TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5835
TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD
P van Beek, K Koelemeijer and D J van Zuilichem,
Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
M P Reinders, Agrotechnological Institute (ATO-DCO),
Wageningen, The Netherlands
H F Th Meffert, Veluviaweg 3, Wageningen,
The Netherlands
This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,
Food Technology and Nutrition, Copyright 1993, Academic Press.
Introduction
0001 Until the 1980s, logistics was synonymous with in-
ventory control, production, and transport planning.
In later years, the coordination between departments
directly concerned with the flow of goods has attained
more importance, covered by the term integral
logistics.
0002 The task of integral logistics is to develop control
concepts for chain processes which avoid sub-
optimization of links and result in win–win struc-
tures.
0003 These chain logistics have to be based on knowl-
edge of the processes involved, added value and cost
per link, and a framework of obligatory and volun-
tary limitations. The flow of goods through the
consecutive links is defined by:
0004 . The composition of intermediate and/or final
products.
0005 . The production processes, and the protection
required.
0006 . The allocation of added value and cost throughout
the links of the chain.
0007 . The allocation of logistic processes in the chain
with respect to the final quality of the product.
0008 . The structure of the flow of information between
the links.
0009 The principal question is how to control the flow of
goods to reach predetermined criteria of perform-
ance: flow time, cost, quality, level of service, flexibil-
ity, and added value.
0010 The application of logistic principles in the agro-
food industry has revealed specific characteristics
of the chains of activities. This has resulted in the
formulation of agro (food) logistics.
0011 The specific characteristics relate to:
0012 1. The variation of basic material in quality and
composition, within lots of primary products,
over the seasons. The final product must still
comply with firm specifications.
2. The quality of intermediate and final products is 0013
strongly influenced by time and physical param-
eters (temperature, humidity, and atmospheric
composition) in the chain between producer and
consumer. Hence, there is a special need for
protection.
3. Packaging technology plays an important role in 0014
the quality development of, as well as protection
of, foods. It also influences the design of processes,
size of units, and equipment for physical trans-
formation and preservation by heating, chilling,
or freezing.
4. The agrorhythm of the primary production must 0015
be obeyed for biological and technical reasons.
Nevertheless, a constant flow of final products of
constant quality must be achieved.
5. The production of linked products in the case of 0016
many intermediate and final products from one
primary product.
6. The high expenditure on logistic efforts to bring 0017
the primary product in a suitable state to the con-
sumer, which can amount to more than 300% of
the value of the primary product.
Agrologistic Chains
While focusing on the agrofood industries, it should 0018
be recognized that other segments of agroindustrial
activity form comparable logistic systems, including
fisheries.
Based on these considerations, agrofood logistics 0019
can be defined as ’the integration of organization,
planning, and control of acquisition, transport, stor-
age, processing, and packaging related to the
movement of foods from the origin of the primary
product to the final destination at the point of con-
sumption.’
Information technology, storage and transporta- 0020
tion technology, and process technology must be con-
sidered to play a most important role in the flow of
goods of agricultural origin.
Table 1 gives some idea of the mass flow in the food 0021
chain to consumers in Europe.
The following considerations are relevant for the 0022
control of chain processes for the distribution of food
(and feed) products.
Perishability of Products
The quality loss of primary, intermediate, and final 0023
products requires the integration of quality models
into the logistic concepts. The final product has to
comply with requirements of warranted quality
 5836 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD

tbl0001 Table 1 The food basket of European consumers, 1987/1988 integrated models can take account of economic
(kg per capita per year)
factors explicitly in terms of fixed and variable
Category EC UK Italy Netherlands costs, for equipment, labor and energy.
a
Deep-frozen and frozen 16 27 6 16
Chilled 207 218 177 232 Telematics Rationalizing the exchange and process- 0028

Fresh and chilled 205 124 276 231 ing of communications by telematics allows improve-
Nonconditioned 211 228 195 186 ment of the competitive edge of enterprises by
Total 639 597 654 665 increasing reach and/or flexibility. The investment in
Beer 64 81 16 86
telematics has to be balanced against logistic advan-
Wine 43 10 72 14
Population: EC c. 340 million tages or savings in the total chain.
Europe c. 675 million
a
Logistic services In recent years logistic services to 0029
Excluding icecream.
Adapted from: Agricultural Figures (NL) (1990) The Hague: LEI.
the customer have become an important part of the
marketing strategy of companies. Many enterprises
concentrate on core activities, thus creating new op-
portunities for service industries. Although not spe-
and availability. These requirements have to be cific to the agroindustry, this development increases
translated into actions within the links. Two main the number of links in the chain and therefore adds
parameters can be recognized per link: residence or to the number of actors, and consequently can hamper
throughput time – a logistic parameter – and physical control.
condition, e.g., temperature – a technical parameter. Audits, ad hoc or on a regular basis, of all actors in 0030
Generally, both fall within certain distribution the chain, or commodity boards of a permanent char-
boundaries. acter, are important instruments in accomplishing the
0024 The translation of requirements into conditions or necessary cooperation. Strong consumer preferences
actions in the chain is of crucial importance for the for high quality and freshness strengthen the need for
final result, in terms of cost and quality. Based on a effective control of logistic operations.
fundamental knowledge of products and transform-
ation processes, the cost-sensitivity of alternatives Operations research Agrologistics based on bio- 0031
which comply with the given quality requirements logical, physical, and economic sciences leads to
of the market can be studied. complicated problem solutions. Operations research
presents a common mathematical base whereby
Autonomy of Actors quantitative models are combined and developed,
and algorithms are designed for planning logistic
0025 Agroindustrial chains consist, in most cases, of a large
structures and procedures.
number of links, acting autonomously, and this
These models are integrated together in decision- 0032
hampers control and optimization. Concepts have to
support systems (DSS) for use in the development of
be developed which allow for effective control and
logistic structures in enterprises and chain operations.
avoid suboptimization; realization of such control
Such models can be focused on the minimization of
concepts needs information technology. Effective
specific or general expenditure, with fixed values of
and efficient systems and procedures for the exchange
performance criteria. The balance of fixed, location-
of information between the actors in the chain have to
dependent costs, and costs of transportation is one of
be developed.
the instruments of decision.
0026 Autonomy of actors and product perishability
require special attention for the following items:
Logistic structures In comparison with general 0033

