Unit 1

Introduction to Tourism Planning

Concept on Planning
Planning is the process of deciding in detail how to do something before you actually start to do
it. Planning the act of deciding how to do something? Planning (also called forethought) is the
process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It
involves the creation and maintenance of a plan.
Planning is mental activity, which involves desk work to decide or answer the questions what,
how, when, where and who. It is all about setting and meeting objectives and preparing future
course of action. Essentially, ‘planning is process of human thoughts and action based upon
the thoughts. It is concerned with the past, present and future. Planning is an intellectual
process, the cautious determination of the course of action, leasing decision on purpose, facts
and considered estimates.
In general terms, planning refers to methods and means used in making decisions about the
future. Planning not only guides actions to be taken in future but also helps in problem solving
and arriving at decisions which help planners in achieving desired objectives. Planning guides
future actions

Meaning of Tourism Planning

Planning is an essential activity to achieve the goals of tourism development. Planning is
concerned with;
• Anticipating (do in advance) and
• regulating change in system to promote orderly development so at
• To increase the social, economic and environmental benefits of the development
process.
Tourism planning leads to tourism development. In fact, tourism planning is the process for
tourism development. Tourism planning is an ordered sequence of operations and actions
conceived by the public sector to organized and control development in destination areas
according to established political objectives.
Tourism planning process involves creating a future that is acceptable to the host community
as also to others who would be part of the host community as tourist for short period of time.
Planning essentially attempts to allocate, scarce resources between different competing uses
with a view to maximize output, income, employment and to ensure the balanced growth of
different sectors.
Tourism development must be guided by carefully planned policy which ensures the principle
of human welfare and happiness. So, planning needs to be conducted to ensure that
destination will be both competitive and sustainable.

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Why there is need of tourism planning?
Many countries, have lately realized the importance of tourism and benefits which it brings out.
The increasing significance of tourism as a source of income, employment generation, and
regional development and as a major factor in the balance of payments to many countries has
been attracting the attention of many governments as an interest in economic development.
Thus tourism development became important field of research in the economic planning
undertaken in many countries.
Moreover, in the countries, where not much tourism has developed yet, planning can provide
the necessary guidelines for its development. On the other hand, for the areas where tourism is
already well established, planning is often needed to revitalize the sector and maintain its
future viability (World Tourism Organization, 1994).
According to Gunn (2002) the purpose of planning is to create plans of action for a foreseeable
(predictable) future and implement them.
Hall (2000) similarly suggests that planning can help to minimize potential negative impacts,
maximize economic returns to the area, and thus encourage a more positive response from the
local community towards tourism in the longer run.
There are numerous examples in the world where tourism has not been well planned and
managed. These uncontrolled developments may have brought some short-term economic
benefits. Over the longer term, however, they have resulted in environmental and social
problems and poor quality tourist destinations. Many of these places are now undergoing
redevelopment. It is obviously better to plan for controlled development initially, and prevent
problem from arising in the first place.
Since tourism is a complex, multi-sectoral activity, a tourism plan is necessary to coordinate the
different sectors to better service the needs of tourism and the general public. Through an
integrated tourism plan, the various direct and indirect economic benefits of tourism can be
achieved.

Tourism Destination Planning

Tourism provides a major economic development opportunity for many countries and a means
of improving the livelihoods of its residents. Both the public and private sectors involved in
tourism depend on planning to achieve sustainable tourism development that respects the local
community, creates appropriate employment, maintains the natural environment, and delivers
a quality visitor experience. However, many tourism destinations have pursued development
without proper planning and without considering the many impacts such development will
bring to the community.
Importance of tourism Planning

