Analyze the globalization debate.

(18 marks)
Globalisation means that the world is becoming interconnected by trade and
culture exchange.
A lot of barriers which hindered growth and development needed to be
broken, which was what brought about globalization, turning the world into a
global village connecting everyone around the world. Globalization broke the
barrier of distance, communication, buying and selling, travelling, and so on,
turning the world to a small, developed, modern village. As such, the world
as a global village has successfully brought everyone around the world
together irrespective of their race, gender or tribe.
The assertion that it is possible for all the cultures of the world to become one
global village is controversial, though. On one hand,people believe that if it
continues, cultural globalization will lead to a dazzling marketplace where
countries of all economic opportunities are represented and where more
fortunate countries come to the aid of less fortunate ones with humanitarian
efforts.

On the other hand, people are afraid that the evolution of a global village will
raise conflicts between cultures, cause a fragmentation of culture, or lead to
cultural domination by more developed countries and possibly create hybrid
cultures.

However, there are several counter arguments to globalisation. Not all that
much has changed.We still inhabit an international, rather than a globalised
world economy, in which national forces remain highly significant.  Global
change does not occur everywhere in the same way and at the same
rate.Processes of globalisation are not geographically uniform.

Identify and explain the parameters that are essential when estimating the size
of a resource reserve. (12 marks)
1. Value of Mineral
Minerals of high value will be mined even if they occur in small quantities
because one sold it will be possible to offset mining costs and make a profit
and vice versa.
2. Quality of Ore
Mining can be done if the mineral deposits have high mineral content
because they are economical to work on but deposits with low mineral
content are rarely worked on except if the mineral in them is rare e.g.
uranium.

3. Size of Deposit
Minerals which aren’t of high value have to occur in large quantities for them
to be mined so that it will be a possible to recover mining costs and make a
profit.

4. Capital
Lack of capital causes developing countries not to exploit minerals and leave
it to international companies because a lot of money is needed for
exploration, infrastructure, salaries, energy etc e.g. titanium mining at Kwale
is being done by Tiomin company from Canada.

5. Method of Mining
A mineral requiring open cast mining will be mined even if the mineral
deposit is large but one requiring underground mining will be extracted if its
in large deposit or if its of high value or rare.

6. Transport costs
Minerals occurring in remote areas far from the markets are not likely to be
exploited if the transport system is poorly developed since mineral ore is
heavy and bulky and transporting it by road and railway is expensive.

7. Market for the Mineral

Mining can be done if the mineral is in demand and if the prices are
reasonable so that mining costs are offset and a profit is realised.

8. Political Influence
Mineral deposits at the borders of two countries may not be exploited as a
dispute may arise concerning whom mine it e.g. dispute between Iraq and
Kuwait over Rumaila should oil field.

9. Labour
Exploitation of some minerals require skilled workers and if they lack it may
not be done as is the case in developing countries because expatriates have to
be engaged and are very expensive to pay which may reduces the profits
accruing from mining.
Discuss the optimistic and pessimistic views regarding reserves of the Earth's
non-renewable resources. (18 marks).
Reserves of non-renewable resources are inexorably diminished as they are
extracted from the environment and used in the human economy. This is
because non-renewable resources are finite in quantity and their stocks do not
regenerate after they are mined.