industry, the logistic structure of an agroindustrial

0027 Modeling The impact of actions in the fields of enterprise depends more strongly on the primary
process, storage, and transport technology can be product, its properties and availability, and the
evaluated with models that couple process param- market for the final product.
eters to product qualities. Technological models Product design can be considered to be a most 0034

describe the development of quality (of a lot) of a
product as result of flow time–environmental factor
distributions along the chain. By adding economic
information, such models are expanded to logistic
models, which allow quality–cost optimization
by comparison of various logistic channels. Such
important variable for the logistic process. The
composition of the product, based on primary and
intermediate products, and production processes
determines the location for production units for com-
ponents, intermediates, and final products. In add-
ition, telematics, technology and requirements for

production, processing, storage and transportation
determine the logistic structure of an enterprise.
0035 Models for the quantitative evaluation of the inter-
dependency between these variables and their com-
bined influence can be a powerful support for
decisions on strategic, tactical, and operational levels
for the structure and operation of agroindustrial
systems and enterprises. The fresh market, in particu-
lar, presents examples of the distribution of effort,
by translating the aim of a high quality level at the
consumer into actions in the links of the logistic
chain, e.g., to improve temperature management or
to reduce throughput time, or both.
A Systems Approach
0036 The characteristic of agrologistic chains appears to be
the rapid quality degradation that results from sub-
optimal environmental factors and extended lead
times. Logistical methods and techniques commonly
being used in other industries, such as manufacturing
resources planning (MRP) and optimized production
technology (OPT) cannot be applied directly to dis-
tribution networks for perishable foodstuffs. Control
of environmental factors and lead time in a complex
system is essential for the success of the total oper-
ation. The complexity of the distribution of food
products can be demonstrated by an aggregated
picture of the logistic system (Figure 1).
Logistics in Organization
0037 The management of an organization defines the goals
with respect to product quality (e.g., minimum qual-
ity level at delivery, customer service level). In prac-
tice, it proves difficult to implement this policy at the
operational level. The actors on the workfloor are
specialists in their field: sales managers, technicians,
operators, who all have different views of the target
Management
Product Market
Information
Infrastructure Processes
Technology
fig0001 Figure 1 The agrologistic triangle. ß ATO-DLO.
TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5837
of the operation. With conflicting aims in the differ-
ent echelons, the goals defined and agreed at manage-
ment level cannot be implemented properly in the
daily operation. In such cases, the creation of a
Logistics Department between administration and
operations departments can offer the necessary co-
ordination and integration of effort.
The management must be able to communicate 0038
with, to coordinate, and to inspire the different
areas of science and technology, contributing to
agrofood logistics at the strategic, tactical, and
operational levels (Figure 2).
Logistic Processes
A systematic approach to logistic chain operations 0039
reveals the basic tasks of conveyance of mass, energy,
and information from origin to destination. Trans-
formation and transport can be recognized as basic
characteristic processes: product transformation to
bring the material to be conveyed into a certain con-
dition, goods transformation to bring it into a shape
to comply with the requirements of the transport
processes. For agrofood logistics in distribution
networks, preservation processes and unitization
processes are important links to food and transport
technology. Packaging plays a role as well in both
goods and product transformation, for unitization
as well as conditioning (Figure 3).
Customer Service
Customer service links logistics to marketing. As the 0040
output of logistic operations is perceived by the cus-
tomer in terms of products and services performance,
a marketing approach is needed to determine the
optimal level of logistic efforts throughout the supply
chain.
A logistic system contributes to distribution channel 0041
profits by enhancing the efficiency of movement of
goods, insuring quality maintenance, and providing
time and place utility. In addition to a cost-oriented
Management
Administration
Logistics department:
regulating, coordinating, allocating
Purchase Production Sales Inventory Expedition
Figure 2 Logistics in the organization of an enterprise. ß CIVO- fig0002
TNO.
 5838 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD

Logistics

Transformation Transport

Goods transformation Product transformation Storage

Unitization Preservation/conditioning Transfer
Aggregation/packaging drying Transportation
stacking salting
bundling sterilization
wrapping pasteurization
Segregation freezing
unstacking, etc. chilling
modified atmosphere
controlled atmosphere
Change
Appearance Keepability Availability
Quality life in space and time
Modularization
Standardization

fig0003 Figure 3 Physical processes relevant for agrofood logistics.

approach, the revenue-generating role of customer . Product: the commodity that the market is looking 0048

service and its use as a tool of competition have for, including purchase of the raw material, pro-
increasingly received attention. Logistics defines cus- cessing and packaging, pollution, and politics.
tomer service as ’a process for providing significant . Place: availability of the product in space and time 0049

value-added benefits to the supply chain in a cost- at consigned points of destination at the conveni-
efficient way.’ ence of the consignee.
0042 In models of logistic operations, customer service is . Price ultimately expresses the monetary value of 0050

generally considered as a constraint which must be the product in the marketplace for the consumer,
met while minimizing costs. More attention, however, but determines at the same time the span between
should be given to the maximization of customer ser- cost and revenue, the possible profit.
vice within cost constraints. In this perspective, cus- . Promotion is a means of dealing with nonuniform 0051

tomer service becomes an instrument of competition.
0043 Relevance of time and place utilities, and quality
maintenance, which add value to the product, shifts
along the consecutive links of logistic channels from
mainly technological to mainly consumer-oriented
aspects.
0044 At the central storage and distribution center, mass
and volume of units, protection against abuse (mech-
anical and thermal), and information are important.
supply and demand. Customer service may be used
as an argument in promotion. On the whole, pro-
motion is strongly interrelated with the flexibility
of the logistic system to respond to discontinuities
in product flow.
Circumstantial factors can be designated the six
’small Ps’:
. Purchase reaches forward to the raw material in 0052

0045 On the retail level, reliability, speed, and punctual- order to meet the requirements for processing in the
ity of delivery and accurate compliance with the chain.
ordered quality and quantity are most important. . Processes are necessary to bring the primary prod- 0053