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Tourism planning is primarily economic development planning that is directed towards tourism-
related objectives which differ between the public sector and the private sector. In the public
sector, most planning is done by different levels of government. Public sector tourism planning
includes consideration of economic and social factors, land use policies and zoning controls,
environmental concerns, infrastructure development, employment concerns, and the provision
of public services. Private sector tourism planning is usually concerned with investment
objectives involving various aspects of product development, building and design, financial
feasibility, marketing, management and operations.
Tourism planning is important because it provides a common vision, direction and commitment
for tourism which are the result of participation of many representatives. The process of
tourism planning includes:
 Assessing the possible impacts of development and the resource problems which will be
faced
 Analyzing the competitive status of a destination and its ability to respond to changes in
the travel market
 Providing a level of stability and predictability in the progress of the overall
development of tourism in a given area.
The uncontrolled and unplanned tourism areas cannot effectively compete with planned tourist
destinations elsewhere. They usually can be redeveloped, based on a planned approach, but
that requires much time and financial investment.
Planning tourism at all levels is essential for achieving successful tourism development and
management.
• Planned tourism development can bring benefits without significant problems, and
maintain satisfied tourist markets.
• Places allowed tourism to develop without the benefit of planning are often suffering
from environmental and social problems.
There are several important specific benefits of undertaking national and regional tourism
planning. These advantages include:
 Establishing the overall tourism development objectives and policies - what is tourism
aiming to accomplish and how these aims can be achieved.
 Developing tourism so that its natural and cultural resources are indefinitely maintained
and conserved for future, as well as present, use.
 Integrating tourism into the overall development policies and patterns of the country or
region, and establishing dose linkages between tourism and other economic sectors.
 Providing a rational basis for decision-making by both the public and private sectors on
tourism development.

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  Making possible the coordinated development of all the many elements of the tourism
sector. This includes inter-relating the tourist attractions, activities, facilities and services
and the various and increasingly fragmented tourist markets.
 Optimizing and balancing the economic, environmental and social benefits of tourism,
with equitable distribution of these benefits to the society, while minimizing possible
problems of tourism.
 Providing a physical structure which guides the location, types and extent of tourism
development of attractions, facilities, services and infrastructure.
 Establishing the guidelines and standards for preparing detailed plans of specific tourism
development areas that are consistent with, and reinforce, one another, and for the
appropriate design of tourist facilities.
 Laying the foundation for effective implementation of the tourism development policy
and plan and continuous management of the tourism sector, by providing the necessary
organizational and other institutional framework.
 Providing the framework for effective coordination of the public and private sector
efforts and investment in developing tourism.
 Offering a baseline for the continuous monitoring of the progress of tourism
development and keeping it on track.

The planned approach to developing tourism at the national and regional levels is now widely
adopted as a principle, although implementation of the policies and plans is still weak in some
places. Many countries and regions of countries have had tourism plans prepared. Other places
do not yet have plans, but should consider undertaking planning in the near future. In some
countries, plans had previously been prepared but these are now outdated. They need to be
revised based on present day circumstances and likely future trends. Founded on accumulated
experience, the approaches and techniques of tourism planning are now reasonably well
understood. There is considerable assurance that, if implemented, planning will bring
substantial benefits to an area.

Levels of Tourism Planning

Tourism planning is implemented at different levels from the general level which may apply to
an entire country or region down to the local level which may apply to detail planning for
specific resort. What is important to emphasize is the tourism planning and development must
be integrated among all levels to take into account different levels of concern and to avoid
duplication of efforts and policies. Each level involves different considerations as follows:
a) International Level: Tourism planning at the international level involves more than one
country and includes areas such as international transportation services, joint tourism
marketing, regional tourism policies and standards, cooperation between sectors of
member countries, and other cooperative concerns.

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 b) National Level: Tourism planning at the national is concerned with national tourism
policy, structure planning, transportation networks within the country, major tourism
attractions, national level facility and service standards, investment policy, tourism
education and training, and marketing of tourism.
c) Regional Level: Tourism planning at the regional level generally is done by provinces,
states, or prefectures involving regional policy and infrastructure planning, regional
access and transportation network, and other related functions at the regional level.
d) Local or Community Level: Tourism planning at the local level involves sub-regions,
cities, towns, villages, resorts, rural areas and some tourist attractions. This level of
planning may focus on tourism area plans, land use planning for resorts, and planning
for other tourism facilities and attractions.
e) Site Planning Level: Site planning refers to planning for specific location of buildings and
structures, recreational facilities, conservation and landscape areas and other facilities
carried out for specific development sites such as tourism resorts and may also involve
the design of buildings, structures, landscaping and engineering design based on the site
plan.
However, to make this happen, sound strategic tourism planning must occur. While the
economic aspects are important, planning should also emphasize the site’s environmental
integrity and the social benefits to the community, especially enhanced human welfare,
happiness and quality of life.

