Nouveau, or he or she can give a wine additional aging as in the case of Grand Cru
22
Bordeaux and great Napa Valley Cabernet Sauvignon. Further aging can be done in bottle,
stainless steel or ceramic tanks, large wooden ovals, or small barrels, commonly called barriques.
The choices and techniques employed in this final stage of the process are nearly endless, as are
the end results. However, the common result in all cases is wine.
vii. Storing of Wines
Wines are required to be stored in dark, cool place free of vibrations. Mostly they are stored in
cellars which are mostly located in basements where temperature and humidity is controlled. The
cellars hold thousands of bottles in are reasonably cool apartment closet with rack of boxes for
storing a few dozen bottles. During storage, wine bottles are kept horizontal so that the wine is
constantly in touch with the cork, if left standing the cork eventually dries and sinks (drop). The
four main things to be consider when storing wines are:
 Temperature: Temperature (55ºF is ideal) should be constant in the cellar, both white
and red wine likes to be kept cool.
 Light: Direct sunlight and bright sunlight can damage wine as it ages in bottle, so darker
room is better.
 Vibration: Wine should be neither disturbed nor stirred; so heavy foot traffic should be
avoided. The ideal wine cellar should be spacious, airy and dry, away from bright light,
vibration free and kept at constant cold temperature.
 Keep the cork wet: Wine bottle should lay down to keep the wine contact with the cork.
Dry cork contract, allowing air to pass into the wine and wine to leak out. If air gets in, it
renders dullness and lifelessness to the wine. Bottles with corks should be stored on their
sides, angled slightly upwards. This will prevent the cork from drying out, while
permitting any sediment to collect at the base of the bottle. Plastic-stopper bottles can be
stored upright.
Reading the wine label
The label on a bottle of wine can give a lot of useful information about the wine. The language
used will normally be that of the ountry of origin. The information always includes:
 The country where the wine was made
 Alcoholic strength in percentage by volume (%vol)
 Content in liters, cl or ml.
 Name and address or trademark of supplier
It may also include:
 The year the grapes were harvested, called the vintage

 The region where the wine was made
 The quality category of the wine
23
 Details of bottler
The European Community has strict regulations that govern what is printed on the bottle label.
These regulations also apply to wine entering the EU.
Still wines of the standard size bottled after 1988 when EU regulations on content came into
force must contain 75cl, though bottles from previous years, containing 70cl for example, will
still be on sale for some years to come.
An example of the kind of information given on a label may be seen below.
Service of Wines
The service of wine is extremely important as a good wine can be easily spoiled by bad service.
The glasses in which wine is served should always be clean, dry and sparkling.
The following factors need to be kept in mind while serving wines:
i. Temperature
 Still, white table wines: An ideal temperature varying between 10 and 12ºC should
be maintained. Sweet whites are served at a lower temperature as compared to fruity
whites.
 Sparkling wines: Thesemust be well chilled between 6 and 8ºC Champagne is
served more chilled than any other sparkling wines.
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 Red wines: In case of red wines, a room temperature of 14 to 18ºC is ideal. Light
reds are served at lower temperatures in comparison to fuller reds.
ii. Presentation
Standing to right of the host, a sommelier or wine waiter should present the bottle to the host,
label toward him so that it can be easily read. Only after the host’s approval, drawing the cork in
the approved manner and carefully wiping the lip of the bottle pour a little wine for the host to
taste.
iii. Pouring
If the host approves, the wine waiter will continue to pour wine to the guests [elder lady first]
before returning to fill the host’s glass.
iv. Service
The wine bottle should be returned to the bucket (if chilled) or the sideboard and an eye should
keep on the table for refills.
The basic method to be adopted by waiter for wine service in a restaurant is follows:
 Present the wine list to the guest (only one list is presented to the host)
 Take the order and ask when they would like to drink it (i.e. straightway or with the main
course, etc). Place glasses on the table, if necessary.
 Present the wine with cork still in place, holding sloped on hand (the hand covered with a
white napkin) with label towards the guest. This ensures right wine and year.
 Remove the wine to the sideboard; if red wine is ordered, open as long as possible before
service to allow the wine to breathe, if it is white, open directly before service.
 Remove the tin foil or plastic covering from the top of the bottle carefully and remove
cork without disturbing the bottle. Wipe the inside of the neck with a clean cloth.
 Attract the host’s attention and pour a small amount into his glass for tasting. The reason
for the host tasting the wine first is: in case the wine is badly corked and if there are any
cork particles in the wine bottle, they will go in the host’s glass and not in those of his
guests. If the host indicates approval, pour the wine around the person on his right. [ladies
first]
 All wine presentation is done from the right of the guest.
 Avoid wine to drip from the neck of the bottle when pouring and moving the bottle from
the glass, use a napkin to wipe the lip of the bottle. Do not cover the bottle with napkin
and NEVER cover the label if the bottle with and or napkin.
25
 Fill red wine two-third of the glass, white wine three-quarters.

