13. Special structures.

• Masts, towers and chimneys: peculiarity of design, guyed masts, troubles of

masts, towers, chimneys.
• Silos and tanks: loading, steel structure of walls and supports.
• Technological structures: transport bridges, steel structures for nuclear power
stations, large-scale excavators.
.

Masts
Details are given in Eurocode:
EN 1993-3 Design of Steel Structures : Towers, masts and chimneys.
Within a design the following problems needs to be considered:

a) Dynamic effects of wind

- in the wind direction,
- perpendicularly to wind direction.
Leads to self-excited vibration → vortex shedding, see lecture 8: Tall buildings.

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In result a fatigue risk of the structure and of guy cables (especially of

cable sockets) may be expected.
Measures:
- splitters, helical strakes, spoiler plates:

- dampers of oscillations (on the structure, even on cables),

- investigation in wind tunnel.

b) Ice accretion - increases both mass and dimension (for wind loading).

c) Stability analysis - global stability and local stability.

E.g. in case of tubes → shells.

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Guyed masts
• carry aerials of TV, radio etc.,
• or may be themselves emitters (then isolation - separation from ground is necessary).

According to structure:

The highest mast in the CR

Liblice 2×355 m

120° 90°

solid structure truss structure variable section

(tubes) KVLY-TV (Fargo), 629 m
(Č. Brod 2x 355 m)

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Masts for electric lines, lighting towers etc.

Both solid or truss structures, usually repeated (line) production.

Mast’s problems:

• corrosion: - hence zinc dipping, hot-flame spraying (Zn + Al);

- cables: locked sections, multiply corrosion protection,

• cable sockets: - suffer from corrosion and fatigue (because subject to

alternating moments due to oscillation bending),
- anchored (stayed) required at more levels for possible
replacement,

• assembly: - climbing cranes, preference given to welding

(bolted connections cause corrosion),

• vibrations: - reduced by:

dampers,
splitters, helical strakes, spoiler plates,
suitable shape.

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 The highest steel masts in the world (2013):

Collapse caused by an error

[1]. Warsaw (Gabin) 1. KVLY-TV mast (North Dakota)
in exchanging the guy-wires.
(collapsed 1991) The mast first bent and then guyed mast, 629 m (1963)
646 m (1974) steel tube core + steel truss
snapped at roughly half its height.

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Towers
The highest structures are from reinforced (or prestressed) concrete.
(Toronto 553 m, Moscow 540 m ...)
In steel towers are difficulties with vibrations and position stability (they are
lightweight).
Examples in the CR:
TV tower Žižkov Petřín observation tower
(1989) (1891, reconstructed 2002)
• Total height 216 m.
• 3 composite steel and • height 60 m
concrete shafts (tubes), • wrought iron
forming space frame: • replica of Eiffel tower
steel t = 12÷20 mm
concrete t = 300 mm
• laminate topping between
196 ÷ 216 m

2 × ∅ 4,8 m

∅6,4 m
(lifts)

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 The highest steel towers in the world (2013):
(both steel structures with reinforced concrete core)

1. Tokyo Skytree, 634 m, 2012 2. Canton Tower (China), 600 m, 2010

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Other interesting steel towers:

1. Tashkent, Uzbekistan 2. Alma-Ata, Kazachstan Sydney

375 m (1985) 370 m (1983) 305 m (1981)

water tank

truss shaft resists to 10º of Richter scale structure of 56 I 250

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Sydney, 305 m (1981)

water tank

structure of 56 I 250

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Chimneys
Structures are similar to masts:
• self-supporting,
• anchored (guy-stayed),
• reinforced by a truss (e.g. chimney tube supported by truss structure).
Problems:
• dynamic effects (vibrations, fatigue),
• stability (both global and local in shells),
• connection of smoke uptakes (cross-section weakening).
The highest chimney in the CR (concrete):
The highest chimney in the world (2013), concrete: Power station Chvaletice
Power station in Ekibastuz, Kazachstan 305 m, 1977
420 m, 1987

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Silos and tanks
Details are given in Eurocode:
EN 1993-4 Design of Steel Structures : Silos, tanks and pipelines.

bunkers
Silos - for storing granular solids
silos

low-pressure (< 2 kPa)