Services of the preceding link in terms of continuity, uct into a state and shape to satisfy the different
communication, flexibility, and claims handling requirements of handling along the logistic chain,
become more important. and of usage at the ultimate customer.
0046 Consumers do not explicitly consider technology . Package indicates not only mass or number, volume, 0054

and logistics, but instead focus on subjective attri-
butes, like sensorial aspects, convenience, nutritive
value, keepability, and waste disposal. Retailers
translate consumer desires into their own demands.
0047 Marketing activities are traditionally described in
and shape in which the product satisfies the various
requirements in the logistic chain, but also the pro-
tecting, preserving, and presenting function, espe-
cially in the downstream links of the chain.
. Pollution: environmental concern is becoming an 0055

terms of the four ’big Ps’ of product, place, price, and important aspect concerning the use of resources,
promotion: raw materials and energy, contributing to ozone

depletion and the greenhouse effect. Also, product
losses and waste disposal (product and package
material) must be considered. Product pollution
by production, processing, and packaging has to
be excluded for reasons of public health.
0056 . Politics interfere on different levels in the distri-
bution of perishable foodstuffs. Public health
authorities have developed a strong interest in
food processing and packaging, which has recently
been paralleled in the field of pollution. Also,
prices, conditions, and quality life (date marking)
are under political control all along the chain.
Regulations, guidelines, and standards for equip-
ment, processes, and labor conditions can greatly
affect the logic of logistic chains and, consequently,
the cost/quality balance, which demonstrates the
need for anticipating research and information.
0057 . Public opinion: apart from political pressure, atti-
tudes and opinions determine the actions of the
consumer. Attentive retailers are aware of these
marketing aspects, and try to follow trends of
consumer preference.
Integration of Logistics and Marketing
0058 The need for efficient distribution of perishable prod-
ucts, i.e., to meet quality requirements at minimum
costs, has strengthened the need for integral planning
of logistic activities. Customer service, considered as
a goal variable and a constraint at the same time,
must be analyzed from a total distribution channel
perspective. This implies an integration of logistic and
marketing theories.
0059 Once the way is open to performing logistic oper-
ations in order to maximize customer service, the
issue of allocation of channel cost–benefits emerges.
This may give rise to alterations in distribution chan-
nel structures, resulting in forward or backward inte-
gration along the chain, and changes in distribution
channel power.
Budgeting and Accounting
0060 The growing need for the quantification of logistic
efforts has induced new developments in budgeting
and accounting, such as direct product costing (DPC)
and direct product profitability (DPP). In view of
stricter energy management and rising energy costs,
energy accountancy has been used to compare differ-
ent products with respect to their energy consump-
tion, including processing, handling, and packaging.
The same can be done for other cost elements, as long
as they are accounted separately.
0061 Integral Cost Accountancy The integral revenue-
expenditure concept can be recognized in cost
TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5839
optimum production planning technique (COPPT),
which requires an accurate integral cost-accounting
system per unit of sales, including fixed and variable,
labor, energy and maintenance costs of processes and
equipment through all relevant links of the logistic
system.
Total cost analysis The formulation of a total cost 0062
analysis is not without practical problems; the appre-
ciation of quality development and its balance against
capital costs represents a specific problem.
Modeling
Multiechelon models have been developed that inte- 0063
grate the links of the distribution channel. Although
customer service is considered, in a narrow sense, as
out-of-stock and/or delivery time, these models offer
possibilities for modeling logistic operations, and
enable users to consider customer service as goal,
variable, and constraint.
The Physics of Physical Distribution
Logistics and Technological Processes
Two types of processes play important roles in logistic 0064
chains–transformationandtransport.Transformation
brings the products into a state and shape in which
they can endure the rigors of the transport processes.
Goods transformation brings the products into a 0065
form convenient for handling in the links of the
logistic chain.
Product transformation conditions the product 0066
into a state in which it can comply with the require-
ments of quality at the point of destination.
Transformation
Goods transformation Agricultural products 0067
become available in a given form, which is generally
not the most convenient for handling in a transport
chain. Small products have to be aggregated into
larger units; large products have to be segregated
into smaller units. Portioning, packing, and utiliza-
tion are common physical processes in agrofood
operations. For fluid products, the implementation
of these processes is simple compared to those for
solid products which cannot be fluidized. Mechaniza-
tion of goods transformation is easy to accomplish for
fluidizables. Solid products are more difficult to
handle. Mechanization closely follows human actions.
Sorting and grading are prerequisites for the forma-
tion of commercial units for the trade and, as such,
are part of customer service.
Goods transformation processes affect the appear- 0068
ance of a product. Generally, an appearance has to
 5840 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD
aggregate, to protect, and to present both the product
and information about the product. It must also fit
into the systems of transport, distribution, infor-
mation and, most important for perishables, of
conditioning.
0069 These requirements can lead to contradictions with
conventional solutions, and require special measures
with respect to conditioning, design of appearances,
and creation of the necessary external conditions. The
importance of the functions of an appearance varies
with the size of the unit. For the smaller units and
articles, the presentation function often outweighs the
protection, whereas the larger preparations mainly
serve aggregation and protection purposes. With the
larger size, the protective function includes facilita-
tion of conditioning, which switches from outside to
inside, e.g., pallet versus container (Table 2).
0070 Unitization The formation of units by aggregation
to larger appearances, or by segregation to smaller
ones, is summarized as unitization. In more detail,
stacking, bundling, wrapping, and their counter-
processes are concerned.
0071 Unitization is a necessary step in rationalizing
transport processes. Its interference with transform-
ation and conditioning processes should be fully
recognized. Methods and materials for unitization,
such as glueing, bundling by straps, wrapping in foils
or nets, by pallets, slip-sheets, slip-pallets, shipping
cases, and ballet boxes, isolate the product from ambi-
ent conditions by the dimensions and properties of the
material. Thus, more or less protection, e.g., resistance
against external conditioning, is built up by insulation
or permeability. Perforation of the separating covers
and application of pressure differences across the units
are means of controlling external conditioning.
0072 Modularization It is obvious that a coordinated
relationship between the dimensions of appearances
greatly rationalizes handling, utilization of storage,
and transportation space and use of equipment. An
early example is the unicube concept, developed in
The Netherlands, c. 1965. In later years, the National
tbl0002 Table 2 Thermophysical properties of appearances; results of goods transformation
Domain Mass (kg) Diameter (m)
Product 0.1 0.05
Article 0.5 0.1
Manload 15 0.3
Unit load 500 1.0
Transport unit 7500 2.5
Storage unit 30 000 5.0
a
With external conditioning.
b
Heat generation 100 W t
1.
Materials Handling Bureau of Australia (c. 1980), the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
(in the early 1980s) and the US–Canadian Modular-
ization-Unitization-Metrification Project pursued the
same line.
A problem rises from the choice of the module. The 0073
early adoption of the manload as the module (1968)
has led to diverging developments in unit loads,
leading to the continuation of the problem in the
domain of transport units. The result is a very unsatis-
factory situation of competing unit loads and incom-
patible transport units.
Standardization Standardization of mass and di- 0074
mensions is necessary for the operation of an efficient
logistic system. Good examples are the Australian
and the North American approach. Unfortunately,
Europe cannot adopt a uniform, simple system as
long as industries adhere to two standard unit loads.
In spite of the recommendation of the ISO to prefer
the 1200  1000 mm unit as maximum plan view
size (MPVS) or gross unit load size (GULS) and
central modular standard, some industries stick to
1200  800 mm units, which makes the manload
(600  400 mm) the central module on a lower level
of aggregation and means a loss of flexibility of
configuration within the unit load.
Modeling Goods transformation process modeling 0075
has to start from the dimensions of the articles that
have to be accommodated in the subsequent aggre-
gated unit, taking account of the necessary toler-
ances for the design, stacking, deformation, and
conditioning.
Design systems The design of modular packaging 0076
is greatly facilitated by the existence of transport
package and loading pattern selection tables and
palettizing charts, as well as graphical and graphical-
plus-calculator design systems. Comprehensive com-
puter programs are available to evaluate all factors
influencing the basic package design. They are con-
sulted to determine all three dimensions of the unit
Cooling time (h)a Overtemperature (  C)b
0.2 0.2
2.0 1.0
18 6.0
180 Thermal explosion
900 Thermal explosion
3600 Thermal explosion