Elements of tourism planning

Many tourism destinations have an overall or general plan that includes all aspects of the
tourism development process. This is often referred to as the tourism master plan and
sometimes called the comprehensive master plan. Elements of a master plan usually include
economic development, human resources, environmental impacts and social and cultural
impacts. Master plans are designed to cover a certain time frame or period such as a five-year
plan or a ten-year plan.

Elements of a Tourism Destination plan

1. Tourism Demand Analysis - Demand analysis examines the existing and intended visitor
markets for the destination. It involves a market analysis that examines the likely tourist
arrivals and characteristics and the travel patterns and trends of the markets. Demand
analysis is essential in understanding the competitiveness of the destination with other
tourism destinations with similar attractions.
2. Tourism Supply Analysis - Supply analysis examines the destination itself including its
attractions, accommodations, and facilities. The analysis should include transportation,
infrastructure, human resources, and other factors which have a direct or significant
impact on the quality of the visitor experience. While tourism generally is considered

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 environmentally friendly, sustainable tourism development places a high priority on
preservation of the environment including land use, water quality, natural scenery, and
waste disposal. An important goal of tourism planning should be to protect the natural
setting and avoid exploitation of the natural resources.
3. Economic and Financial Analysis - For most destinations, economic development is the
primary reason for tourism development. Tourism is viewed as a source of visitor
expenditures which will benefit the local economy, creating spending and employment
while increasing the standard of living of the local population. However, the economic
perspective differs between the public sector or government and the private sector. For
the public sector, the economic benefit for the local community is the most important
concern. For the private sector, financial risk and profitability are the primary concerns
including the sources of capital for the planned project, extent of foreign ownership or
control, wage rates for the local labor force, and availability of private sector funds for
investment.
4. Action Plan and Recommendations – The action plan is the final product of the planning
process and will depend on the goals of the plan. It generally includes a summary and
analysis of all of the data used in the planning process and includes strategies,
guidelines, recommendations, and schedules for development.
The effective development, operation and management of tourism require certain institutional
elements. These elements include:
 Organizational structures, especially government tourism offices and private sector
tourism associations such as hotel associations.
 Tourism-related legislation and regulations, such as standards and licensing
requirements for hotels and tour and travel agencies.
 Education and training programs and training institutions to prepare persons to work
effectively in tourism.
 Availability of financial capital to develop tourist attractions, facilities, services and
infrastructure, and mechanisms to attract capital investment.
 Marketing strategies and promotion programs to inform tourists about the country or
region, and induce them to visit it, and tourist information facilities and services in the
destination areas.
 Travel facilitation of immigration (including visa arrangements), customs and other
facilities and services at the entry and exit points of tourists.
The institutional elements also include consideration of how to enhance and distribute the
economic benefits of tourism, environmental protection measures, reducing adverse social
impacts, and conservation of the cultural heritage of people living in the tourism areas.

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Components of tourism Planning
The tourism plan identifies areas the community or sector will focus on to build its tourism
business and the steps it needs to take to achieve desired results. The tourism plan answers the
key questions:
 What business objectives related to tourism does your community or sectors expect to
achieve?
 What type of growth does your community or sector want to achieve? In the short
term? Over the longer term?
 How will your community or sector achieve these objectives? What type of tourism
products will you need? What type of visitor are you hoping to attract? 
The tourism plan may include the following components:
1. Vision and mission: The vision is future focused, something to be pursued, a
destination, inspirational, and verifiable. The mission is present focused, reason for
being, a roadmap, concrete, and measurable.
2. Objectives: Quantifiable results the sector or community expects to achieve. Objectives
should be realistic, achievable, yet challenging, with a timeframe and should be
something you can measure.  Typically, objectives are stated as the number of visitors,
or visitor revenue desired by a certain date. If the number of visitors is difficult to
obtain, indicators can be used, including the increase in number of visitors to a selected
sample of operators, number of enquiries, etc. 
3. Strategies: Strategies describe the broad direction the community or sector will take to
achieve the stated objectives.  Strategies look longer term and may not change from
year to year while tactics are short-term actions to achieve the implementation of a
strategy.
4. Organizational structure: the organizational structure that your community or sector
has decided to adopt.
5. Sources of funding: The sources of funding that your community or sector has decided
to pursue.
6. Target markets: The types of visitors that are priorities for your community or sector,
stating primary and secondary target markets. Include geographic target markets,
demographic, and activity-based target groups. 
7. Brand positioning: A statement that clearly defines how the community or sector will be
positioned and the rationale in tourism market.  This positioning statement should
provide direction for product development and promotional activities, including logo
and tagline development