Optimistic view
However, discoveries of additional exploitable stocks will extend the
economic lifetimes of non-renewable resources, as will efficient recycling.
Changes in the value of non-renewable commodities also affect the sizes of
their economically recoverable reserves. For example, if the value of gold
increases in its marketplace, then it may become profitable to prospect for
new stocks in remote places, to mine lower-grade ores, and to reprocess
“waste” materials containing small quantities of this valuable metal. An
improvement of technology may have the same effect, for instance, by
making it profitable to process ores mine that were previously non-economic.
In addition, the life cycle in the economy of some non-renewable resources,
particularly metals, can be extended by recycling. This process involves
collecting and processing disused industrial and household products to
recover reusable materials, such as metals and plastics.
Pessimistic view
To counter the damage done by fossil fuels and assure the continuance of
energy, alternative fuels are being improved. While we can see the
advantages of alternative fuels, they also produce some disadvantages.
A fuel cell generates electricity by converting hydrogen and oxygen into
water. Unlike batteries, fuel cells do not run down or require recharging. The
main disadvantage of fuel cells is that they are expensive, plus hydrogen is
difficult to store and distribute. Fuel cells are larger and bulkier than other
similar energy sources used in a vehicle. The hydrogen tank would be large
and hydrogen is a very flammable gas which further adds to the vehicle
storage problems. Hydrogen is able to combust easily, creating a safety issue.
The disadvantage of natural gas is that it is combustible and thus can explode.
Since natural gas does not have an odor, an additive is added so that a smell
can be detected should there be a leak.  Natural gas vehicles are not readily
available as only a few vehicle models are currently offered and gas mileage
is lower than with fossil fuel engines.
Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, is an alternative fuel that can be
produced from any carbon-based source, such as natural gas, coal, wood
wastes, and seaweed. Methanol is more corrosive than gasoline, making it
difficult to use with standard engine parts. Mileage is lower when using
methanol. Methanol is very toxic substance and can be harmful if swallowed,
absorbed through the skin, or inhaled, giving doubt to its safety. A methanol
engine can cause cold-start problems in cold weather or vapor lock in hot.
Outline the measures considered when evaluating the climatic environment as
a hazard. (14 marks)
There are seven measures which are significant in human terms in evaluating
the climatic environment as a hazard, namely;

1.      Magnitude of an event, say the height of a flood or the intensity of a

wind storm - the size of the event massively affects the impact it has.  A
hurricane of magnitude 5 on the Saffir Simpson scale will have more impact
than that which has a magnitude 3, whilst every step up the Earthquake
Richter scale represents a 10 fold increase in damage and a 30 fold increase
in energy released.
2.      Frequency of occurrence - this is how often the hazard occurs.  The
more often a hazard occurs generally the more prepared people are, and the
more used to coping they are.  Large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are
generally very rare events in terms of a human lifespan so when they occur
they can surprise.  Floods are often regular events, large parts of Bangladesh
flood every year for example.  In this event people can adjust their buildings
and lives to cope with the risk associated.

3.      Duration of the event

4.      Speed of onset from first warning signs to peak.

5.      Temporal spacing in terms of randomness or regularity

6.      Aerial extent over the earth’s surface

7.      Degree of spatial concentration within that area

Explain how human beings contribute to environmental hazards. (16 marks)

Some hazards become more frequent because of human action.
Deforestation has many effects, including decreasing oxygen levels (and
increasing greenhouse gases), elevated risk of soil erosion and the destruction
of animal habitats.

Human activities affect the environment by contributing to air pollution, or

the emission of harmful substances into the air. While it can be difficult to
understand which pollutants are associated with specific effects on the
environment or public health, it is generally accepted that air pollution can
indeed cause public health problems and also harm plant and animal life.