load and the manloads which form it. Thus a means is
provided to produce an extensive list of options and
to evaluate the various compromises rated against the
factors contained in the input data. Computer pro-
grams also allow for the use of average industry al-
lowances for many factors involved, which reduces
the preparation work. With regard to conditioning,
the thermophysical properties of product and pack-
age have to be considered, as well as penetration by
the conditioning medium, which is generally air.
0077 Product transformation By various processes, agro-
food products can be transformed into a state in
which they can meet the requirements of a given
transport process within given limits of quality. The
choice is between chilling, freezing, pasteurization,
sterilization, salting, and drying, in order of increas-
ing keeping times and decreasing approximation
to the fresh product. Food preservation technology
is thus linked directly to agrofood logistics. Irradi-
ation, modified-atmosphere (MA) and controlled-
atmosphere (CA) treatments also transform the
product with respect to its keepability. Generally,
these techniques require close temperature control as
well. There is also a link to packaging with respect to
heat and mass transfer. Refer to individual processes.
0078 Quality life Keeping time or quality life, as depend-
ent on the environmental conditions around the
product, limits the throughput time of products in
the logistic chain. Parts of the total quality life are
often considered separately, as storage life (the first
part) or as shelf-life (the last part) of the total
economic quality life.
0079 The quality life of a product is limited by the rate of
quality loss or deterioration and the imposed limita-
tions. A difference can be made between high-quality
life and practical quality life; these differ in the degree
of change of characteristic properties of the product.
Development of quality with time can be attributed to
different principal processes of a physical, chemical,
or biological nature, the rates of which are dependent
on environmental factors such as temperature, water
vapor concentration or pressure deficit, and atmos-
phere composition. (See Storage Stability: Mechan-
isms of Degradation; Parameters Affecting Storage
Stability; Shelf-life Testing.)
0080 These quality-affecting processes act in different
ways on two main groups of foodstuffs:
0081 1. Dead products: subject to (bio)chemical and
microbiological processes.
0082 2. Living produce: in addition exhibiting biological
processes, dissimilation with O2
CO2 conversion
and heat production.
TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5841
N.B: fermentation and microbiological growth can
also cause CO2 and heat production. Both groups
can be divided into two subgroups:
A. Those in need of a process of maturation to reach 0083
maximum consumer quality: red meats, cheeses,
fresh fruits (banana, peach, pear, plum).
B. Those which start commercial life at maximum 0084
consumer quality: sterilized, pasteurized, and
frozen products, white meats, fish, fresh vege-
tables, mushrooms, bakery products, prepared
meals.
Group A products, represented by c. 16% of the food
basket, need controlled holding times and conditions
to reach maximum quality. From then onwards, they
require limited throughflow times in the logistic
chains, adjusted to the environmental conditions for
tolerable quality loss, as do group B products.
Quality models The necessity for quality models to 0085
be incorporated into logistic models results from the
great number of alternative logistic processes which
have to be evaluated in the design of distribution
chains. Quality loss of food is largely determined by
the cumulative effect of the environmental conditions
throughout the handling history of the product. The
simple rules of additivity and exchangeability are
obeyed better the less the product is processed.
It is impractical and expensive to conduct product 0086
spoilage tests for all possible scenarios. Mathematical
models can be chosen after verification by simple
experiments on the basis of statistical tests on the
lack of fit against experimental error. By measuring
and modeling deterioration reactions, quantitative
data are collected, and models as well as model
parameters can be generated. For integration into
process or logistic models, quality models for the
influence of environmental factors should comply
with the following, in the order presented:
1. The broadest possible application on the processes 0087
considered.
2. Appropriate consideration of the mechanism of 0088
the reaction.
3. Simplicity of determination of parameters, and 0089
application.
4. The smallest deviations from experimental values. 0090
5. No discontinuities. 0091
These models may be based on the time-course of 0092
specific components or properties from physical,
chemical, or sensorial analysis or, in the absence of
objective information, on expert judgment, always
keeping in mind the possibility of adjustment of the
quality scale of the chosen model.
 5842 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD
0093 Zero or first-order reaction mechanisms can
cover practically all deterioration processes re-
gardless of their nature. Arrhenius-type relationships
satisfactorily describe the influences of temperature;
linear, hyperbolic, or squareroot relationships re-
quire the same type of parameters. For other envir-
onmental factors, more direct relationships to the
driving force exist. For the combined influence of
temperature and gas concentration, special models
have to be derived from specific experimental re-
search.
0094 Combined models For temperature-dependent de-
terioration processes, combined heat-transfer models
are most useful. They allow prediction of the effects
of management decisions on quality life of condi-
tioned products, especially on the shelf-life. Better
protection during transport processes, by reducing
the time–temperature load, can be balanced against
lower temperature levels or shorter flow-times in one
or more links of the chain.
0095 It is obvious that the performance of deterioration
tests for all possible scenarios is highly impractical
and expensive. Mathematical modeling, computer-
ized on the basis of experimentally established
parameters, and a few validation experiments can
perform the necessary sensitivity analyses and assist
in finding the optimal operational conditions.
0096 Chain reactions A product passing through a logis-
tic chain generally encounters a sequence of environ-
mental conditions. The final state when leaving the
nth link of the chain is decisive. If the prerequisites of
additivity and exchangeability are fulfilled, the result
of the chain reaction can be described on the basis
of average time and temperature conditions by a
sequence of ideal reactors.
tbl0003 Table 3 Categories of refrigerated foodstuffsa
Code Reference temperatureTref (  C) Temperature increment B (1/K)
DF
18 Positive/negative
F
12
C04 þ4 Negative
C07 þ7
F00 0 Positive
F04 þ4
F07 þ7
F10 þ10
F13 þ13
Quality life at temperature T: t ¼ tref exp[B(T
Tref)].
a
Temperatures and commodities quoted are arbitrary examples. They can vary by national regulation or specific product requirements. From Meffert
HFTh (1990b) Chilled foods in the market place. In: Processing and Quality of Foods, vol. 3. London: Elsevier Applied Science, with permission.
Temperature and time distributions Average time 0097
and temperature provide only a crude way of describ-
ing the flow of goods and the influence of environ-
mental conditions in the chain. Statistical mathematics
offers a way of dealing with the time and temperature
distributions encountered in practice. The Weibull
distribution appears to yield the most general model
for time and temperature distributions in the links
of logistic chains. The background for the ready
modeling of logistic distributions by the Weibull func-
tion is given by the fact that the minimum value
is given by a solid physical condition, whereas the
maximum is open to stochastic influences. Two par-
ameters for scale and shape allow for the modeling
of a wide range of practical situations, from plug
flow to ideal mixing, with all possible intermediate
situations.
Arbitrary distributions A more direct approach can 0098
be based on the fractional distribution of time and
conditions in the links of the chain. The stepwise
calculation of the final quality distribution after a
number of links, from the distributions of time and
temperature in the links, and the initial quality distri-
bution, can easily be computerized. This approach
presents a means of balancing profits of quality
retention against expenditure for throughflow time
and improvement of conditions, if the cost–revenue
analysis is done in appropriate figures.
Standardization As in goods transformation, prod- 0099
uct transformation also presents reasons for stand-
ardization in terms of quality life, temperature
sensitivity and, as a consequence, keeping equipment,
storage facilities, as well as transport vehicles and
transfer processes. Products can be categorized
according to keeping temperatures and quality life at
Examples
Regulations
Deep-frozen, frozen products
Small meat portions, ready-to-eat vegetables, pasteurized
meals, salads, large meat portions, sterilized meals, dairy
products
Leafy vegetables, berries, pears
Apples, oranges, potatoes
Green beans, subtropical fruits
Avocado, mango, subtropical, and tropical produce
Bananas, pineapple, tropical produce
 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5843