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 8. Length of stay: The desired length of stay that your community or sector is trying is
seeking from visitors, from day visits or overnight getaways to longer vacations.
9. Priority product and destination development categories and strategies: The strategies
your community or sector will implement to address infrastructure and policy issues.
The types of products your community or sector will focus on for tourism development.
Categories could include human resources, visitor services, accommodation, food and
beverage, retail, transportation, attractions, education among businesses, etc.
10. Priority promotional strategies: The types of promotional activities your community or
sector has decided to prioritize, including media relations, advertising, joint or levered
promotions, consumer shows, etc.
11. Research and evaluation: The research tools you will use to measure the stated
objectives. Research initiatives to measure visitation and better understand visitors
utilizing the product. This section could also summarize all of the evaluation tools
needed to measure tactics. 
12. Tactics and implementation plans: Tactics are the short-term actions your community
or sector will use to achieve the strategies outlined above. There may be several tactics
for each strategy.
13. Tactics to achieve shorter term development strategies: For each tactic, an
implementation plan would be prepared that could include a short description,
quantifiable objectives, rationale, action steps, potential
partnerships/resources/sources of funding, responsibilities, timeframe, budget, and
evaluation mechanism.
14. Tactics to achieve longer term development strategies: Even for longer-term strategies,
there are tactics that will be implemented in the short term to achieve long term results.
15. Shorter term promotional strategies: Same format for each tactic as above.
16. Longer term promotional strategies: Same format for each tactic as above.
17. Budget: Itemized by year and activity.

Types of tourism plan

There is a series of decisions that has to be taken when developing and planning tourism within
a destination. Different types of tourism plan to be considered while planning are;
1. Land Use Planning
2. Facility Site Planning
3. Facility Design
4. Special Studies
1. Land using Pattern: Tourist development areas selected as tourist resorts, resort towns,
tourist attractions, and urban tourism impose land use plans. This level of planning is
more detailed and shows the specific areas for hotels, and other types of

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 accommodation, retail shops, recreation, parks, roads, walkways, airport, railway line
and station, water supply, electric power, sewage, solid and waste disposal and
telecommunications. These plans include prefeasibility and feasibility studies, evaluation of
environmental and socio-cultural influences, and development planning.
2. Facility site planning: Site planning is planning for individual buildings such as hotels,
commercial centers, and visitor facilities. The actual location of buildings, recreation
areas, streets, walkways, parking, landscaping areas, and other land uses are shown min
maps.
3. Facility Design: Designs for landscaping, architecture, infrastructure, and engineering
must be prepared for resorts, hotels, restaurants, attractions, archaeological and
historic sites, information and cultural centers, visitor facilities at national parks and
other tourist facilities. These designs may be based on good international standards
4. Special studies: Special studies on tourism are often undertaken based on the needs of
the area. These studies pertain to environmental, socio-cultural, economic impact
analyses, marketing analysis and promotion programs. Special planning studies can also
be done on specific types of tourism development such as health and youth tourism.

Tourism Planning as an Integrated System

It is now recognized that tourism must be developed and managed in a controlled, integrated
and sustainable manner, based on sound planning. With this approach, tourism can generate
substantial economic benefits to an area, without creating any serious environmental or social
problems. Tourism's resources will be conserved for continuous use in the future.
As an inter-related system, it is important that tourism planning aim for integrated
development of all these parts of the system, both the demand and supply factors and the
physical and institutional elements. The system will function much more effectively and bring
the desired benefits if it is planned in an integrated manner, with coordinated development of
all the components of the system. Sometimes, this integrated system approach is also called
the comprehensive approach to tourism planning because all the elements of tourism are
considered in the planning and development process.
An underlying concept in planning tourism is that tourism should be viewed as an inter-related
system of demand and supply factors.
The demand factors are international and domestic tourist markets and local `residents who
use the tourist attractions, facilities and services.
The supply factors comprise tourist attractions and activities, accommodation and other tourist
facilities and services.
DEMAND FACTORS SUPPLY FACTORS
 International tourist markets  Attractions and activities
 Domestic tourist markets  Accommodation
 Residents' use of tourist attractions,  Other tourist facilities and services
facilities and services  Transportation
 Other infrastructure

