Engr. Lowell T.

Baldoz
AERO BOARD EXAM 2013
Part I: Engine Classifications, Construction, and
Nomenclature

Part II: Engine Characteristics, Definition, and

Principles

Part III: Engine Analysis, Thermodynamic

Applications
 A reciprocating engine is a type of heat engine that
derives its name from the back-and-forth, or
reciprocating movement of its pistons. It is this
reciprocating motion that produces the mechanical
energy needed to accomplish work.
 Lightweight – powerplant weight must be kept as low
as possible to provide greater weight for useful load
and provide a margin of safety.
 Reliability – a powerplant is reliable when it can be
depended upon to do what it is intended for it to do by
the manufacturer.
 Durability – this is the measure the engine life, while
maintaining the desired reliability.
 Compactness – it is necessary to affect proper
streamlining and balance of the airplane, and in single
engine airplane, the shape and size of the engine
affects the visibility of the pilot.
 Flexibility – the ability to operate efficiently
regardless of the conditions.
 Weight per horsepower – the ratio of the weight of
the engine to the horsepower it can produce. This is
the factor that engine manufacturers consider the
most. The engine must produce a large amount of
power but must also be light in construction.
 Specific power output – the amount of power
produced in a given amount of fuel.
 Fuel economy – it is a factor of the fuel
characteristics, fuel must be more resistant to
detonation, to allow an increase in engine
compression ratio.
 Balance – if the powerplant is free from vibration, it is
said to be balance.
 Reasonable cost – the first cost must be low enough to
meet the competition in the market and be accepted
by the airframe manufacturer.
 Economy of operation – it must have a reasonable
cost of operation, it must be such that it will make
profit for the operator.
 - Reciprocating engine is usually classified according to its cylinder arrangement
namely:

 Radial engine
- Single row
- Double row
- Multiple row or corncob
 In-Line engine
- In line upright
- In line inverted
 V-Type engine
- V type upright
- V type inverted
- Double V or Fan type
 Opposed or Flat type engine
 X type engine
 A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders
arranged radially about a central crankcase.
 single-row radial engine has an odd number of cylinders
attached radially to a crankcase. A typical configuration
consists of five to nine cylinders evenly spaced on the same
circular plane with all pistons connected to a single
crankshaft.
 multiple-row radial engines consisted of two single row
engines in line with each other connected to a single
crankshaft. This type of engine is sometimes referred to as
a double-row radial engine and typically has a total of 14
or 18 cylinders.
 Greatest drag of all types
 Most widely used engines ever built
Figure 1-2. Radial engines helped
revolutionize aviation with their high power
and dependability.
 One of the largest multiple-row radial engines was the Pratt and Whitney
R-4360, which consisted of 28 cylinders arranged in four staggered rows
of seven cylinders each. The R-4360 developed a maximum 3,400
horsepower and represented the most powerful production radial engine
ever used at that time.
An in-line engine generally has an even number of
cylinders that are aligned in a single row parallel with
the crankshaft. This engine can be either liq-uid-
cooled or air cooled and the pistons can be located
either upright above the crankshaft or inverted below
the crankshaft.
Figure 1-4. A popular version of the in-line engine
consisted of cylinders that were inverted. A typical in-line
engine con-sists of four to six cylinders and develops
anywhere from 90 to 200 horsepower.
 An in-line engine has a comparatively small frontal
area and, therefore, allows for better streamlining.
Least drag.
 Another advantage of the in-line engine is that, when
mounted with the cylinders inverted, the crankshaft is
higher off the ground. The higher crankshaft allowed
greater propeller ground clearance which, in turn,
permitted the use of shorter landing gear.
 have relatively low power-to-weight ratios.
 the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled in-line engine
receive relatively little cooling air, so in-line engines
were typically limited to only four or six cylinders.
 With these limitations, most in-line engine designs
were confined to low- and medium-horsepower
engines used in light aircraft.
 the cylinders of a V-type engine are arranged around
a single crankshaft in two in-line banks that are 45,
60, or 90 degrees apart.
 Since V-type engines had two rows of cylinders, they
were typically capable of producing more horsepower
than an in-line engine.
 The cylinders on a V-type engine could be above the
crankshaft or below it, in which case the engine is
referred to as an inverted V-type engine.
 Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders and were
either liquid-cooled or air cooled.
Figure 1-5. V-type engines provide an
excellent combina-tion of weight, power, and
small frontal area.
 opposed-type engines are the most popular
reciprocating engines used on light aircraft.
 A typical opposed engine can produce as little as 36
horsepower to as much as 400 horsepower.
 always have an even number of cylinders, and a
cylinder on one side of a crankcase "opposes" a
cylinder on the other side.
 While some opposed engines are liquid-cooled, the
majority are air cooled.
Figure 1-6. A horizontally opposed engine
combines a good power-to-weight ratio with
a relatively small frontal area. These engines
power most light aircraft in use today.
 Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight ratios
because they have a comparatively small, lightweight
crankcase.
 an opposed engine's compact cylinder arrangement
reduces the engine's frontal area and allows a streamlined
installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag.
 opposed engines typically vibrate less than other engines
because an opposed engine's power impulses tend to
cancel each other.
 Most efficient, dependable, and economical type available
for light aircraft.
Effects of Excessive Heat:
 Adversely affects the combustion of fuel and air
charge.
 Weakens and shortens life of engine parts
 Impairs lubrication
 Air Cooling – thin metal fins project from the outer
surface of the walls and heads of the engine cylinders
(cooling fins). Deflector baffles are also used which
are fastened around the cylinders to direct the flow of
air to obtain maximum cooling.
 Liquid Cooling – consists of liquid passages around
the cylinders and other hot spots of the engine. The
cooling liquid used is ethylene glycol or mixture of
ethylene glycol and water.
 Less weight than liquid cooled
 Less affected by weather conditions
 Radiator – is the component by which the liquid is
cooled
 Thermostatic element – govern the amount of cooling
applied to the liquid
 Coolant pump – circulates the cooling fluid
 Pipes and Hoses
 The crankcase is the foundation of a reciprocating
engine. It contains the engine's internal parts and
provides a mounting surface for the engine cylinders
and external accessories.
 The crankcase provides a tight enclosure for the
lubricating oil as well as a means of attaching a
complete engine to an airframe.
 most aircraft crankcases are made of cast aluminum
alloys.
 Opposed engine crankcase
 Radial engine crankcase
A typical horizontally opposed engine crankcase
consists of two halves of cast aluminum alloy that are
manufactured either with sand castings or by using
permanent molds
Figure 1-8. In addition to the transverse webs that support the main
bearings, a set of camshaft bosses are typically cast into a crankcase. These
bosses support the camshaft which is part of the valve operating
mechanism.
 radial engine crankcases are divided into distinct
sections.
 The number of sections can be as few as three or as