 After serving the first round, remove the bottle to the sideboard or bucket (unless
requested to leave it on the table) and watch the table for further service.
Tasting of wine
The sommelier, as well as having an extensive knowledge of the wine list, should have a good
knowledge of the characteristics of the different wines offered. To ensure this, he/she must know
the correct approach to tasting wine.
Tasting may be said to be an analysis of wine by the senses. It is the appreciation by our senses
of the qualities of a wine.
 Sight: indicating the clarity and color of the wine.

 Smell: determines the bouquet of a wine by means of a vigorous swirling in the glass.
 Taste: allows detection of the aroma in the mouth.
The taste-character of wine is detected in different parts of the mouth but especially by the
tongue; sweetness at the tip, acidity on the upper edges, saltiness at the sides, bitterness at the
back. Dryness and sweetness are immediately obvious, as is acidity, which generally provides
liveliness and crispness. Astringency or tannin content, associated with some red wines, will give
a dry coating effect especially on the teeth and gums.
The combination of smell and taste gives what is often termed “flavor”. This might be for
example, the amount of tannin content in the wine, its degree of dryness or sweetness, whether it
is a light or heavy bodied wine, etc.
The appreciate the tasting of wine to full you must work in the correct environment. That is:
 No noise to distract the taster

 Good ventilation to eliminate odours
 Sufficient light, not artificial, but daylight if possible
 Temperature of the room at about 20°C (68°F).
The tasting of wines includes looking at, smelling and tasting the wine. The tool of the taster is
the glass, which must be correct shape. A wine glass with a stem and of sufficient capacity
should be chosen. The glass should be fairly wide but narrowing at the top. This allows the
“elements” making up the bouquet to become concentrated and thud better assessed. The wine
glass should never be filled to more than one third capacity. This allows the aster to swirl the
wine round the glass more easily. It goes without saying that the tasting glass should be
spotlessly clean.
Wine and Food Harmony
26
Food and wine consumed together should “merry”. The two should be imbalance neither one
should dominate other. Each can bring out different flavors in the other. The combination should
test better than either one alone thus multiplying the total enjoyment. The wrong combination
can diminish food and wine or both.
 Matching wine with food
When serving wine with food certain golden rules to be followed.
 Light wines should be serving before the rich or full bodied.

 Dry wine are served before the rich or full bodied.
 The white dry wines should be served before the red wine.
 Do not serve dry wine with sweet food or any foods that have sweet sauce.
 Red table wine with red meat items or entrée.
 White table wine with white meat or entrée.
 Rose wine with any food.
 Appetizer wine with hors d’ oeuvre and soup. Eg, dry sherry, dry champagne.
 Dessert wine with dessert or coffee.
 Sparkling wines are perfect for all use can be served throughout the meal.
 Serve sweet white and sparkling wine always chilled.
SN Food Type of Wine
1 Appetizer Dry sherry, dry white, dry champagne
2 Salad No wine
3 Sea Food White dry or medium dry wine eg. Lock chablies, moselle,
4 Fish White burgundy, white bardeaux, cate du – nume
5 Meat/ Game Red burgundy, red cate-du-rhone,red chiaintz
6 Lasaqne/spaghetti/pizza Rose wine, light bodied red wine
7 Sweets Sweet white wine, sweet sherry eg. Alorosso, amintilado port
27
8 Cheese Sherry, madern, light sodied red burgundy
9 Veal White, red or full bodied white wine
10 Dessert Sweet white table wine, sweet sparkling wine
11 Every dish champagne
The Wine Producing Regions of France
France for the quality and diver ties of its wine, an average of 76 million location of wine is
produced every year. However, it is regrettable but unavoidable fact that quality wine can only
be made in limited amounts. Thus, more than half of Frances enormous annual yield is Vin de
Table officially designated as vin de consummation courantel, avery ordinary wine without the
right to any appellation of origin or quality.
 Classification of France wine