tbl0004 Table 4 Time–temperature matrix of keepability characteristicsa

Denomination Time, tref (days) Temperature increment, B(1/K)

< 0.05 Low 0.05^0.15 Medium 0.15^0.25 High > 0.25 Extra sensitive

Chilled product (category CO4)

Extra short <3 Kitchen-ready vegetables
Leeks Cabbage Carrots
Very short 3–7 Minced beef Poultry Pork
Short 7–14 Beef slices Pasteurized milk
Medium 14–30 Beef joints (CO2-packed)
Long > 30 Lamb carcass (cryo-vac)
Frozen product (category DF)
Extra short < 30
Very short 30–100 Cooked meals Cured pork
Short 100–200 Seafood
Medium 200–400 Cream Carcass meat Vegetables
Long > 400 Butter, lamb Raw dough, poultry Green peas, fruit
a
Examples are given for two categories from Table 2.
From Meffert HFTh (1990c) Quality development of foodstuffs under time–temperature conditions in cold chains. In: Progress in the Science and Technology
of Refrigeration in Food Engineering. Paris: International Institute of Refrigeration, with permission.

a reference temperature and temperature sensitivity, treat transport in agrofood logistics in terms of
as shown in Tables 3 and 4. volume. Figure 4 depicts a scheme of the mass flow
0100 Standardization in such a way facilitates the design in distribution chains for refrigerated foodstuffs.
of distribution processes in existing chains and of new All activities of moving goods between origin and 0104

operations, especially if paralleled by a standardiza- destination can be understood as transport, storage

tion of storage and transport equipment, and transfer
processes, in terms of operational performance, e.g.,
temperature maintenance by a degree of thermal
protection derived from the nonaccomplished tem-
perature fraction. Existing classification and stand-
being transportation with zero speed. Generally, the
goods pass a number of storage and transportation
links on their way through the chain. All links are
interfaced by transfer or transshipment processes.
As a rule, a reduction of the links in the logistic 0105

ardization of these types of equipment and processes
do not attempt to enter this problem area. ISO, ATP,
and Lloyd’s classification are based on technical rather
than technological performance characteristics.
0101 Recent European Community and national legisla-
tion concerning the temperature of frozen and chilled
products may create a need for a more operational
approach to product, equipment, and process classifi-
chain reduces cost and losses; in addition, it saves
time. This pleads for careful consideration of the
necessity of the links, which can lead to integration
of processes, such as product transformation by
chilling or freezing, into the transportation link. In-
transit treatments, thermal or by gas injection, are
also practiced for disinfection or disinfestation.
The second important rule is the rationalization, 0106

cation, or even standardization, as explained above. for time and cost reasons, of the transfer process,
which links transport closely to goods transform-
Transport ¼ Storage–Transfer–Transportation ation.
0102 The second, more genuine logistic process is that of The maintenance of the established condition of 0107

transport. Generally, the transport in a logistic chain
involves mass, energy, and information (M–E–I).
Mass flow downstream and information flow up-
and downstream are easily recognized. Less obvious
is the transport of energy. For refrigerated products,
the product is a specific task in the transport chain
of agrofood products, in addition to the general task
of conveyance.
Interrelationships with transformation and condition- 0108

this aspect is closely related to product transform-
ation and conditioning. Attention is required for
reasons of economy in quality protection.
0103 Mass The most apparent transport process is that of
mass. However, as agrofood products are mostly in
the category of high-volume goods (load density
lower than 500 kg m
3), it is more appropriate to
ing Modular coordination, i.e., dimensional cap-
ability of appearances and equipment as elements of
a system, is a prerequisite for rationalization of trans-
port processes, and as such subject to standardiza-
tion. Elements of a covering system for modular
coordination are represented by ISO standards on
manloads, unit loads, and transport units in ISO
668–1968, 3676–1983, 6780–1988, 3394–1984,
 5844 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD

Commodity
Level Fish Meat Dairy Fruit/vegetable Imports
Catching
Slaughtering Slaughtering Collecting Collecting (T)
1 Processing Processing Processing Processing

Cold store Cold store Cold store Cold store

(T) (T) (T) (T) (T)

2 Port cold Central Port cold

store store store

(T) (T)

3 Distribution/wholesalers, cold store

(T) (T)

Catering: Retail:
4 refrigerators, back-up stores,
display cabinets display cabinets

(T)
Home refrigerators
5
Consumers

fig0004 Figure 4 Principal structure of distribution chains for refrigerated foodstuffs (T), transportation and transfers. Note that for products
with extremely or very short quality life, the distribution link is cut short by direct links between processing and retail/catering. Adapted
from Nowotny S (1988) Computer-modeling of cold chain systems. In: Cold Chains in Economic Perspective, Paris: International Institute
of Refrigeration.

1496/2–1988. Unfortunately, the system is not prac-
tical for conditioned units, because of the space
requirements for insulation, air circulation, and the
necessary equipment for conditioning. The Australian
Standards represent a more logical coordination.
Revision of the dimensions of the transport unit for
better compatibility with unit loads has so far met
much opposition. Elements for a better-fitting system
appear in European and US traffic regulations, and in
the standards of the European Normalization Centre
(CEN) for removable vehicle bodies (swap-bodies),
allowing extra width for conditioned road vehicles.
0109 For perishable products, conditioning is necessary
to keep the quality loss in logistic chains within a
which make the modular system work. The larger the
unit handled, the shorter are the transfer times per
mass between the links of the transport chain. Shorter
times of exposure, together with a small surface-to-
volume ratio, improve the thermal protection.
Storage
Facilities for storage in logistic chains are destined to 0111
buffer discontinuities of the product flow between
supply and demand. They can be subdivided into
types differing in task, size, and operational condi-
tions:
1. Primary or production stores. Storage space at the 0112

preset span. Distribution of time and conditions, the
most important being the temperature, are the
governing process variables.
0110 Methods of unitization generally interfere with
conditioning processes. Pallets, slip-sheets, slip-pallet,
etc., and wrappings influence the distribution of con-
ditioning air. Perforations and build-up of pressure
differences around the unit promote air penetration.
production site serves as a buffer volume between
the discontinuities of the inflow from the produc-
tion process and the outflow of products to sec-
ondary stores. Residence times are short. The band
of conditions cannot be kept small because of the
high turnover. For unitized products, row storage
on pallets is preferred.
2. Secondary or central stores. In the case of seasonal 0113

This must be considered in the choice of tolerances production, central stores are loaded within a
 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5845

short period, but emptied slowly. Volume-saving For the reception of a discontinuous flow of 0119

block storage of unit loads or transport units,
if necessary with supporting frames, minimizes
investment in conditioned space. The principle of
first-in–first-out (FIFO) cannot be fully realized
because of the limited accessibility of the units.
0114 Nonseasonal products are supposed to pass
central stores rapidly to keep investment in space
and product low. Owing to the high turnover rate,
goods at the retailer, a conditioned back-up store
can form a buffer. This is kept as small as possible.
Row storage is used. Conditioning is problematic,
owing to the high turnover rate; thus residence
times have to be kept at a minimum, depending
on consumers’ buying attitudes.
Standardization Generally, storage facilities up to 0120

the FIFO principle cannot be strictly observed,
but through-flow racks, gravity or mechanically
driven, can help.
0115 Storage conditions are optimized within a
narrow band of environmental factors. Residence
times vary according to the type of product, but
tend to be a substantial part of quality life.
tertiary level are built to customer specifications, in-
cluding layout for unit loads and, in some cases, even
whole transport units. Standards apply for technical
equipment. Exceptions are the standard cold stores in
East Europe, which are classified for layout, size, and
storage conditions.
The usage of space by different stacking methods 0121

0116 3. Tertiary or distribution stores. Distribution stores can be given approximately as:
are mere turnover facilities designed for rapid
handling of flows of various products. Again the . Block storage 100% 0122

FIFO principle cannot be applied; mixing of . Movable racks 80–90% 0123

products of different age is usual. Incomplete . Row storage 60–80% 0124

unit loads remain longer in store than complete . Rack storage 50–60% 0125

ones.
depending on the height. Additional space has to be
0117 Rack storage, manually or automatically oper-
provided, according to the equipment, for the con-
ated for separate accessibility of units, is fre-
quently used, in spite of the large loss of space. veyance of goods.
Heat load from ambient and air circulation 0126
Arrival and departure areas are separated, and
performance, which determine the quality of condi-
commissioning areas are provided, mostly with
tioning, are chosen for economic considerations, in-
only partial protection against external condi-
cluding losses of mass and quality. Small storage and
tions. Environmental conditions are not optimal,
retail cabinets are built serially. Detailed general
but residence times are comparably short. In par-
standards exist only for refrigerated display cabinets
tially protected areas, a high flow rate of products
(ISO 1992/1–8; ISO 5160/1–2).
must keep the ambient load low.
0118 4. Quarternary stores, retail cabinets. At the retail-
Transfer
ers, display cabinets of fractions of a cubic meter
shelf volume per meter present the product to the Processes of cargo transfer or transshipment are char- 0127

consumer. Because of the great influence of the
ambient conditions in the shop, and the fact that
the product is handled in articles rather than man-
loads, conditioning is possible only within a broad
band. This restriction must be compensated for
by extremely short, carefully watched residence
times, which also keep at bay the comparatively
high costs per volume per time in this link.
acterized by transfer times and degree of protection
against ambient conditions. Cargoes are handled in
units from manloads to transport units, with various
types of equipment from manhandling to large fork-
lift trucks or cranes for whole transport units. Fortu-
nately, the rate of cargo transfer and the degree of
protection increase with the size of the unit, and costs
decrease per unit of volume (Table 5).