many as seven depending on the size and type of
engine.
 In general, a typical radial engine crankcase separates
into four main sections: the nose section, the power
section, the supercharger section, and the accessory
section.
Figure 1-9. The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are the
nose section, power section, supercharger section, and accessory section.
 The nose section is mounted at the front of a radial
engine crankcase and bolts directly to the power
section.
 The nose section usually houses and supports a
propeller governor drive shaft, the propeller shaft, a
cam ring, and a propeller reduction gear assembly if
required
 In addition, many nose sections have mounting points
for magnetos and other engine accessories.
 represents the section of the crankcase where the
reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted to the
rotary motion of the crank-shaft.
 supports crankshaft bearings, where cylinders are
mounted.
 located directly behind the power section and is
generally made of cast aluminum alloy or magnesium.
 As its name implies, this section houses the
supercharger and its related components.
 also called “fuel induction and distribution section”.
Provides housing for attachments of induction pipes,
manifold pressure lines.
 A typical accessory section houses gear trains
containing both spur- and bevel-type gears that drive
various engine components and accessories.
 Has mounting pads for fuel pump, oil pump,
tachometer generators etc.
 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Crankshaft
 The cylinder provides a combustion chamber where
the burning and expansion of gases takes place to
produce power.
 Considered as the powerhouse of the engine, where
the chemical energy of the fuel is converted to
mechanical energy.
 A cylinder houses the piston and connecting rod
assembly as well as the valves and spark plugs.
 a cylinder must be strong enough to withstand the
internal pressures developed during engine operation
yet be lightweight to minimize engine weight.
 Transmits power through pistons, connecting rods
and rotate the crankshaft.
 Dissipates substantial amount of heat produced by the
combustion of fuel.
 The two parts are cylinder head and the cylinder
barrel.
Figure 1-30. The cylinder assembly along with the piston assembly, connecting
rods, crankshaft, and crankcase constitute the power section of a reciprocating
engine.
 The most commonly used material is a high-strength
steel alloy such as chromium-molybdenum steel (SAE
4130 or 4140), or nickel chromium molybdenum
steel.
 The lower cylinders on radial engines and all the
cylinders on inverted engines typically employ
cylinders with extended cylinder skirts.
 The exterior of a cylinder barrel consists of several
thin cooling fins that are machined into the exterior
cylinder wall
 The cylinder head acts as a lid on the cylinder barrel to
provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.
 cylinder heads contain intake and exhaust valve ports,
spark plugs, valve actuating mechanisms, and also serve to
conduct heat away from the cylinder barrels.
 The inner shape of a cylinder head may be flat, semi-
spherical, or peaked, to resemble the shape of a house roof.
 the semi-spherical type has proved to be the most
satisfactory because it is stronger and provides for more
rapid and thorough scavenging of exhaust gases.
 The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical
plunger that moves up and down, back and forth
within a cylinder.
 Pistons perform two primary functions; first, they
draw fuel and air into a cylinder, compress the gases,
and purge burned exhaust gases from the cylinder;
second, they transmit the force produced by
combustion to the crankshaft.
 Usually made of aluminum alloy AMS 4140 for
forged pistons Alcoa 132 alloy for cast pistons.
 Piston speed is maximum during the first and fourth
quarters of crankshaft rotation.
 Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F and pressures
may be as high as 500 psi or up.
 Piston Head - The piston's top surface is called the piston
head and is directly exposed to the heat of combustion.
 Ring Grooves - cut into a piston's outside surface to hold
a set of piston rings. As many as six ring grooves may be
machined around a piston.
 Ring Land - The portion of the piston between the ring
grooves.
 Piston pin boss - is an enlarged area inside the piston that
provides additional bearing area for a piston pin which
passes through the piston pin boss to attach the piston to a
connecting rod.
 Piston skirt - To help align a piston in a cylinder, the
piston base is extended to form the piston skirt.
Figure 1-24. Most modern aircraft engines use flat-head pistons.
However, as an aviation technician, you should be familiar with all
piston head designs.
 All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to the
added mass at the piston boss, most pistons expand more
along the piston boss than perpendicular to the piston boss.
 This uneven expansion can cause a piston to take on an
oblong, or oval shape, at normal engine operating
temperatures, resulting in uneven piston and cylinder
wear.
 One way to compensate for this is with a cam ground
piston. A cam ground piston is machined with a slightly
oval shape. That is, the diameter of the piston parallel to
the piston boss is slightly less than the diameter per-
pendicular to the piston boss.
Figure 1-25. Several engines now use cam ground pistons to
compensate for the greater expansion parallel to the piston boss during
engine operation. The diameter of a cam ground piston measures
several thousandths of an inch larger perpendicular to the piston boss
than parallel to the piston boss.
Piston rings perform three functions in aircraft
reciprocating engines:
 They prevent leakage of gas pressure from the
combustion chamber,
 reduce oil seepage into the combustion chamber,
 transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.
Piston Ring Joints:
 Butt
 Step
 Angle