i. Appellation d’origine controlee (AC or AOC): Quality wine from approved areas.
Grape varieties and proportions, pruning (reduce) and cultivation method, maximum
per hectare, vinefication and minimum alcohol content are specified. The best French
wines are almost all AOC. The label indicates where the wine comes from, and the
appellation law regulates the grape varieties used, viticulture methods, harvest and
yield restrictions, minimum alcohol content, wine making techniques and the quality
of the product approved by an official tasting panel.
ii. Vin delimite qualite superieure (VDQS): A quality wine just below appellation
controlled standard. Area of production, grape varieties, minimum alcohol content,
cultivation and vinification methods are specified. These wines are subject to controls
similar to those wine AOC statuses, but the yields may be higher, the wine can be
lower in strength, and these are excellent second quality wines of France produced
from specified vineyard and districts.
iii. Vin de pays: The lowest official category recognized. Wine of medium quality and
price, made from certain grapes grown within a defined area. The area must be
printed on the label. Minimum alcohol content is specified. Vin de pays describes
what are often known “French Country wines”. These wines have a specified origin
on the label, a wide range of grape varities can be used and high yields are allowed
with the result that the quality of the wine varities greatly.
28
iv. Vin de table: This is ordinary table wine in the cheapest price range. It is not
recognized under quality control standard. These wine are also known as vins
ordinaries or vins de consummation courante. The label must not specify the wines
origin, quality strength may vary. This is the largest category in terms of volume
produced and nearly all in consumed in France.
Wines of France
Regions Name of Wines
Bordeaux Chateau Labatut-Bouchard, Chateau Aeyrebon, chateau Reynon
Medoc Chateau Beaumont, Chateau Becade, Chateau Verdignan
St.Estephe Chateau Montrose, Chateau Haut-Marbuzet, Chateau Meyngy,

Chateau Beau-sit
Pauillac Chateau Batailley, Chateau Lfite-Rothschild, Chateau Lynch-

Bages, La Rose Pavillac
St.Juillen Chateau Gruaud-la Rose,Chateau lagrange,Chateau Langoa-

Barton,Chateau Beychevelle
Maragaux Chateau Giscours, Chateau Dauzc, Chateau Kirwan, Chateau

Lascombes.
Graves Chateau Bouscavt, Chaeatau Carbonnieux, Domaine De Chevalier,

Cheatau Couhins
Cerons Chateau De Calvimont
Sauternes Chateau Rahoul, Chateau Flichot, Chateau Guiraud, Chateau La

Tour Balanhe
Barsac Chateau Caillou, Chateau Coutet, Chateau Climens, Chateau Liot
29
St-Emillion Chateau Ausone, Chateau Cheval Blanc,Chateau Canon, Chateau

Belair
Pomerol Chateau la Conseillante, Chateau La Cabanne, Chateau Moulinet,

Chateau Rouget
Bourg Chateau Begot, Chateau Brulescaille, Chateau Gurrey, Chateau

Haut-Rouget
Blaye Chateau Carelle, Chateau l’ Escabre, Chateau Marinier, Chateau

Segonzac
Entre-Deux-Mers Chateau Canet, Chateau Grano Monteil, Chateau Bel Air, Chateau
Dintrans
Burgundy Chateau Corton Andre, Beaune Clos Du Rol, Georges Doboeuf,

Julienas
Chablis Awoux Chablis, Chablis Grand cru, Chablish Premier Cru, Chablish
Montmains
Cote de’ Nuits Bourgogne Havtes-Cotes de’ Nuits, Cotes de Nuits- Villages
Havtes-Cotes De Nuits Clos Vougeot, Echezeaux
Cote de Beaune Aloxe-Corton, Batard-Montrachet
Havtes-Cotes De Beaune Carton-Charlemagne, Meursault
Region de Mercurey Givry, Mercurey, Montagny, Rully
Maconnais Aujoux Macon-Villages, Macon Chardonnary
Beaujulais Beaujolaos, Beautolais-Regnie, Chenas, Brouilly
Wine Producing Countries
30
Country Region
France Bordeaux, Medoc, St. Estephe, Pauillac, St. Julien, Margaux, Graves, Cerons,
Sauternes. St.-Emilion, Pomerol, Bourge and Blaye, Entre-Deux-Mers,
Burgundy,Chablis, Cote de Nuits, Hautes-Cotes deNuits, Cote de Beaune,
Hautes-Cotes de Beaune, Mercury, Maconnais, Beaujolais, Champagne,
Alsace, Loire Valley, Jura and Savoie, Southwest France, Languedoc-
Roussillon, Provence and Corsila.
Germany Ahr, Mittelrhein, Mosel, Saar, Ruwer, Nahe Reheingau, Rheinhessen,

Rheinpfalz, Messische Bergstrasse, Frankgn, Wurtumberg, Baden
Italy Northwest Italy: piedmont (piemonte), Lombardia, Liguria
North East Italy: Trentino-Acto Asige, Vineto, Friuri- Venezia Giulia
Centeral Italy West: Tuscany (Toscana), Umbria, Latin (Lazio)
Central Italy East: Emilia – Romagna, Abruzzi (Abruzzo)
Southern Italy and The Islands: Apucia (Puglai), Campania, Basililata,