Pollution isn’t just limited to the air. It can affect soil or waterways and can
come from human waste, industrial chemicals and other sources. These
toxins can exert tremendous effects on the natural world, leading to
environmental degradation and problems like acid rain and harmful algal
blooms in the ocean.
One of the biggest impacts humans have on aquatic systems is excess
nutrient inputs. Nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorus, are essential to the
health and survival of aquatic plants and animals. However, humans
introduce large quantities of nutrients, primarily through overuse of
fertilizers. Too many nutrients can rapidly reduce water quality by causing
overgrowth of certain bacteria and algae that use the oxygen necessary for
other species to survive.
The majority of air pollution is the result of human activities. For example,
increased fossil fuel combustion from motor vehicles, industrial factories
and power plants all pump large quantities of air pollutants, such as carbon
monoxide, ozone and nitrous oxides, into the atmosphere. 
With reference to any community water scheme, demonstrate the relevance
of the tragedy of the commons model (10 marks)
Tragedy of the commons refers to a situation where the depletion of natural
resources occurs because; individual interests and collective interests do not
coincide.
The tragedy of the commons is often brought up when people discuss
environmental issues. For example, in fishing, if fishing provides an income,
then each fisher would have his or her own best interest in mind and try to
catch as many fish as possible even if all the other fishers are doing the same
thing. As this behavior continues, the shared resource (the fish) is eventually
depleted and the group as a whole (the global population) suffers.
Another example often cited is deforestation of the rain forests. While
clearcutting trees for grazing pasture or development may directly benefit
those who own and use the land, the cost of losing that rainforest land is more
widely distributed.
Pollution is similar. As an individual, it may be beneficial to drive yourself to
work each day in a car that produces greenhouse gas emissions, but because
the air is 'common' and shared by everyone, the overall public has to deal
with that pollution each person contributes.
According to Norton (1992) the drive towards a sustainable world requires a
significant and deliberate change in attitude'. Explain the essential
components to the new attitude. (10 marks)
  The need to recognise that we are part of nature, therefore destroying
nature is merely destroying ourselves.
 The need to account for environmental costs in all our daily economic
activities.
 The need to understand that we all deserve to achieve acceptable living
standards, because a world with poor people cannot be peaceful.

Using examples, explain how diseases are linked to global warming. (10
marks)
Waterborne infectious diseases are strongly affected by climate. During times
of drought, water scarcity results in poor sanitation, and much of the
population can be exposed to potentially contaminated water. Like drought,
excess rainfall and flooding can also contribute to epidemics of waterborne
infectious diseases, in this case due to poor sanitation resulting from runoff
from overwhelmed sewage lines or the contamination of water by livestock. 
Malaria has been considered to be the most important vector-borne infectious
disease in the world. It has been reported that global warming changes the
distribution, intensity of transmission, and seasonality of malaria in sub-
Saharan Africa. As the globe warms, mosquitoes will roam beyond their
current habitats, shifting the burden of diseases like malaria, dengue fever,
chikungunya and West Nile virus.
Using examples, explain how perception and behavior differ among
individuals. (10 marks)
Environmental perception refers to the process by which an individual gains
knowledge of the world by receiving stimuli from the environment through
his / her senses. Behaviour on the other hand, refers to conduct or way of
acting.
The Crowded Beach

 If we give 3 similar rocks to 3 different people, they respond in quite

different ways.

 Sculptor may shape the rock into new and more interesting forms.
  Mineralogist may start to break up the rock to examine its chemical
structure.

 Protester may hurl the rock through the nearest window.

The thoughts and actions taken are determined not by the object at hand (the
rock) but by the attitudes of the 3 individuals towards it.

Discuss how human activities threaten wetlands as an ecosystem. (20 marks)

Wetlands are areas in which water is present some or all of the year.
Pollution degrades wetlands and water quality. Pollution enters the water
table through pesticides, sediment, sewage, fertilizers and many other forms.
Once a wetland is polluted, it's difficult to clean it up.
Global warming is also a threat to wetlands. As air temperatures rise, so do
water temperatures. Because warmer waters are more productive, wetlands
may end up overrun by algae, which degrades water quality and poses health
problems. Also, many fish rely on cooler water to survive and can die out
when smaller lakes or ponds warm up.

Grazing: Overgrazing harms wetlands through soil compaction, removal of

vegetation, and stream bank destabilization.  Wetlands offer some of the best
forage for livestock as well as a water source and cover, so livestock tends to
spend a disproportionately large time in wetlands.  There are many grazing
strategies that discourage cattle from using wetlands. 

Agriculture:  Wetlands often have fairly flat areas of rich organic soil that is
highly productive agricultural land if drained.  For this reason many wetlands
have been drained and converted to agricultural lands.  