Tanks - for storing liquid products
high-pressure (part. spherical)

of steady volume
Gasholders - for storing gas
of variable volume
dry gasholder water gasholder
(piston ceiling) (telescopic)

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Helical water gasholder

(without supporting stanchions)

discharged filled

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Water gasholders with supporting stanchions

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Silos
Serve for storing granular solids. They are divided into:
Bunkers Silos

plan area is A
h > 1,5 A
h < 1,5 A
>ϕ
φ (angle of internal friction)

Actions on silos (EN 1991-4) γ unit weight ⇒ Fk

pv ph pw φ angle of internal friction
μ internal friction factor
z pw γF loading factor
exponential decrement: see Eurocode
ph pv
Another: wind, snow, discharge loadings,
local loading, temperature, settling of
γZ γ Zω γ Zω μ
supports ...
⎛ φ⎞
Coefficient of active earth pressure: ω = tg2 ⎜ 45 − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Analysis and design of silos (EN 1993-4-1)
3 consequence classes: Class 1, 2, 3
Class 1: Simple structures, up to capacity 100 t, simplified actions.
- membrane theory may be used, with simple formulas for boundary disturbance
and asymmetric loading.
Checks for:
- global stability and static equilibrium,
- strength of the structure and joints,
- stability (global and local – formulas given in Eurocode),
- cyclic plasticity,
- fatigue, for Class 1 may be ignored
- SLS (deflections and vibrations ).
Design allowance for corrosion and abrasion min. 2 mm is recommended!

Cylindrical silos (shell):

x nθ
nθ • wall of unstiffened cylinder:
t cylinder r nθ dϕ
ph from equilibrium (membrane theory)
r dϕ

ph
dϕ ph r dϕ dx = nθdϕ dx
dϕ nθ
ring nθ
hopper ⇒ Membrane circumferential tension force in cylinder wall:
ph r
nθ,Ed = phr ≤ t fyd i.e. t=
D = 2r fyd
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Meridian force (vertical, from weight and friction): nx,Ed

Strength check (Ilyushin yield criterion): nx,2 Ed − nx,Ed nθ,Ed + nθ,2 Ed ≤ t f yd

• wall of conical hopper:

From equilibrium of vertical forces in ring the meridian force:
pressure from V1 + V2
cylinder content V1 ∑V Ed
nφ ,Εd =
nφ nφ 2π r sin β

V2 Approximate check of hopper wall:

β 1,2 n φ, Ed ≤ 0 ,90 t f ud (for γM2 =1,25)

recommended for asymmetrical loading

• Transition junction
loading of the ring:
stiffening ring
(N, M)

nφ

supports β

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Approximate circumferential compressive force in the junction (effective area of the ring Aet is
given in Eurocode):
NEd
NEd = nφ,Ed r sin β and ≤ fyd
Aet
Except strength checks the stability (buckling) of the shell need to be
assessed:
• in vertical direction,
• in horizontal direction (due to wind and possible depression at discharge).
Check formulas (critical values of internal forces, stresses) are given in Eurocode.
Complex checks require FE analysis for all kinds of loadings.
Planar-sided silos
t
stiffeners
• unstiffened web plates
det. (consider own cross-section
+ effective width of plate 30 t) • webs with stiffeners

• For Class 1 silos: 1st order analysis is possible.

• Resulting internal forces need to be checked for strength
and stability.

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Analysis of supports

• frame support columns (needed for free passage):

can be considered with infinite (∞) rigidity.

Lcr = 2h
h

• truss structure:

1st order analysis may be used, no sway.

Lcr = h

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Tanks
According to shape: cylindrical vertical, cylindrical horizontal, spherical, rectangular, other.
According to internal pressure: low-pressure (up to 20 mbar = 2kPa), high-pressure.

Cylindrical tanks
Roof structure with
circumferential (primary) ring
or

floating sealed
piston (for oil), primary ring,
possibly with roof

Horizontally placed cylinders Spherical tank

saddles

rings

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Analysis and design of tanks (EN 1993-4-2)

3 consequence Classes: Class 1, 2, 3
Class 1: Simple structures for agriculture or tanks containing water.
- membrane theory may be used, with simple formulas for boundary disturbance
and asymmetric loading.
Checks for (roof, webs, for bottom use FEM):
- global stability and static equilibrium,
- strength of the structure and joints,
- stability (global and local – formulas given in Eurocode),
- cyclic plasticity,
- fatigue,
- SLS (deflections and vibrations ).