Calabria, Birily (Sicilia) Sardinia (Sardegna)
Spain Rioja: Rioja Aita, Rioja Alavesa, Rioja Baja
Navara: Baja Montana, Ribera Alta, Ribera Baja, Tierra Eastella Validizarabe
Catalonia: Bajo Penedes, Medio Penedes, Penedes Superior Southern Spain.
Portugal Douro, Minho, Bairrada, Dao, Madeira
Switzerland Geneva, Valis, Vaud, Aargau, Basel, Bern, Fribourg, Graubunden, Saint-
Gallen, Thurgau, Wallis, Zurich, Ticino
Austria Burenland, Neusiedler see-Huelland, Sudburgenland, Wachau
Great Britain Adgestone, Aldermoor, Ascot, Astley, Avonwood, Bardingly
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[These are major vineyard of Great Britain]
Bulgaria Northern Region: Vidin, Mizia, Lovec
Eastern Region: Tolbuhin, Varna, Jujen Briag
Sub – Balkon Region: Kariovd, Sliven, Burgas
Southern Region: Strandja, Asenovgrad, Maritza
South western Region: Kjustendil, Blagoevgrad, Petril
Czechoslovaki Bohemia, Slovakia, Miravia

a
Hungary Eger, Lake Balton, Pecs, Sapron, Toray
Romania Transyluania, Moldavia, Banat, Mutenia, Dobrudja
Greece Macedonia, Samos
Turkey Thrace-Marmara, Ankara, Mediterranea Coast, Black sea Coast.
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Unit 8:CHAMPAGNE
Champagne is a sparkling wine produced from

grapes grown in the Champagne appellation of
France following rules that demand secondary
fermentation of the wine in the bottle to create
carbonation. Some use the term champagne as a
generic term for sparkling wine, but many
countries, including the United States, reserve the
term exclusively for sparkling wines that come
from Champagne and are produced under the rules
of the Champagne appellation. The primary grapes
used in the production of Champagne are Pinot
noir, Chardonnay and Pinot Meunier. Champagne
appellation law only allows grapes grown
according to appellation rules in specifically
designated plots within the appellation to be used
in the production of Champagne.
Dom Perignon first created Champagne. The

French district of Champagne has three centers –
Eperny, Reims and Ay. The district has been
delimited, which means that sparkling wines made
from the grapes of this district alone can be called
Champagne. Other sparkling wines produced in other districts of France called “Vins Mousseux”
and semi-sparkling wines are called Cremant or Petillant. Champagne is made from a blend of
black and white grapes in the ration of 3:1. The varieties of black grapes used in making
Champagne are Piont Noir and Piont Meunier and the white varity is Chardonnay. White wine
from white grapes is called Blanc and white wine from black grapes, Blanc de Noir. The wine
must undergo a series of steps before it can be called Champagne.
Champagne first gained world renown because of its association with the anointment of French
kings. Royalty from throughout Europe spread the message of the unique sparkling wine from
Champagne and its association with luxury and power in the 17th, 18th and 19th century. The
leading manufacturers devoted considerable energy to creating a history and identity for their
wine, associating it and themselves with nobility and royalty. Through advertising and packaging
they sought to associate Champagne with high luxury, festivities, and rites of passage. Their
efforts coincided with the emergence of a middle class that was looking for ways to spend its
money on symbols of upward mobility.
33
Origin of Champagne
The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in this area of northeast France with the region
being cultivated by at least the 5th century, possibly earlier. Wines from the Champagne region
were known before medieval times. Churches owned vineyards and monks produced wine for
use in the sacrament of Eucharist. French kings were traditionally anointed (bless somebody with
oil) in Reims and Champagne wine was served as part of coronation festivities. The Champenois
were envious of the reputation of the wines made by their Burgundian neighbours to the south
and sought to produce wines of equal acclaim. However, the northerly climate of the region gave
the Champenois a unique set of challenges in making red wine. At the far extremes of
sustainable viticulture, the grapes would struggle to ripen fully and often would have bracing
levels of acidity and low sugar levels. The wines would be lighter bodied and thinner than the
Burgundy wines they were seeking to outdo.
Contrary to legend and popular belief, Dom Pérignon did not invent sparkling wine. The oldest
recorded sparkling wine is Blanquette de Limoux, which was apparently invented by Benedictine
Monks in the Abbey of Saint Hilaire near Carcassonne in 1531. Over a century later, the English
scientist and physician Christopher Merret documented the addition of sugar to a finished wine
to create a second fermentation six years before Dom Perignon set foot in the Abbey of
Hautvillers and almost 40 years before it was claimed that the famed Benedictine (member of
Christian order of monks) monk invented Champagne. Merret presented the Royal Society with a
paper in which he detailed what is now called méthode champenoise in 1662.
Although Dom Perignon did not invent Champagne, he did develop many advances in
production of the drink, including holding the cork in place with a wire collar (muselet) to
withstand the fermentation pressure. In France, the first sparkling Champagne was created
accidentally; its pressure led it to be called "the devil's wine" (le vin du diable) as bottles
exploded or the cork jolted away. Even when it was deliberately produced as a sparkling wine,
Champagne was for a very long time made by the méthode rurale, where the wine was bottled
before the only fermentation had finished. Champagne did not utilize the méthode champenoise
until the 19th century, approximately 200 years after Christopher Merret documented the
process. The 19th century saw an explosive growth in Champagne production going from a
regional production of 300,000 bottles a year in 1800 to 20 million bottles in 1850.
In the 19th century Champagne was noticeably sweeter than the Champagne of today. The trend
towards drier Champagne began when Perrier-Jouët decided not to sweeten his 1846 vintage
prior to exporting it to London. The designation Brut Champagne, the modern Champagne, was
created for the British in 1876.
34
Types of Champagne
Most of the Champagne produced today is "Non-vintage", meaning that it is a blended product of
grapes from multiple vintages. Most of the base will be from a single year vintage with
producers blending anywhere from 10–15% (even as high as 40%) of wine from older vintages.
If the conditions of a particular vintage are favorable, some producers will make a "Vintage"
wine that must be composed of at least 85% of the grapes from vintage year. Under Champagne
wine regulations, houses that make both vintage and non-vintage wines are allowed to use no
more than 80% of the total vintage's harvest for the production of vintage Champagne. This
allows at least 20% of the harvest from each vintage to be reserved for use in non-vintage
Champagne. This ensures a consistent style that consumers can expect from non-vintage
Champagne that does not alter too radically depending on the quality of the vintage. In less than
ideal vintages, some producers will produce a wine from only that single vintage and still label it
as non-vintage rather than as "vintage" since the wine will be of lesser quality and the producers
have little desire to reserve the wine for future blending.
 Prestige cuvee
A cuvee de prestige is a proprietary blended wine (usually a Champagne) that is considered