Using examples, discuss the challenges posed by invasive plant species on

the environment. (30 Marks)

When invasive plants like ivy or clematis dominate the groundcover, there is
very little root structure to bind the soils. That’s why large areas dominated
by invasive plants are more likely to erode during flood events than areas
with a diverse understory of trees and shrubs, which provide more root
structure diversity.
Native plant roots extend deep into the soil, and many species have wide,
branching fibrous root structures that bind the soils and reduce erosion.
Erosion releases sediment to streams, increases stream turbidity, and impairs
water quality.
Invasive plants provide less streamside cover and shade, which increases
stream temperatures. 
Habitat loss and invasive plants are the leading cause of native biodiversity
loss. Invasive plant species spread quickly and can displace native plants,
prevent native plant growth, and create monocultures. A healthy plant
community has a variety of herbs, shrubs, and trees. Invasive plants cause
biological pollution by reducing plant species diversity. Changes in plant
community diversity reduce the quality and quantity of fish and wildlife
habitat.
Invasive plants are a leading cause of declines in native plant and animal
numbers, and are a factor in Endangered Species Act listings. Invasive plants
outcompete and displace native plants that many native wildlife species
depend on for food and cover.
Invasive plants can reduce the amount of tree cover by preventing trees from
becoming established, causing them to fall down prematurely, or reducing
their growth rate. 
Explain how population constrain economic development in developing
countries. (10 marks)
The effect of population growth can be positive or negative depending on the
circumstances. A large population has the potential to be great for economic
development: after all, the more people you have, the more work is done, and
the more work is done, the more value (or, in other words, money) is created.
So, surely this can be nothing but good. There's a reason that farmers often
have a lot of kids - more kids means more workers.
But, unfortunately, it isn't that simple. In a country with abundant resources
and money - a rich country - perhaps more people is a good thing. But that
isn't always the case in countries with limited resources. Limited resources
and a larger population puts pressures on the resources that do exist. More
people means more mouths to feed, more health care and education services
to provide, and so forth. So, population can be a mixed bag.
Rapid population growth creates serious problems for poor countries in
which the rate of capital formation is low. This scarce capital simply goes
into spreading a larger quantity of tools over a larger number of people
without raising per capita productivity.

Moreover, the increase in population creates serious problems in those

countries where population is already dense in relation to land and other
resources. Due to scarcity of capital goods, the growing labour force cannot
find jobs in the urban areas and just adds to the existing labour force in rural
areas. The consequence: open and disguised unemployment as a percentage
of labour force increases with the passage of time — the reverse of successful
development.

Explain how human beings modify and replace the natural environment. (30
Marks)
An increased population results in more clear-cutting, resulting in severely
damaged ecosystems. Without enough trees to filter the air, CO₂ levels
increase which carries the potential to damage every single organism on
Earth.

Global warming is arguably the greatest cause of impact to the environment.

The largest of causes emanating through CO₂ levels from respiration to more
detrimental causes like burning fossil fuels and deforestation. At any rate,
humans are consistently increasing CO₂ levels globally- every year. As the
temperature increases, arctic land ice and glaciers melt which causes the
ocean levels to rise, allowing more water to absorb more heat, which melts
more ice,which will cause the oceans to rise.
When humans burn coal, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released
into the atmosphere where they rise up and accumulate in the clouds until the
clouds become saturated and rain acid, causing havoc on the ground beneath.
When the rain falls, it accumulates in water bodies which are especially
harmful to lakes and small bodies of water. The ground surrounding the water
soaks up the acid, depleting the soil of essential nutrients. Trees that absorb
the acid accumulate toxins that damage leaves and slowly kills large areas of
forest.
Acid rain has also been known to completely eliminate entire species of fish,
causing a snowball effect of damage to the ecosystem that relies on diverse
organisms to sustain the environment.
Using any resource as an example, illustrate the importance of environmental
ethics in Human Geography. (30 Marks)
Environmental ethics contends that if the moral system of our societies
maintains that people have a right to a safe and happy life, those rights should
therefore be conferred to even nonhuman species such as animals, trees,
rocks, and as well as other elements of nature.
The loss of trees and other vegetation can cause climate change,
desertification, soil erosion, fewer crops, flooding, increased greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, and a host of problems for indigenous people.

Destruction of Homelands
As large amounts of forests are cleared away, allowing exposed earth to
whither and die and the habitats of innumerable species to be destroyed, the
indigenous communities who live there and depend on the forest to sustain
their way of life are also under threat.