Figure 1-26. Of the three types of joints used in

piston ring gaps, the butt joint is the most common
in aircraft engines.
 Compression rings
 Oil rings
 Compression rings prevent gas from escaping past the
piston during engine operation and are placed in the
ring grooves immediately below the piston head.
 most aircraft engines typically use two or three
compression rings on each piston.
 The cross section of a compression ring can be rec-
tangular, wedge shaped, or tapered.
Figure 1-27. Compression rings are
Figure 1-28. Of the three different
installed in the upper ring grooves
ring cross sections, the tapered face
and help prevent the combustion
presents the narrowest bearing edge
gases from escaping by a piston. Oil
to the cylinder wall to help reduce
rings, on the other hand, are installed
friction and hasten ring seating.
near the middle and bottom of a
piston and con-trol the amount of oil
applied to the cylinder wall.
 Oil rings control the amount of oil that is applied to
the cylinder walls as well as prevent oil from entering
the combustion chamber.
 The two types of oil rings that are found on most
engines are oil control rings and oil scraper rings.
 Oil control rings are placed in the grooves
immediately below the compression rings.
 The primary purpose of oil control rings is to regulate
the thickness of the oil film on the cylinder wall.
 To allow an oil control ring to remove excess oil and
return it to the crankcase, small holes are drilled in
the piston ring grooves, or ring lands.
 usedto regulate the amount of oil that passes between
the piston skirt and the cylinder wall.
 sometimes called an oil wiper ring, usually has a
beveled face and is installed in a ring groove at the
bottom of the piston skirt.
Figure 1-29. An oil scraper ring installed with its beveled edge away from the
cylinder head forces oil upward along the cylinder wall when the piston moves
upward. However, if the beveled edge is facing the cylinder head, the ring
scrapes oil downward to the crankcase when the piston moves down.
A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod.
 Piston pins are sometimes called wrist pins
 Stationary - are held tightly in place by a setscrew
that prevents movement.
 Semi-floating - retained stationary in the connecting
rod by a set clamp that engages a slot in the pin.
Allows little movement.
 Full-floating - free to rotate in both the connecting
rod and the piston, and are used in most modern
aircraft engines.
 The connecting rod is the link which transmits the
force exerted on a piston to a crankshaft.
 Most connecting rods are made of a durable steel
alloy; however, aluminum can be used with low
horsepower engines.
 One end of a connecting rod connects to the
crankshaft and is called the crankpin end
 the other end connects to the piston and is called the
piston end.
 Plain Type
 Master and Articulated
 Fork and Blade
 Plain
connecting rods are used in opposed and in-line
engines.
 The master-and-articulated rod assembly is
commonly used in radial engines.
 With this type of assembly, one piston in each row of
cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a master
rod.
 The remaining pistons are connected to the master
rod by articulated rods.
 Therefore, in a nine cylinder engine there is one
master rod and eight articulating rods, while a double
row 18 cylinder engine has two master rods and 16
articulating rods.
Figure 1-20. Articulated rods are attached to the master rod by
knuckle pins, that are pressed into holes in the master rod flanges
during assembly. A knuckle pin lock plate is then installed to
retain the pins.
 Thefork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily in
V-type engines and consists of a fork connecting rod
and a blade connecting rod.
Figure 1-22. A fork-and-blade rod assembly used in a V-type engine
consists of a blade connecting rod whose crankpin end fits between the
prongs of the fork connecting rod.
 Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and out
of a cylinder by opening and closing at predetermined
times in the combustion process.
 Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and one
exhaust valve.
 The intake valve controls the amount of fuel/air
mixture that enters a cylinder through the intake port,
 while the exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to
exit the cylinder through the exhaust port.
 intake
valves operate at lower temperatures than
exhaust valves
Figure 1-37. Aircraft engine valves are classified according to their
head profile.
 Tohelp dissipate heat better, some exhaust valve stems
are hollowed out and then partially filled with
metallic sodium. When installed in an operating
engine, the sodium melts when the valve stem reaches
approximately 208 degrees Fahrenheit. The melted
sodium circulates naturally due to the up and down
motion of the valve and helps carry heat from the
valve head into the stem where it is dissipated through
the cylinder head.
Figure 1-39. Some valves are filled with metallic sodium to reduce their
operating temperatures. During operation, the sodium melts and
transfers heat to the valve stem where the heat is conducted away by
the cylinder head.
Valve spring retainers
 Valve Face - portion of the valve that creates a seal at the
intake and exhaust ports.
 Valve Seat - a circular ring of hardened metal that
provides a uniform sealing surface for the valve face.
 Valve Guide - is a cylindrical sleeve that provides support
to the valve stem and keeps the valve face aligned with the
valve seat.
 Valve Springs - are helical-coiled springs that are
installed in the cylinder head and provide the force that
holds the valve face firmly against the valve seat.
 Valve Spring Retainer – holds the valve springs in place
 open each valve at the correct time, hold it open for a