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  Institutional elements

 Attractions include natural, cultural and special types of features - such as theme parks,
zoos, botanic gardens and aquariums - and the activities
 Accommodation includes hotels, motels, guest houses and other types of places where
tourists stay overnight.
 The category of other tourist facilities and services includes tour and travel operations,
restaurants, shopping, banking and money exchange, and medical and postal facilities
and services.
 These supply factors are called the tourism products related to these attractions.
Other elements also relate to supply factors. In order to make the facilities and services usable,
infrastructure is required. Tourism infrastructure particularly includes transportation (air, road,
rail, water, etc.), water supply, electric power, sewage and solid waste disposal, and
telecommunications.
Provision of adequate infrastructure is also important to protect the environment. It helps
maintain a high level of environmental quality that is so necessary for successful tourism and
desirable for residents.
Just as important as planning for integration within the tourism system is planning for
integration of tourism into the overall development policies, plans and patterns of a country or
region. Planning for this overall integration will, for example, resolve any potential conflicts
over use of certain resources or locations for various types of development. It also provides for
the multiuse of expensive infrastructure to serve general community needs as well as tourism.
Emphasis is given to formulating and adopting tourism development policies and plans for an
area in order to guide decision-making on development actions.
The planning of tourism, however, should also be recognized as a continuous and flexible
process. Within the framework of the policy and plan recommendations, there must be
flexibility to allow for adapting to changing circumstances. Planning that is too rigid may not
allow development to be responsive to changes. There may be advancements in transportation
technology, evolution of new forms of tourism and changes in market trends. Even though
allowed to be flexible, the basic objectives of the plan should not be abrogated although the
specific development patterns may be changed. Sustainable development must still be
maintained.
Planning for tourism development should make recommendations that are imaginative and
innovative, but they must also be feasible to implement. The various techniques of
implementation should be considered throughout the planning process. This approach ensures
that the recommendations can be accomplished, and provides the basis for specifying the
implementation techniques that should be applied. Implementation techniques can also be
imaginative and not only rely on established approaches. It is common practice for a tourism
plan to include specification of implementation techniques, and sometimes a separate manual
on how to achieve the plan recommendations.

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Concept of Sustainable development
Tourism has had a profound impact upon destinations worldwide, and although this impact has
been positive for many destinations, there are numerous examples where tourism has
adversely impacted upon the environment and social fabric of the destination community. The
negative impacts of tourism have been attributed, among other things, to inadequate or non-
existent planning frameworks for tourism development. As such, tourism planning is considered
vital to offset some of the negative impacts that tourism can have on the destination
community.
While several different approaches have been advocated over the years, tourism planning
based on the philosophies of sustainability has emerged as one of the most comprehensive
approaches. Two concepts are acknowledged as contributing to sustainable tourism
development:
 enhanced levels of multiple stakeholder participation in the tourism planning process
and
 A strategic orientation towards tourism planning.
The concept of sustainable tourism development/ tourism sustainability began to be used at
the end of the 80s when those involved in tourism industry (academics, tour operators, etc.)
began to realize the effects of tourist development in destination places. The meaning of
sustainability is applicable in tourism industry through the concept of sustainable tourism
development which consist an important place of application for sustainability principles.
Sustainability in tourism has to do with a tendency of development that recognizes and puts
principles in tourism development.
Tourism sustainability is the key in the search of a more productive and harmonic relation
between three basic elements:
 the tourist-guest,
 the host society and
 The environment.
This relation is a dynamic one. The achievement of this desirable harmony depends upon the
ability of the host region to accept the absorption and adapt changes that come as a result of
tourism development and may be predictable or not or they can differ in intense and extent.
As for the host society economic effectiveness should exist together with positive social
relations between hosts and guests. Positive attitudes on the side of host societies intensify the
quality of the tourist experience offered and contribute positively in the attractiveness of the
destination.