Soil Erosion and Flooding

Further effects of deforestation include soil erosion and coastal flooding.
Trees help the land to retain water and topsoil, which provides the rich
nutrients to sustain additional forest life.
Without forests, the soil erodes and washes away, causing farmers to move
on and perpetuate the cycle. The barren land which is left behind in the wake
of these unsustainable agricultural practices is then more susceptible
to flooding, specifically in coastal regions.
Deforestation can rob a country of potential renewable revenues while
replacing valuable productive lands with virtually useless scrub and
grassland. Tropical forests provide important renewable resources that can
significantly contribute to national economic growth on a continuing basis.
According to a 2018 FAO report, three-quarters of the Earth’s freshwater
comes from forested watersheds, and the loss of trees can affect water
quality. The UN's 2018 State of the World's Forests report found that over
half the global population relies on forested watersheds for their drinking
water as well as water used for agriculture and industry.
Discuss the importance of natural forests and the challenges they face as an
ecosystem. (30 Marks) 

 Absorbing harmful greenhouse gasses that produce climate change. In

tropical forests alone, a quarter of a trillion tons of carbon is stored in
above and below ground biomass
 Providing clean water for drinking, bathing, and other household needs
 Protecting watersheds and reducing or slowing the amount of erosion
and chemicals that reach waterways
 Providing food and medicine
 Serving as a buffer in natural disasters like flood and rainfalls
 Providing habitat to more than half of the world’s land-based species
About a dozen different species go extinct every day, and scientists predict
that 30 to 50 percent of all species could be extinct by the middle of the
21st century. This is one more of the calamitous effects of deforestation.
Cutting trees removes the habitat for tree-dwelling animals, birds and
insects, and global warming, to which deforestation contributes, kills fish
and amphibians as well as other creatures. Tree roots help bind the soil and
prevent it from washing away. When the roots are no longer there, soil
erosion can become extreme, especially during heavy rainstorms.
Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable resources. (6 marks)
Nonrenewable energy resources, like coal, nuclear, oil, and natural gas, are
available in limited supplies. This is usually due to the long time it takes for
them to be replenished. Renewable resources are replenished naturally and
over relatively short periods of time.
Renewable resources do not cause any pollution. Though when misused they
can be harmful too. When non-renewable resources are burned, they create
pollution and carbon dioxide. They are not said as eco-friendly.

Identify and explain two measures of population change which take into
account the structure of the population (10 marks).
There are two main ways that individuals are added to the population. The
first is through births of new individuals. The way we measure additions of
this type is with the natality rate (also called the birth rate), which is the
number of births per 1000 individuals per unit of time, usually per year.
Through deaths of individuals. We measure this with the mortality rate (also
called the death rate), which is the number of deaths per 1000 individuals per
unit of time. Again, this time period is usually a year.
To get either the natality or mortality rate, we take the number of births or
deaths over the period of time we're interested in, divide that number by the
estimated population size at the beginning of the time period, and then
multiply that number by 1000.
Discuss the factors affecting population change (10 marks).
Urbanization - It has a significant impact upon population growth because it
can impact upon the birth and death rates of a country. As a country becomes
increasingly urbanized the birth rate tends to rise and death rates tend to fall.
The birth rates rise because people have more access to medical care in cities
than in rural areas thus infant mortality falls and birth rate rises. Death rates
fall in urban areas because it is cheaper and more economic to provide
medical and education services, and to ensure more reliable food
supplies. This means that people get more educated, better fed and can be
treated when sick.  This is often not the case in more remote rural areas so
death rates fall in urban areas. The net effect of this is population growth.

Agricultural change - Agricultural changes have been massive over the past
400 years and we can produce more food than ever before now.  Many of
these agricultural changes even at a low level free up workers from the
farms.  This allows industrialization which needs lots of workers and tends to
promote high birth rates.  The more regular supply of food from advanced
farming also promotes birth rates (as people are sure they can feed their
children) and reduces famine deaths.