to be the top of a producer's range. Famous examples include Louis Roederer'sCristal,
Laurent-Perrier's Grand Siècle, Moët & Chandon'sDom Pérignon, Duval-Leroy's Cuvée
Femme and Pol Roger'sCuvée Sir Winston Churchill. Perhaps the original prestige cuvée was
Moët & Chandon's Dom Pérignon, launched in 1936 with the 1921 vintage. Until then,
Champagne houses produced different cuvées of varying quality, but a top-of-the-range wine
produced to the highest standards (and priced accordingly) was a new idea. In fact, Louis
Roederer had been producing Cristal since 1876, but this was strictly for the private
consumption of the Russian tsar. Cristal was made publicly available with the 1945 vintage.
Then came Taittinger's Comtes de Champagne (first vintage 1952), and Laurent-Perrier's
Grand Siècle 'La Cuvée' in 1960, a blend of three vintages (1952, 1953, and 1955) and
Perrier Jouet's 'La Belle Epoque'. In the last three decades of the 20th century, most
Champagne houses followed these with their own prestige cuvées, often named after notable
people with a link to that producer and presented in non-standard bottle shapes (following
Dom Pérignon's lead with its 18th-century revival design).
 Blanc de noirs
A French term (literally "white of blacks") for a white wine produced entirely from black
grapes. Black, or red, grapes have a white flesh and grape juice obtained after minimal
possible contact with the skins produces white wine, the colour of which is offset by the
small amount of red skin pigments and turns into lighter shades of yellow, often described as
white-yellow, white-grey, or silvery. It is often encountered in Champagne, where a number
of houses have followed the lead of Bollinger's prestige cuvée Vieilles Vignes Françaises in
35
introducing a cuvée made from either Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier or a blend of the two (these
being the only two black grapes permitted within the Champagne AOC appellation).
Although Bollinger's wine is famed for its intense richness and full-bodied nature, this has
more to do with the way the grapes are planted and when they are harvested than any
intrinsic (natural) property of blanc de noirs Champagne, which is often little different from
cuvées including a proportion of Chardonnay.
 Blanc de blancs
A French term that means "white of whites", and is used to designate Champagnes made
exclusively from Chardonnay grapes. A famous example is Ruinart. The term is
occasionally used in other sparkling wine-producing regions, usually to denote
Chardonnay-only wines rather than any sparkling wine made from other white grape
varieties.
 Rosé Champagne
The rosé wines of Champagne (also known as Pink Champagne) are produced either by
leaving the clear juice of black grapes to macerate on its skins for a brief time (known as
the saigneé method) or, more commonly, by adding a small amount of still Pinot noir red
wine to the sparkling wine cuvee. Champagne is typically light in color even if it is
produced with red grapes, because the juice is extracted from the grapes using a gentle
process that minimizes the amount of time the juice spends in contact with the skins,
which is what gives red wine its colour. Rosé Champagne is one of the few wines that
allows the production of Rosé by the addition of a small amount of red wine while
blending. This ensures a predictable and reproducible colour, allowing a constant Rosé
colour from year-to-year.
Due to the comparatively high risk and cost of using the saigneé or 'skin contact only'
technique, there are very few producers who habitually do not add any additional red
wine. These include Laurent Perrier, Louis Roederer, and Guy Charbaut
 Non – Vintage
It is a blend of wines from different years and it may have some vintage Champagne in
blend. Non vintage champagne accounts for three – quarters of the region’s production. The
buck (jump) blend will be from the current harvest but between 10 and 20 percent reserved
wine from as two or as many as seven older vintages may be added. By law, a non vintage
champagne must be aged for a minimum of one year (from January 1 following the harvest),
but the best houses will give their wines at least three years in bottle. Non – vintage
champagne are not usually the finest champagnes, yet they are capable of being so, and in
36
years when either the character of the wine is not to an individual’s taste, or in poor harvest,
the non vintage is a better buy than the more expensive vintage.
 Vintage
The only reason vintage champagne is superior to non – vintage is that its relatively small
production allows a far stricter control over the quality of base wine selected, and because it
is sold when it is approximately twice as mature. No more than 80 percent of the harvest may
be sold as vintage champagne; this conservers at least 20 percent of the best years for future
blending of non-vintage wines.
A Champagne Label indicates its degree of Sweetness:
The amount of sugar (dosage) added after the second fermentation and aging varies and will
dictate the sweetness level of the Champagne.
 Brut Natural or Brut Zéro very ,very dry (0.5 – 1.5% sweetening)
 Extra Sec or Extra dry Fairly dry (1.5 – 3.0% Sweetening)
 Sec or Dry Medium Sweet (3.0 - 5.0% Sweetening)
 Demi Sec Quite Sweet (5.0 - 7% Sweetening)
 Doux very Sweet (7.0% or more sweetening)
Area of production
There are five major districts in Champagne producing distinctly different base of wine which,
when blended in various proportion, can result in many contrasting style.
The five Major Districts
i. Montagne de Remis – Piont Noir (Black grapes)