tbl0005 Table 5 Cargo transfer in large and small units: time, protection, cost

Operation Transfer time (min) Relative cost (%)

Long-haul truck,
18 pallets of 720 kg, with lift truck Load/unload, 15 100
560 manloads of 28 kg, belt conveyor Load/unload, 84 140
Delivery truck, 16 deliveries of 20 manloads of 15 kg
On pallet Load, 13; unload, 16  5 100
Per manload 37 16  18 250
 5846 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD
0128 Flow times in the transfer links are determined by
the rate of transfer and the volume to be transferred.
The need to condition the transfer area depends on the
external climate. The degree of protection in this case
is a function of time.
0129 Standardization The standardization of appear-
ances in transport chains has led to a standardization
of transfer equipment in terms of speed, volume, and
mass that can be handled (conveyors, trucks, cranes).
Transportation
0130 Means of transportation exist for the land, road and
rail, sea and air modes. The intermodal container
has united these and closed the protected-chain
operation. On a regional scale, the removable body
or swap-body serves the same purpose.
0131 Road vehicles account for the largest part of the
transportation of agrofood products. On a national
basis in the EC, up to 90% of the flow of foodstuffs is
by road transport that must conform to traffic regu-
lations; this has resulted, practically, in standardiza-
tion according to size and mass. Containers and
removable bodies (swap-bodies) comply with strin-
gent ISO standards for external and internal dimen-
sions. Conditioned road vehicles and swap-bodies
can comply better with ISO unit loads than do ISO
containers. For both types of vehicle, performance is
regulated. Residence times are close to transit times,
and almost uniform, except for delivery runs, which
are mostly short.
0132 Railcars are larger and comply with standards of
the railroad administrations, not necessarily with unit
load standards. Ships are built to customers’ or
builders’ standards, and aircraft largely to builders’
standards, which include compliance with unit load,
pallet, and/or container regulations. Unfortunately,
air cargo unit load devices other than air/surface con-
tainers are not part of the ISO modular system.
0133 Conditioning depends on the specifications of the
customer and the performance of the builder. In sea
carriage, narrow bands of conditions are normally
realized, much less in air transportation, which leans
on the advantage of short transit times.
0134 Residence times under transit conditions are
mostly close to transit times, because waiting times
are under pressure in all links of the chain. On short
distances by rail, waterways, and air, waiting times
can be considerable, depending on schedules. The
speeds of land and sea transportation are practically
the same, between 30 and 60 km h
1 (considerably
less on inland waterways), but transit times are in fact
restricted by the frequency of departures for inter-
modal combined transportation, and by regulations
concerning the active time of drivers for the road leg.
Standardization Standardization of means of trans- 0135
portation is traditionally concerned with external
aspects. Only recently has the principle of vehicle
design around the cargo been introduced by allowing
double-pallet-wide, conditioned road vehicles in the
EC and the USA. ISO is also paying attention to this
aspect by standardizing the minimum internal dimen-
sions of thermal containers (ISO 1496/2–1988).
Modular coordination with unit loads has not been
attained yet.
Standards for containers (ISO) and regulations for 0136
road vehicles and railcars (Economic Commission for
Europe) exist for thermal insulation and refrigeration
power, but not for operational characteristics, such as
the temperature band.
Standardization of road vehicles, railcars, ships, 0137
and aircrafts as carriers is linked to the external di-
mensions of unit loads or transport units to be accom-
modated within the limits given by the traffic system,
by law or by convention.
Degree of protection For all conditioning processes 0138
in the transport chain, the degree of protection
against temperature rise can be defined by means of
the nonaccomplished temperature rise of the product
as the fraction of the difference from the target or
reference temperature to ambient.
For refrigerated spaces, the quotient-heat load 0139
factor over air circulation is a specific operational
criterion of performance. For the evaluation of the
conditioning process, the influence of air distribution
and product heat load can be introduced by an
empirical coefficient.
For transient processes, such as the temperature rise 0140
during cargo transfer, transient heat transfer theory
offers suitable models for the estimation of the degree
of thermal protection, which now depends on time.
Energy If the accumulated energy per conveyed unit 0141
of mass by the processes in the chain is recognized as
transported energy, the concept of energy transport in
distribution chains becomes meaningful, especially if
the energy input is accounted for. Particularly for
perishable products which have been subjected to a
product transformation, the energy accumulated by
the transformation process and by the subsequent
conditioning for protection against quality loss
makes the quality of energy management visible. A
very basic approach considers the total energy input
for primary production, processing, and handling, as
well as for auxiliary materials. More chain-relevant
information takes account of chain processes only
(Tables 6 and 7).
Low degrees of protection in the links of a chain 0142
mean great deviations from the target temperature
 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5847

tbl0006 Table 6 Energy consumption in distribution chains of refrigerated foodstuffs

Link Frozen Chilled

Energyrate Time (days) Energy accumulated Energyrate Time (days) Energy accumulated
(W t
1) (kJ kg
1) (W t
1) (kJ kg
1)

Product transfer 400 40–120

Central store 13–60 165 100–850 50–125 5–12
Transportationa 1 600 570
Distribution store 30–120 46 120–480 100–250 1 9–22
Transportationb 1 850 1 800
Retail cabinet c. 2000 10 c. 1700 c. 10 000 1 c. 860
Domestic refrigerator c. 500 23 c. 1000 1500–3000 1 125–250
Total 246 4850–5850 4 1834–1979
a
20.5 t  500 km. Frozen, þ15%; chilled, þ10%.
b
5.6 t  200 km. Frozen, þ15%; chilled, þ10%.
Adapted from IIF/IIR (1980).