certain period, and then close the valve.
 Consists of Camshaft, valve lifter or tappet, push rod,
and rocker arm
Figure 1-41. The components in a typical valve operating
mechanism, include a camshaft or cam ring, a tappet or lifter, a push
rod, and a rocker arm.
 Camshaft – a device for actuating the valve lifting mechanism.
Typically used in opposed engines, camshaft consists of a round shaft
with a series of cams, or lobes, that transform the circular motion of
the crankshaft to the linear motion needed to actuate a valve.
 Cam ring - in place of a camshaft, a radial engine uses one or two
cam rings, depending on the number of cylinder rows. A circular
piece of steel with a series of raised cam lobes on its outer edge.
 Valve lifter or tappet – a mechanism to transmit the force of the cam
to the push rod
 Push Rod – a steel or aluminum alloy rod or tube situated between
the valve lifter and the rocker arm to transmit the motion of the valve
lifter.
 Rocker Arm – a pivoted arm mounted on the bearings of the cylinder
head to open and close the valves.
Figure 1-42. The raised lobe on a camshaft transforms the rotary motion of the
camshaft to linear motion.
Figure 1-43. In a typical opposed engine, the camshaft timing
gear has twice as many teeth as the gear on the crank-shaft. In
this configuration, the camshaft is driven at one-half the
crankshaft's rotational speed.
Figure 1-49. A radial
engine valve operating
mechanism performs the
same functions as the
mechanism used in an
opposed engine.
 Todetermine a given cam ring's rotation speed, you
must know the number of lobes on the cam ring, the
cam ring's direction of rotation relative to the
crankshaft, and the number of cylinders on the
engine.
 The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating
engine.
 Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating
motion of the pistons and connecting rods into rotary
motion to turn a propeller.
 A typical crankshaft has one or more cranks, or
throws, located at specified points along its length.
 Since crankshafts must withstand high stress, they are
generally forged from a strong alloy such as
chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal
 Crankpin
 Crank cheek or crank arm
 Counterweights and dampers
Figure 1-10. All crankshafts consist of a main bearing journal,
one or more crankpins, and several crank cheeks.
 Main Bearing Journal/Main Journal - represent the
centreline of a crankshaft and support the crankshaft as it
rotates in the main bearings. Center of rotation of the
crankshaft.
 Crankpin - or connecting-rod bearing journals or throws,
serve as attachment points for the connecting rods. To
reduce total crankshaft weight, crankpins are usually
hollow. This hollow construction also provides a passage
for lubricating oil. In addition, a hollow crankpin serves as
a collection chamber for sludge, dirt, carbon deposits, and
other foreign material. This is called sludge chamber
 Crankcheek or crankarm - required to connect the
crankpin to the crankshaft.
 Counterweights and dampers - helps balance the
crankshaft. Its function is to relieve the whip and
vibration caused by rotation of the crankshaft.
 Statically Balance
 Dynamically Balance
 when the weight of an entire crankshaft assembly is
balanced around its axis of rotation.
 Once a crankshaft is statically balanced it must be
dynamically balanced.
 refers to balancing the centrifugal forces created by a
rotating crankshaft and the impact forces created by
an engine's power impulses.
 The most common means of dynamically balancing a
crankshaft is through the use of dynamic dampers.
 A dynamic damper is a weight which is fastened to a
crankshaft's crank cheek assembly in such a way that
it is free to move back and forth in a small arc.
Each time a cylinder fires, a pulse
is transmitted into the crankshaft
that causes it to flex. When the
engine is running, the crankshaft
receives hundreds of these pulses
each minute and flexes, or
vibrates, constantly. To help
minimize these vibrations, the
dynamic damper oscillates, or
swings, each time the crankshaft
receives a pulse from a firing
cylinder. These oscillations are
opposite the crankshaft vibra-
tions and, therefore, absorb some
of the force pro-duced by the
power impulse.
Figure 1-13. Think of the crankshaft
as a pendulum that swings at its
natural frequency once a force is
applied. The greater the force, the
greater the distance the pendulum
swings. However, if a second
pendulum is suspended from the first
and a force is applied, the second
pendulum begins to oscillate opposite
the applied force. This opposite
oscillation dampens the oscillation of
the first pendulum leaving it nearly
stationary. You can think of a dynamic
damper as a short pendulum hung
from a crankshaft that is tuned to the
frequency of the power impulses.
 The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine
depends on the number and arrangement of an
engine's cylinders.
 Single Throw
 Two Throw
 Four Throw
 Six Throw
 used on single-row radial engines.
 As its name implies, a single-throw crankshaft
consists of a single crankpin with two main journals
that support the crankshaft in the crankcase.
 A single-throw crankshaft may be constructed out of
either one or two pieces.
Figure 1-14. With a one-piece,
single-throw crankshaft, the
entire crankshaft is cast as one
solid piece. However, with a
clamp type two-piece
crankshaft, the two pieces are
held together by a bolt that
passes through the crankpin.
 Used on Twin-row radial engines, one throw for each
bank of cylinders.
 The throws on a two-throw crankshaft are typically
set 180 degrees from each other and may consist of
either one or three pieces.
 used on four cylinder opposed engines and four
cylinder in-line engines.