Education - Education plays a vital role in determining the levels of both

birth and death rates in a country and hence the level of population growth. 
Simple programs in hygiene can impact upon death rates, while family
planning education can reduce birth rates.  Following World War 1 when
many European countries had suffered massive losses in their populations,
many governments switched population education to promoting MORE
births! In the longer term, as education levels increase people tend to have
fewer children so that they can focus their resources in improving the life
chances of those few children.

Emancipation of women - In many rich countries women have become over

time free to work when they want within their life.  This is not the case in all
countries in the world where many women are stuck in gender specific
unpaid (and often very hard) work such as maintaining a household and
subsistence farming plots. This emancipation of women has had a
demographic consequence in that it has delayed child bearing age.  Women
are much more likely now to go to university and work for a few years before
having their first child.  This can result in fewer children being born per
woman as fertility declines with age for women.
Explain the spatial growth model (Rostow-Taffee model) and its relevance to
Africa. (15 marks)
Walt Rostow took a historical approach in suggesting that developed
countries have tended to pass through 5 stages to reach their current degree of
economic development.
These are:
Traditional society. This is an agricultural economy of mainly subsistence
farming, little of which is traded. The size of the capital stock is limited and
of low quality resulting in very low labour productivity and little surplus
output left to sell in domestic and overseas markets
Pre-conditions for take-off. Agriculture becomes more mechanised and more
output is traded. Savings and investment grow although they are still a small
percentage of national income (GDP). Some external funding is required - for
example in the form of overseas aid or perhaps remittance incomes from
migrant workers living overseas
Take-off. Manufacturing industry assumes greater importance, although the
number of industries remains small. Political and social institutions start to
develop - external finance may still be required. Savings and investment
grow, perhaps to 15% of GDP. Agriculture assumes lesser importance in
relative terms although the majority of people may remain employed in the
farming sector. There is often a dual economy apparent with rising
productivity and wealth in manufacturing and other industries contrasted with
stubbornly low productivity and real incomes in rural agriculture.
Drive to maturity. Industry becomes more diverse. Growth should spread to
different parts of the country as the state of technology improves - the
economy moves from being dependent on factor inputs for growth towards
making better use of innovation to bring about increases in real per capita
incomes
Age of mass consumption. Output levels grow, enabling increased consumer
expenditure. There is a shift towards tertiary sector activity and the growth is
sustained by the expansion of a middle class of consumers.
Discuss socio-economic caring activities which are carried out by children in
Africa as a result of HIV and AIDS. (30 Marks)
Chronic illness in the parent can change family roles causing anger or guilt.
Family members can become isolated. The ability of HIV-positive parents
and caregivers to care for their children is also impaired, as poverty induced
by HIV/AIDS increases the risk of illness and death among children.
HIV/AIDS can also affect children’s normal childhood. Children from
families living with HIV/AIDS often have to deal with psychosocial stress,
an ill caregiver, reduced parenting capacity, a shift in family structure,
financial deprivation, and stigma and discrimination. These challenges can
lead to emotional and behavioral changes in children, such as depression and
delinquency.
Young people, especially girls and older children, take on expanded, adult
roles when their parents are sick. They help with household chores, farming,
caring for younger children, and nursing sick adults. These responsibilities
foreshorten normal childhood and interfere with schooling. For children
taken in by weak guardians, this burden continues into orphanhood.
Household chores Cooking, washing dishes, sweeping, cleaning, and
fetching water or firewood.
Health care Reminding family member to take medication,
giving/collecting medication, assisting with mobility.
Personal care Washing/bathing/dressing relative, assisting to eat or
use the toilet.
Child care Getting siblings ready for school, supervision, help
with school work.
Self-care Personal care of self, school work, training, developing
livelihood strategies.
Income generation Cultivating crops for sale, rearing livestock, working
in a factory, shop or bar.
Using examples, discuss social and community determinants of health. (30
Marks)
The determinants of health are not only limited by age, sex and constitution
but also by social networks and general living conditions.
In terms of health and the environment, it must be noted that access to clean
water for drinking, washing and cooking is critical for human health. For
instance, while most westerners are able to obtain clean water form a
domestic tap, millions of people in the developing world have no such
facility. As an alternative, they collect water from wells or from streams and
rivers, lakes and ponds. However, in densely populated regions and areas
with limited sanitation infrastructure, these sources of surface water may
become contaminated by human and animal waste. Therefore, people
drinking from sources risk contracting diseases such as cholera, dysentery
and typhoid.