These vineyards, which generally face north and north east, are planted with a high
proption of Pinot Noir vines and produced well structured, deeply flavored wines.
ii. Cote des Blancs – Chardonnay (white grapes)
The names of this area are derived from its almost exclusive cultivation of white
chardonnay grapes. The wines produced from these grapes have become the most
sought after in all champagne. They contribute fines and delicacy yet mature to
unequalled intensity of flavor.
iii. Vallee de la Marne - Piont Noir and Pinot Meunier
Essentially easy - drinking fruits and forward wine produced from an extremely high
proportion of Pinot Meunier. This wine is cultivated in the frost-prone valley
vineyards because of its late bud-break and early ripening.
iv. Aube Vineyard – Pinot Noir
37
Honest, ripe, rich and fruity wines are produced in this southern part of Champagne
which is closer to Chablis. The wines are cleaner in style and better in quality.
v. Cote de Sezanne - Chardonnay
A rapidly developing area south of the Cote des Blanos which favor the chardonnay
grape. These wines are useful as blending fodder and deserve better recognition.
Grape Varieties for Champagne
 Pinot Noir: This noble variety imparts structure and power to the blend, as well as
aromas of red fruits.
 Pinot Meunier: This variety is supple and fruity. Its bouquet is intense; it developes
quickly over time and gives a certain roundness to a wine.
 Chardonnay: The bringer of finesse, it provides a wine with floral and sometimes
mineral aromas. It slow developments make it ideal for aging.
Manufacturing Process
The region of Champagne has a colder and shorter growing seasons. Champagne grapes have to
be picked late in the year, with less time available for fermentation. During fermentation yeast
are used to convert the sugars of the grape juice into alcohol and cold winter temperature stopped
the process. The monks developed a method of making champagne wine by using a second
fermentation process that took place in the bottle during the following spring. The second
fermentation created carbon-dioxide bubbles that are the sparkle of Champagne.
 Harvesting
Grapes are picked by hand after ripened and checked for discard or damage.
 Crushing/ Pressing
Each gapes variety (Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier and Chardonnay) are pressed either
horizontally or vertically to ensure quality and quantity of juice. The maximum yield
obtained is on pressing 100 liters per 150 kilos of grapes. The first pressing is known as
Vin de Cuvees. The second pressing is called Premiere Taille and the third pressing is
Deuxieme Taille. The wine got from the last two pressings is known Vins de suite and
this is sent to firms that make less fine champagne. Afterwards, the remaining pulp is
pressed further to extract the juice from which ordinary wine is made.
 Primary Fermentation
The white “must” are clarified and the liquid is transferred to vats for fermentation,
which takes places in vats until must sugar is converted to alcohol. The first fermentation
may take for several days to several weeks depend on the sugar content. The vats are
38
made of stone, cement and lined with glass where temperature is maintained at 18 to
20ºC and gas produced is allowed to escape. Wines of the same quality replace any loss
in wine due to evaporation. Around Christmas, cellar doors are opened as circulation of
cold air stop fermentation. The impurities settle at the bottom and racking separates the
deposits.
 Blending
After the first fermentation, blending of wines from different grapes and different village
are carried out to improve the quality of the mixture. This blending differentiates various
types of wines because each manufacture has a recipe producing the wine it is famous
for. Wines of different districts are blended to produce a standard called Assemblage.
Then these blended wines are again blended to bring out the standard wine called
Coupage.
 Bottling
The wine is bottled in specially designed bottles to withstand pressure which builds up
during the second fermentation. The first cork is put in the bottle and it is fastened with a
metal clip called Agrafe. The wine is bottled, sealed and placed in cool cellars for
storage.
 Secondary Fermentation
The second fermentation takes place in the bottles when wine acquires (gain) it’s
sparkling, which is known as Méthode Champenoise. Méthode Champenoise is the
traditional method by which Champagne is produced. Before the wine is bottled, sugar
content of the wine is checked. If found less, then calculated quantities of sugar are
added, which is known as Dosage de Tirage. This cane sugar is old wine which is known
as Liqueur de Tirage. Then it is filtered and calculates amount of yeast (usually
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, although each brand has its own secret recipe) culture is
added. According to the Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée a minimum of 1.5 years is
required to completely develop all the flavour. For years where the harvest is exceptional,
a millesimé is declared and some Champagne will be made from and labeled as the
products of a single vintage rather than a blend of multiple years' harvests. This means
that the Champagne will be very good and has to mature for at least 3 years. During this
time the Champagne bottle is sealed with a crown cap similar to that used on beer bottles.
The second Fermentation is known as Prise de Mousse, which means making the sparkle.
As the sugar in the “liqueur de triage” ferments, carbondioxide is created and trapped in
the wine. The regulations stipulate (specify) that the wine remains for at least nine
months in contact with its remains, determines the quality of champagne.
39
 Racking
The bottles are taken to underground cellars where temperature is manned at 50%ºF. The
bottles are kept on racks called Pupitre. Because secondary fermentation, carbondioxide
and sediments are formed. The bottle is kept in the pupitres in horizontal position and
time to time twisted and turned upside down. This process is known as Remuages. The
sediments settle at the base of the cork, which rest in the punts of the next bottle. When
required for selling, the sediments are disgorged (eject) along with the first cork and
Agrafe. This is done as follows:
 Skillfully allowing the pressure in the bottle to blow out the cork along with
the sediments.
 By freezing the neck of the bottle out due to pressure of the gas. The wine is
then checked for clarity against a powerful light.
The wine is sweetened according to requirement by addition of Liqueur d’ Expedition. This is a