Simplified relations
Required thickness of cylindrical tank web:
pd r
t= where design loading by liquid and overpressure:
f yd
H design overpressure
t pd = γ F γ H + q d
above liquid level
D = 2r
unit weight
pr
For spherical tanks: t= (one half in comparison to the above)
2 fyd
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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Technological structures
Transport bridges, steel structures for nuclear power stations, large-scale excavators, etc.

Transport bridges
Serve for transport of loose, liquid or gaseous materials.

According to the load-bearing structure are:

• of open cross section (rolled, fabricated or truss girders);
• of closed cross sections (trusses, shell structures);
• pipelines (own pipes or with supporting structure).

open closed

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close shells pipelines for dusty material

pipeline bridge - general view pipeline - detail

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Structures for nuclear power stations

primary circuit secondary circuit

circuit of
cooling
water
RIVER
ŘEKA

1. Nuclear reactor 9. Condensing pump

2. Main circulatory pump 10. Regeneration
3. Steam generator 11. Feeding pump
4. Compensator 12. Electric generator
5. Separator (reheater) 13. Transformer
6. High-pressure part of turbine 14. Cooling tower
7. Low-pressure part of turbine 15. Pumping chamber
8. Condenser 16. Reactor containment

Uniqueness of the plant consists in reactor containment (contains the primary

circuit): ⇒ requirements concerning strength and tightness.

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Reactor containments

According to structure:
• single-layer with hermetic seal, (e.g. Temelín, CR)
• duplex: (e.g. Krško, Slovenia)
- external (reinforced concrete, dimension for external loading),
- internal (usually steel, dimension for wrecking overpressure).

According to shape:
• cylindrical (simpler production; lower pressure p):
pr
web thickness according to t=
membrane theory: f yd
r ... radius of central line

spherical (for great pressure, under the same pressure p there is a lower
web thickness t):
pr
membrane theory: t=
2 f yd

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Temelín nuclear power station – cross section (2003, output 2000 MW)
Two production blocks with water-pressure reactors VVER 1000, type V 320

100
Reactor containment
(internal height 42 m, internal ∅ 45 m)
66

42

0
0

66 127

Reactor containment: prestressed concrete (cylinder t = 1200 mm, cap t = 1100 mm),
hermetic seal from stainless steel t = 8
Designed for: - overpressure 0,49 MPa within 150º C,
- explosion, fall of an airplane, windstorm, extreme temperatures etc.

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Structure of large-scale excavators

During exploitation at opencast mines (e.g. north Bohemia brown-coal basin)

are used:
• excavators (for exploitation of capping/overburden),
• stackers (for depositing of extracted overburden).

In accordance with way of an excavator movement:

• rail-borned (old fashion style),
• track/caterpillar (nowadays globally predominate),
• walking (in the CR, suitable for low-bearing ground, with better manoeuvring but
complex hydraulics).

Uniqueness:
• giant dimension of structures (booms of bucket wheel excavators up to 130 m),
• combination of civil and mechanical engineering technology (accuracy, movable parts),
• dynamic loading, fatigue.

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Excavators
• wheel excavators (with telescopic or non-telescopic boom)
• bucket chain excavators
The main structural element of steel trusses is especially tube.
51 m 70 m
K 10000
57 m
the maximum in CR, 10000 m3/hour

track motion

track motion walking K 10000

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New type KK1300 (into operation in June 2011)

Output: 5500 m3/hour Diameter of wheel: 13 m

Number of buckets: 15 Volume of bucket: 1300 l
Speed of movement: 2.5÷10 m/s Total mass: 4977 t

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.

 Stackers
ZPD 13000
53 m
(the maximum in CR,
13000 m3/hour) 32 m

track motion

31 m 80 m 135 m
∅ 33 m

Other technological steel structures

E.g. for metallurgical and chemical industry.

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© Prof. Ing. Josef Macháček, DrSc.