Figure 1-15. A typical four-throw crankshaft

used in a horizontally opposed engine is
machined as one piece with throws that are 180
degrees apart.
Four Throw Crankshaft
 Used on six cylinder opposed and in-line engines and
12 cylinder V-type engines.

Figure 1-16. With a typical six-throw crankshaft, the throws

are 60 degrees apart. On the six throw crankshaft pictured
above, the crank journals are numbered from the flanged
end. If you were to number each throw in 60• increments
from the flanged end, the order would be 1,4,5, 2,3,6.
Six throw crankshaft
 A bearing is any surface which supports and reduces
friction between two moving parts.
 A part in which a journal, pivot, shaft turns or
revolves.
 Typical areas where bearings are used in an aircraft
engine include the main journals, crankpins,
connecting rod ends, and accessory drive shafts.
 There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move
in relation to each other. One is by the sliding
movement of one metal against another, and the
second is for one surface to roll over another.
 Plain Bearing
 Ball Bearing
 Roller Bearing
Figure 1-17. Of the three most common types of bearings used in reciprocating
engines, the plain bearing relies on the sliding movement of one metal against
another, while both roller and ball bearings have one surface roll over another.
 Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft main
bearings, cam ring and camshaft bearings, connecting
rod end bearings, and accessory drive shaft bearings.

 These bearings are typically subject to radial loads

only
 A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and
outer races, one or more sets of polished steel balls,
and a bearing retainer.
 The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept
evenly spaced by the bearing retainer, while the inner
and outer bearing races provide a smooth surface for
the balls to roll over.
 ball bearings have the least amount of rolling friction.
 ball bearings are well suited to withstand thrust loads
 Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball
bearings except that polished steel rollers are used
instead of balls
 The rollers provide a greater contact area and a
corresponding increase in rolling friction over that of
a ball bearing.
 Has two types namely: straight roller bearings which
suitable when the bearing is subjected to radial loads
only such as crankshafts main bearings, and tapered
roller bearings that allow the bearing to withstand
both radial and thrust loads.
Straight Roller Bearings
Tapered Roller Bearings
 Throttle – controls the engine power
 Propeller Control – for constant speed and
controllable pitch propeller
 Mixture Control – used to adjust fuel air mixture
with settings, full rich, lean, idle cut off
 Carburator air heater – operate the gate valve in the
air induction system to provide either cold air or hot
air for carburator. Heated air is required when in
danger of icing.
 Miscellaneous Engine Controls – includes cowl flaps,
oil coolers, superchargers etc.
 Throttle Propeller Control