mixture of cane sugar in old Champane of the same quality. The amount added depends on the
desired tase.
- Burt (Bone-dry): <2% less than 2% sugar content
- Sec (dry): 1.5% to 2.5% of sugar
- Demi sec (semi - dry): 2.5% to 4% of sugar
- Demi doux (semi-sweet): 4% to 6% of sugar
- Doux (sweet) >6% (more that 6% of sugar)
These are the types of Champagnes based on their taste from dry (less sugar content) to sweet
(more sugar content).
Finally the Bottles are corked with specially shaped Spanish or Portuguese corks that seldom
affect the flavor of wines. Each cork must be stamped with Champagne. This cork is bound with
a wire hood against the bottle to keep it in Place. The bottle is then dressed with a foil covering
the cork and the tables. The bottle is allowed to rest in a cellar for at least three months to marry
the wine with the do the cottage.
 Ageing of Champagne
The wine is considered green after packing and requires ageing for a longer period before
consumption. Champagne without vintage date is ready to be consumed as soon as it is
offered for sale. Vintage Champagne is at its best from 7 to 12 years after vintage.
It is not necessary to age the champagne as it is ready to drink as soon as it is sold although
many consumers do appreciate older vintage.
40
 Storage of champagne
Like other wines, champagne is stored in horizontal position so that the wine is in contact
with the cork. The ideal storage temperature is 10 – 13ºC, or 40 – 55ºF, away from bright
light and strong odors.
Champagne Brand names by size
 Standard bottles: 750 milliliters/ 75 cl.
 Half Bottle: 375 milliliters /37.5 cl.
 Magnums (1.5 liters): In general, magnums are thought to be higher quality, as there is
less oxygen in the bottle, and the volume to surface area favors the creation of
appropriately-sized bubbles.
 Jeroboam: Sizes larger than Jeroboam (3 L) are rare. Primat sized bottles (27 L) – and as
of 2002 Melchizedek sized bottles (30 L) – are exclusively offered by the
House Drappier. The same names are used for bottles containing wine and port; however
Jeroboam, Rehoboam and Methuselah refer to different bottle volumes.
 Rehoboam: 4500 milliliters
 Methuselah: Unique sizes have been made for special occasions and people, the most
notable example perhaps being the 20 fluid ounce / 60 cl. bottles (Imperial pint) made
especially for Sir Winston Churchill by Pol Roger.
 Salmanazar: 10000ml./ 1000 cl.
 Balthazar: 12000 ml/ 1200 cl.
 Nebuchadnezzar: 15000ml./ 1500
Bottling of Champagne (Brand names by size)
Name Size/ Quantity
ml. cl.
Normal bottle/ standard size 750 75
41
Half bottle 375 37.5
Magnum 1500 150
Jeroboam 3000 300
Rehoboam 4500 450
Methuselah 6000 600
Salmanazar 10000 1000
Balthazar 12000 1200
Nebuchadnezzar 15000 1500
42