The basis for sustainable tourism

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Over the past two decades, the inter-relatedness of all earth systems and human systems has
become abundantly clear. We have clearly understood that no human action ever occurs in
total isolation from other natural systems, and we have appreciated the reality that humans are
dependent on the earth’s limited resources. We have realized the fundamental importance of
somehow finding ways to live within the carrying capacity of the earth. Over the last twenty
years, the global community has been primed for some fundamental changes, including a
search for “sustainable development” that is based on new modes of resource allocation and
accounting, new attitudes toward the preservation of environmental integrity, and new ways of
making decisions in all sectors.
Among the imperatives that promote and enhance the vision of sustainable futures, including
that of a sustainable future for tourism, are the following:
Among the imperatives that promote and enhance the vision of sustainable futures, including
that of a sustainable future for tourism, are the following:
 prudent use of the earth’s resources within the limits of the planet’s carrying capacity;
 devolution of top-down decision-making responsibilities and capabilities to a broader
range of the destination’s stakeholders
 the abatement of poverty and gender inequalities, and respect for fundamental human
rights;
 enhancement of quality of life through improved health care, shelter, nutrition, and
access to education and income-generating skills;
 preservation of biodiversity and life support systems for all natural habitats; and
preservation of indigenous
 Knowledge and ways of living, and respect for the spiritual and cultural traditions of
different people.
Sustainable development must meet three fundamental and equal objectives, namely:
a. Economic: production of goods and services (the overriding criterion in fulfilling this
objective is efficiency);
b. Environmental: conservation and prudent management of natural resources (the
overriding criterion is the preservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological
integrity); and
c. Social: the maintenance and enhancement of the quality of life (equity is the main
consideration in meeting this objective) and inter-generational, as well as intra-
generational equity in the distribution of wealth.
Achieving sustainable tourism development also requires that the private sector and the public
sector cooperate as partners in working toward a sustainable society.
Making decisions about sustainable tourism development also requires that governments work
within a broader framework than may have been used traditionally, working toward decisions
that are:

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  longer-term: to better anticipate and prevent problems;
 multi-sectoral: to include the full range of functions of the tourism environment;
 ecosystem based: to recognize the cumulative and synergistic effects of actions;
 wider: to recognize the impacts of their actions on other sectors, regions, and
communities;
 deeper: to recognize that the causes and consequences of the problems they seek to
solve may involve others and other institutions; and
 Full-cycle: to consider the full context of resource use from initial extraction to end use.

Long-range and strategic planning

Long-range comprehensive planning is concerned with specifying goals and objectives and
determining preferred future development patterns. Tourism development policies and plans
should be prepared for relatively long-term periods - usually for 10 to 15 and sometimes 20
years - depending on the predictability of future events in the country or region.
These may seem to be long planning periods, but it commonly requires this length of time to
implement basic policy and structure plans. Even development of specific projects, such as
major resorts or national park-based tourism, can require a long time. A planning approach
which has received considerable attention in recent years, and is applicable to some tourism
areas, is strategic planning.

While the outcomes of strategic and long-range comprehensive planning may be very similar,
strategic planning is somewhat different. It focuses more on identification and resolution of
immediate issues. Strategic planning typically is more oriented to rapidly changing future
situations and how to cope with changes organizationally. It is more action oriented and
concerned with handling unexpected events.
Applied only by itself, strategic planning can be less comprehensive in its approach. By focusing
on immediate issues, it may deviate from achieving such long-term objectives as sustainable
development. But if used within the framework of integrated long-range policy and planning,
the strategic planning approach can be very appropriate.

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Role of stakeholders in tourism planning
A stakeholder is defined as ‘ any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the
achievement of the organizations objectives ’ ( Freeman, 1984: 46 ), and that group or individual
has a legitimate interest in the organization.
Tourism exists as a powerful economic force in the development of both community-based and
global markets. Today, its activities comprise the world’s largest industry. Despite its economic
significance, debate continues as to whether or not tourism truly benefits all entities involved in its
system. At a most basic level, two schools of thought exist regarding its role in community
and/or market development.