Mixture Control
Part II:
Engine Characteristics, Definition and
Principles
Cycle – series of events returning to its original state.
Engine Cycle – series of events that an internal
combustion engine undergoes while it is operating
and delivering power. There are two revolutions of the
crankshaft for each cycle of the engine.
 Carnot cycle
 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Brayton Cycle
 Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position of the piston
inside the cylinder when it reaches the top most of its
travel.
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the position of the piston
inside the cylinder when it reaches the bottom most of
its travel.
 Stroke (S) – the distance that the piston travels from
the top dead center to the bottom dead center
 Bore – the inside diameter of the cylinder
 Piston displacement or volume displacement (VD) –
the volume being travelled by the piston as it moves
from the TDC to the BDC. The product of the area of
the piston, length of the stroke, and the number of
cylinders.
 Clearance volume (Vc) – the volume within the
cylinder when the piston is at the TDC.
 Total volume (VT) – the over all or total volume
within the cylinder.
Figure 1-57. One stroke is equivalent to the distance a piston
head travels between bottom dead center and top dead center.
In all reciprocating engines, one complete stroke occurs with
each 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
 The four stroke engine was first demonstrated by
Nikolaus Otto in 1876, hence it is also known as the
Otto cycle. The technically correct term is actually
four stroke cycle. The four stroke engine is probably
the most common engine type nowadays. It powers
almost all cars and trucks.
Strokes: Events:
Intake Intake
Compression Compression
Power Ignition
Exhaust Power or Expansion
Exhaust or Scavenging
Intake. During the intake stroke, the
piston moves downward, drawing a
fresh charge of vaporized fuel/air
mixture. The illustrated engine
features a 'poppet' intake valve which
is drawn open by the vacuum produced
by the intake stroke. Some early
engines worked this way, however
most modern engines incorporate an
extra cam/lifter arrangement as seen
on the exhaust valve. The exhaust
valve is held shut by a spring (not
illustrated here).
Compression. As the piston rises the poppet
valve is forced shut by the increased cylinder
pressure. Flywheel momentum drives the
piston upward, compressing the fuel/air
mixture.
Power. At the top of the compression stroke
the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed
fuel. As the fuel burns it expands, driving the
piston downward.
Exhaust. At the bottom of the power stroke, the
exhaust valve is opened by the cam/lifter
mechanism. The upward stroke of the piston
drives the exhausted fuel out of the cylinder.
 An engine's firing order represents the sequence in
which the ignition event occurs in different cylinders.
 Each engine is designed with a specific firing order to
maintain balance and reduce vibration.
 The two-stroke cycle is similar to the four-stroke
cycle in that the same five events occur in each
operating cycle.
 However, the five events occur in two piston strokes
rather than four strokes. This means that one cycle is
completed in one crankshaft revolution.
Stroke:
Compression
Power, Intake, exhaust stroke

Events:
Compression
Ignition and Power
Exhaust and Intake
Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into and
out of the cylinder through the intake and exhaust ports. This eliminates the need
for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating mechanisms.
This sim-plifies a two-stroke engine's construction and minimizes weight.
 YouTube - Two stroke engine working.flv
 YouTube - 2- stroke engine.flv
 Asa two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves up and
two events occur simultaneously.
 The piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the
cylinder and creates an area of low pressure within
the crankcase. This low pressure pulls fuel and air into
the crankcase through a check valve.
 Once the piston is a few degrees before top dead
center, ignition occurs and the fuel/air mixture begins
to burn.
 As the piston passes top dead center the pressure from the
expanding gases begin to force the piston downward on the
power stroke.
 This downward stroke also compresses the fuel/air charge in
the crankcase. As the piston approaches the bottom of the
power stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered and spent gases are
purged from the cylinder.
 A split second later, the piston uncovers the intake port and
allows the pressurized fuel/air charge in the crankcase to enter
the cylinder.
 The cycle then repeats itself as the piston compresses the
fuel/air charge in the cylinder and draws a fresh fuel/air charge
into the crankcase.
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine
which operates using the diesel cycle named after Dr.
Rudolph Diesel
 Diesel engines have the highest rate of energy to fuel
(kwh/lbs) compared to any internal or external
combustion engine
 The defining feature of the diesel engine is the use of
compression ignition to burn the fuel, which is
injected into the combustion chamber during the final
stage of compression
1. Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in
by the piston sliding downward.
2. Compression stroke: The piston
compresses the air above and uses
thereby work, performed by the
crankshaft.
3. Power stroke: In the upper dead-
Fuel
center, the air is max. compressed: nozzle
Pressure and Temperature are very
high. Now the black injection pump
injects heavy fuel in the hot air. By the
high temperature the fuel gets ignited
immediately (auto ignition). The piston
gets pressed downward and performs
work to the crankshaft.
4. Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust
gases are ejected out of the cylinder
through a second valve by the piston
sliding upward again.
 Gasoline does not self-  Diesel on the other hand, does
not require a spark plug to
ignite when ignite it because it generates
enough heat when it is
compressed, because it completely compressed to
does not generate ignite itself and cause
explosion
enough heat  Diesel engines have a much
 It needs activation higher compression pressure
than gasoline engines
energy to explode, and  The reason for this higher
this energy is generated pressure is that in a diesel
engine, only air is compressed
by a spark plug at the  The fuel is then directly
top of the cylinder injected into the cylinder,