Social environments on the other hand, may possibly influence health-related

behaviors in a number of ways, as people usually adjust their diet, levels of
physical activity, smoking and drinking in relation to local environmental
pollutants. Proximity to green space may encourage physical activity such as
walking and sport, or perhaps enhance social contact and connection. On the
other hand, researchers suggest that simply being able to see green space,
irrespective of whether one is physically present within it can foster mental
relaxation and relieve stress.

Obsogenic environments’ describes settings which foster obesity. Evidence

suggests that being overweight is associated with greater risks of coronary
heart disease, diabetes and hypertension as well as reduced life expectancy.
In addition to genetic factors and diet, environmental influences play an
important role in obesity. For instance, it can be difficult to access affordable
or good quality fresh food in some disadvantaged inner city neighborhoods,
especially when supermarkets are located in the suburbs or urban periphery.
Furthermore, it is also often comparatively easy to obtain energy dense fast
food in many cities.
Explain how socio-economic activities change with population density. (30
marks)
Human interventions at low densities - focus is on fire and shifting
cultivation, grazing and the creating of new biotic environments, purposeful
burnings are done to permit cultivation and provide fresh growth for grazing
herds, shifting cultivation is done to release large quantities of soil nutrients
that can be used by planted crops for a few years, resting grassland, grazing it
in rotation or supplementing the nutrient cycle with fertilisers.

Human Intervention at medium densities - Medium densities encompass all

the ranges of population density that support permanent agriculture. A
growing population stimulates changes in agricultural techniques so that
more food can be produced.

Human interventions at high densities - Cities destroy the existing micro-

climates of an environment and create new ones. This is achieved through 3
processes; production of heat, alteration of land surface, and the modification
of the atmosphere. As cities grow, water tables are lowered, cities are
reaching out further into mountains for fresh water and dam construction is
increasing rapidly.

Discuss how cities destroy the existing microclimate of an environment and

create new ones. (15 marks)
Cities destroy the existing micro-climates of an environment and create new
ones.

This is achieved through 3 processes; production of heat, alteration of land

surface, and the modification of the atmosphere.

 1. Urban Heat Islands - Generation of heat within a city generally results
directly from the combustion of fuels and indirectly from the gradual release
of heat stored during the day in the city’s material fabric (brickwork,
concrete, etc.). Temperature studies reveal urban heat islands are caused by
the fact that city temperatures are generally higher than those of surrounding
rural areas.
 2. Rugged city terrain - Cities also affect micro-climates through their
rugged artificial terrain of alternating high and low buildings and streets. City
terrain lowers average wind speed. Cities can cause sufficient turbulence to
trigger rainstorms. 

3. City wastes in the atmosphere - Impact of cities in the atmosphere is

evident in the context of pollution. City atmospheres are polluted mainly by
the emission of smoke, dust and gases (notably sulphur dioxide).

Analyze the schools of thought which attempt to explain the controversial

relationship between people and the environment. (30 Marks)
Determinism - the belief that the environment, most notably its physical
factors such as landforms and climate, determines the patterns of human
culture and societal development. Environmental determinists believe that
ecological, climatic, and geographical factors alone are responsible for
human cultures and individual decisions. Also, social conditions have
virtually no impact on cultural development.

The main argument of environmental determinism states that an area's

physical characteristics like climate have a substantial impact on the
psychological outlook of its inhabitants. These different outlooks then spread
throughout a population and help define the overall behavior and culture of a
society. For instance, it was said that areas in the tropics were less developed
than higher latitudes because the continuously warm weather there made it
easier to survive and thus, people living there did not work as hard to ensure
their survival. Another example of environmental determinism would be the
theory that island nations have unique cultural traits solely because of their
isolation from continental societies.