Importance of Stakeholder Involvement in Tourism Planning & Developments

Tourism has become one of the main industries identified as having the potential to assist local
communities through diversifying the economy, enhancing community pride and awareness,
and supporting the increased development of public services. For tourism development to be
successful however, it must be planned and managed responsibly.
Gunn (1994) suggests that the success and implementation of a tourism development plan is
often based on the support of stakeholders such as citizens, entrepreneurs, and community
leaders. Therefore, tourism as a development strategy requires deliberate planning with the
inclusion of stakeholders.
To include stakeholders in tourism development planning, they must be identified and their
interests and needs understood. Traditionally, stakeholders have been identified in a
community based on geographic and socio-graphic characteristics. Planners identify groups
based on characteristics and then develop and implement strategies to include the different
groups in the planning process.
In general, there are four major stakeholder perspectives identified in tourism. These
perspectives are;
 the tourist,
 the residents,
 the business owners, and
 the local governmental officials.
Much of the research investigating the complex relationship between stakeholders and tourism
has focused on individual stakeholder groups; residents, visitors, business owners, or
government officials; and their perceptions and attitudes.
Researchers have argued that tourism planners should consider the interests of all
stakeholders before proceeding with development efforts. The incorporation of stakeholder
views and interests can reduce conflicts in the long term by drawing on the knowledge and
insights of stakeholders.

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Public and Private Partnership in tourism planning
Broadly, PPP refers to “an arrangement between the public and private sectors with clear
agreement on shared objectives for the delivery of public infrastructure and/or public services.”
Research Republic LLP (2008: 13).
International agencies which have promoted PPPs use similar, functional definitions of PPPs.
Public Private Partnerships are defined as: “Arrangements where the private sector supplies
infrastructure assets and services that traditionally have been provided by the government.”
The International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2004: 4).
International agencies which have promoted PPPs use similar, functional definitions of PPPs.
Public Private Partnerships are defined as:
“Arrangements where the private sector supplies infrastructure assets and services that
traditionally have been provided by the government.” The International Monetary Fund (IMF,
2004: 4).

PPP Schemes and Modalities

1. The private sector designs and builds an asset, and then transfers it to the government.
The private sector may also operate it, and then transfers it to the government when
the operating contract ends. The private partner may subsequently rent or lease the
asset from the government for a specified period.
2. The private sector buys or leases an existing asset from the government, renovates,
modernizes and/or expands it, and then operates the asset with no obligation to
transfer ownership back to the government.
3. These are variants of Design-Build-Finance-Operate (DBFO) schemes. The private sector
designs, builds, finances, owns, develops, operates and manages an asset with no
obligation to transfer ownership to the government.

Although the PPP modalities are classified in three distinct sets above, they may in fact have
overlapping features. A useful way of distinguishing the PPP schemes above is by a number of
parameters such as:
1. ownership arrangements;
2. the role of government;
3. the extent of private sector participation in public service provision;
4. the risks and responsibilities of each of the players.

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Changing Roles and Distribution of Risk and Responsibility in PPP Modalities:

Public inolvement in tourism planning

Planning is for the benefit of people, and they should be involved in the planning and
development of tourism in their areas. Through this involvement, tourism development will
reflect a consensus of what the people want. Also, if residents are involved in planning and
development decisions - and if they understand the benefits the tourism can bring – they will
more likely support it.
At the national and regional levels of preparing tourism plans, the common approach to
obtaining public involvement is to appoint a steering committee. This committee offers
guidance to the planning team and reviews its work, especially the draft reports and policy and
planning recommendations that are made.
A planning study steering committee is typically composed of representatives of the relevant
government agencies involved in tourism, the private sector, and community, religious and
other relevant organizations. Also, open public hearings can be held on the plan. These hearings
provide the opportunity for anybody to learn about the plan and express their opinions.
Another common approach, when the plan is completed, is to organize a national or regional
tourism seminar. This meeting informs participants and the general public about the
importance of controlled tourism development and the recommendations of the plan. Such
seminars often receive wide publicity in the communications media. In a large country or
region, the usual procedure is for the tourism plan to be prepared by the central authority with
public involvement as described above.

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This can be termed the `top-down' approach. Another procedure sometimes used is the
`bottom-up' approach. This involves holding meetings with local districts or communities to
determine what type of development they would like to have.
These local objectives and ideas are then fitted together into a national or regional plan. This
approach achieves greater local public involvement in the planning process. But it is more time
consuming and may lead to conflicting objectives, policies and development recommendations
among the local areas.
These conflicts need to be reconciled at the national and regional levels in order to form a
consistent plan. It is important that the development patterns of the local areas complement
and reinforce one another, but also reflect the needs and desires of local communities. Often a
combination of the `top-down' and `bottom-up‘ approaches achieves the best results.

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