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Removal of spare covers

Only the relatively small area of the world is “wine

 There must be enough sun to ripen the grape

2. Blending varieties together

4. Fermentation container (wood, steel)

5. Length of time of contact with grape skins

2. Topography (steepness of the slopes)

Factors affecting taste and quality of wine

 Districts: chardonnay makes the principle white wine of Burgundy (France), where it

3. Sauvignon blanc(So-vee-nyon Blah):

6. Cabernet sauvignon(Ka-ber-nay So-vee-nyon): Widely accepted as one of the world’s best

7. Pinot noir(Pee-no Nwar):

SN Name Types of wine Regions

1 Cabernet Sauvignon Red wine grape Brodeaux, California, Australia

2 Pinot Noir Red wine grape Burgundy, Champagne, Australia

3 Chardonnay White wine grape Burgundy, Chablis, California, Australia,

4 Riesling White wine grape Germany, Alsace of France, california

Other type of Grapes

S Name Type of wine Regions

1 Barber Black Red wine grape Italy, California

2 Merlot (black) Red wine grape Italy, California, Brodeaux

3 Gamoy (black) Red wine grape Beaujolais

4 Zinfondel (black) Red wine grape California

5 Syrah or shiraz (balck) Red wine grape Rhone France, Australia

6 Grenache (black) Red win grape California, Rhone, Spain, Australia

7 Nebbiolo Red wine grape Italy

8 Sangiovese (black) Red wine grapes Italy

9 Chenin blanc White wine California, Loire

10 Gewürztraminer White wine Alsace, Australia, New Zealand

11 Muller-Thurgau White wine Germany

12 Pinot blanc White wine Italy, Alsace, Champagne

13 Sauvignon Blanc White wine California, Bordeaux, Chile

14 Semillon White wine California, Bordeaux

15 Silvaner White wine Alsace, Germany

16 Trebbiano White wine Italy

17 Muscat White wine Italy, Alsace, Bulgaria

18 Gutadel White wine Germany

19 Palomino White wine Spain

20 Fendent White wine Switzerland

Composition of Grapes and its Effect on the Wine

The grape itself may be broken into a number of elements:

 Skin: tannins and color

Part Weight Content Effect on the wine

Skin 10% Pigment, tannins Color, preservative

Stalk 07% Tannins Preservative, Aroma, Flavor

Pulp 83% 02% mineral Salty taste

51% water Nourishment

30% sugar sweetness

Life Cycle of the Vine

Northern Hemisphere – February

Southern Hemisphere – August

Northern Hemisphere – March to April

Southern Hemisphere – September to October

iii. THE EMERGENCE OF SHOOT< FOLIAGE AND EMBRYO BUNCHES

Northern Hemisphere – April to May

Southern Hemisphere – October to November

iv. FLOWERING OF THE VINE

Northern Hemisphere – May to June

Southern Hemisphere – November to December

Northern Hemisphere – June to July

Southern Hemisphere – December to January

vi. RIPENING OF THE GRAPES