Possibilism - a term which means that environment only limits the number of

choices for the person and only the human is responsible for all his actions
and he has the authoritative power but within certain limits. In simple
words, Possibilism denies the influence of environmental factors in a human's
life. It argues that while the physical environment can influence cultural
traits, society still has the ability to alter their environment to adjust to their
needs. In other words, a society was not defined by the environment but by
how the society responded to those environmental limitations.
Stop and go determinism - Argues that environmental conditions indicate
certain directions along which a country’s development could go. In the short
term, people might attempt whatever they wished with regard to their
environment but in the long term, nature's plan would ensure that the
environment won the battle and forced comprise out of its human occupants.
According to this philosophy, geography studied the path between the
environment and human action.

Explain how diseases pose as a human hazard in a changing environment. (30

marks)
As we alter a land use normally we indirectly introduce new diseases or
intensify some endemic diseases such as malaria in relation to dam
construction. In developing countries causes of death include; diarrhoea,
measles, malaria, and respiratory diseases. Mild diseases of developed
countries are killers in developing countries due to starvation and
malnutrition.

Rural-urban migration in developing countries results in peri-urban shanty

settlements where normally there is a high rate of intestinal infections. Each
diseases passes from human to another through the faecal-oral route. They
pose an increasing health burden as the share of urban populations in
developing countries rises towards one half of all population.

Exposure of the travelling public to a range of diseases not encountered in

their home country. Increasing size of the modern aircraft which increases the
risk of disease spread from the flight. On a longer-time scale, increased travel
brings some possible long-term genetic effects. Relationships / marriage
between people from distant countries.

Using examples, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a youthful

population in a country. (30 marks)
Advantages

- provides a large and cheap future workforce

- provides a growing market for manufactured products

- provides a large tax base for the country

Disadvantages

- puts strain on education and health services

- puts strain on food supplies

- puts strain on available accommodation

- lack of available jobs in the future

- attendance at secondary schools in rural areas is low leaving lots of

unqualified poorly educated workers.

- Disease rates amongst young children are high as the government cannot
afford medicines for them, even for preventable diseases such as measles and
diarrhoea.  This means Infant mortality is high.

Using examples, discuss the politics of ageing. (30 marks)

Aging describes an inescapable biological process that sees our bodies
growing and shrinking, their capacities coming and going. Evidence indicates
that age has become involved in politicized debates about education,
economic development, and health.

Use of age categories as a justification for a particular political or economic

system - consequently, doing something for the good of children’s has been
used as a justification for all kinds of projects associated with capitalism.
Those priorities can be as diverse as social inclusion and economic
competitiveness and may, actually have very little to do with what is
genuinely good for today’s children.
Analysis of age as an investment - focusing on childhood, better off families
harbour deep-set fears about the future, regarding the economy, security or
the environment. In the face of such insecurity, those families have
increasingly used children as ‘safety nets’.

A major strategy for doing this has been to commodify children, that is, to
view them as a spectacular ‘accumulation strategy’. This could happen in a
number of ways such as;

 Through the ‘overelaboration’ of child-rearing in self-help guide,

support groups, educational toys and all manner of other paraphernalia.
 In the appearance of such overelaboration at ever-earlier stages in the
life-course, for instance in competition for prestigious’ pre-school
places.
 Through the practice of moving house to ensure that a child falls into
the catchment area for a ‘good’ school.

Differentiate between global and local environmental problems. (30 marks)

Using examples, explain extreme environmental events. (30 marks)

Discuss the distinctive features of the population of Swaziland. (30 Marks)
Identify and explain two models that best illuStrate the spatial aspects of
economic development. (30 Marks)
Discuss the causes and consequences child-headed households in Swaziland.
(30 Marks)
Explain the Malthusian hypothesis and the Demographic transition model and
their relevance to the population situation in Swaziland. (30 marks)
Explain the Epidemiological Transition model. (30 Marks)