tbl0007 Table 7 Fuel energy inputs for transportation goods flow in case of unforeseen developments of the
Means of transportation Load capacity MJ km
1
1
MJ t km
1 market. Downstream communication should contain
(tonnes) Fully loaded information on the product and its peculiarities, qual-
Empty Full
ity life and reference conditions (date marking). More
Ship 49 000 0.127 relevant are remaining quality life, required condi-
Rail 1000 0.36 tions, and handling recommendations. These should
Truck and trailer
be communicated in advance of the goods. They must
Rural 20.6 12.1 15.3 0.74
Urban 20.6 17.1 26.9 1.31 be matched by information on equipment and condi-
Truck tions in the links. Standardization of information is
Rural 5.6 8.3 9.8 1.75 helpful to reduce variations and mistakes, and to
Urban 5.6 12.1 14.5 2.59 speed up the information flow. Bar-coding and scan-
Van
ning at the interfaces backed by a computerized
Rural 0.4 4.3 4.8 12.0
Urban 0.4 6.7 7.3 18.3 inventory management system is a powerful means
of quality management of an agrologistical chain of
From IIF/IIR (1980).
operations. Its introduction again requires standard-
ization of information and procedures, and must be
the subject of a careful cost–benefit analysis.
and bad energy management, leading to additional Processing of these data for operational purposes is 0146

costs of energy to restore conditions and quality loss.
0143 Finally, the economic consequences of distribution
processes boil down to cost accounts (Table 8).
0144 Information Transport processes are controlled by
the demands of the market. In order to realize just-in-
time (JIT) delivery, the signal for replenishment has
to be sent in due time, allowing for the necessary
time for the order cycle. A scheme of the information
flow in a cold-chain system with computer-assisted
only possible by powerful computer systems with
specific software. In the preparatory phase, for the
establishment of the necessary tools, even more com-
puting capacity is needed to evaluate possible alterna-
tive chains and networks by modeling calculations
and simulation in a reasonable time. It is in this
application that large computer capacities and high
calculation speeds are required.
Inventory management In many cases, the conven- 0147

guidance, management, and supervision is shown in
Figure 5.
0145 Data acquisition and processing Upstream commu-
nication along logistic chains mostly concerns the
order procedure, which has to be initiated by reliable
information from the outlets. Because the signal has
to be given in advance of stock depletion, a model is
needed to predict the necessary JIT delivery. Further
information upstream can be required to redirect the
tional FIFO concept is not able to satisfy the justified
quality requirements of the customer. Limitation of
throughflow time deals with one aspect of quality
management, limitation of temperature with another,
whereas only the combination of the two can yield
the appropriate measures. Inventory management,
therefore, should be based on information about the
time–temperature load on the product rather than
on time-based information alone (shortest remaining
shelf-life instead of FIFO as a management criterion).
 5848 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD

tbl0008 Table 8 Average production and distribution costs for three main food chains (Netherlands, FI kg
1)

Meat andmeat products Milk and dairy products Fruit and vegetables
Preserved Fresh

Primary product 5.0 0.75 1.43

Processing and packaging 0.92 0.27 2.71 0.39
Wholesale trade 0.62 0.06 0.54 0.17
Retail trade 3.10 0.27 1.31 0.55
Consumer price 9.64 1.35 5.99 2.54

From Meffert HFTh (1990a) Economic developments pertinent to chilling foods. In: Chilled Foods, the State of the Art. London: Elsevier Applied Science,
with permission.

Mainframe computer microbiological, or electronic bases and with indicat-

Management ing or integrating functions, or both.
information system As it is impossible to keep track of the quality 0150

Modem development of every product by time–temperature

Local reports Host computer Production line integration with one or even a handful of built-in
deterioration models, solutions can be found in the
classification of products and corresponding sensors
Modem with direct indication, or sensors readable by a com-
Modem
Bar-code printer puter-based system which compares the monitored
Hand-held time–temperature load with stored keepability data,
computer
Cold store T
and converts the result into information on the
remaining quality life expectation of the product.
T Modem
For a wider use of such instruments, standardiza- 0151
Distribution
Interface center tion of sensors and information processing equipment
Modem T is necessary.
Hand-held Simple time–temperature integrating devices can
Retail 0152
computer
stockroom monitor distribution chain operations for the general
Barcode reader purposes of quality management. But even highly
sophisticated monitoring systems remain in need of
fig0005 Figure 5 Schematic presentation of a system for a computer- expert supervision, because of the general rule that
assisted guidance, management, and supervision system of a
cold-chain system. From Nowotny S (1988) Computer-modeling
the sensor is not identical with the product.
of cold chain systems. In: Cold Chains in Economic Perspective.
Effects of Scale
Paris: International Institute of Refrigeration.
Costs per unit of storage and transport rise ap- 0153

proximately with the square root of volume. There-

This requires a new system of control which, in its
simplest form, is represented by cheap, physico-
chemical, time–temperature integrators for each lot
of product. A more suitable approach can be expected
from the application of microelectronic sensors
backed by a computer-assisted inventory manage-
ment system.
0148 Modern miniaturized, self-contained, time–tem-
perature data-logging sensors, with readable and/or
barcode readout, and computer-assisted processing of
the information, allow a system to control the flow-
time down the chain according to the remaining
quality life of the product.
fore, large stores and vehicles are greatly favored by
logistic enterprises. Whereas production stores can
afford uniformly conditioned facilities of maximum
size, distribution storage is in need of compartmenta-
tion and separate conditioning to meet the require-
ments of different product groups. Towards the end
of logistic chains, at the retail outlets, storage facil-
ities and deliveries become necessarily smaller, dic-
tated by high surface charges and problems of
accessibility in cities. At the same time, compartmen-
tation and separate conditioning becomes more
problematic.
The same reason, low cost linked to a high degree 0154

of protection, favors large appearances for transfer

0149 Monitoring product conditions During recent operations. Warehouses exist which handle whole
years, a great number of devices for temperature transport units, i.e., containers, porthole or integral
monitoring in conditioned distribution chains have reefers, but also flats with superstructures to be
been developed, on mechanical, physicochemical, covered by an insulated hood when in transit. Mostly,
 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5849

however, unit loads (on pool-pallets) are the normal For production with a quality life longer than the 0158

appearances for transshipment. Smaller units, carts
with supporting superstructures, are favored at the
retail level for closed-circuit operations.
0155 As the transportation link tries to maximize deliver-
ies, a trend emerges leading to maximum size, multi-
minimum lead-time through all the links of the chain,
a buffer station can most economically, in terms of
both cost and quality, be situated at the point of
maximal aggregation.
If quality life and lead-time are of the same magni- 0159

compartment, multitemperature, expensive vehicles.
This tendency towards large vehicles is counteracted
by traffic situations and regulations, which restrict
the accessibility of cities and, because of the need
for supplementary deliveries JIT, add to the logistic
costs.
0156 Also, the degree of protection is generally greater at
large facilities and operations, owing to their more
sophisticated technical equipment and better supervi-
sion of operations. For this reason, large-scale oper-
ations in logistic chains for conditioned products
serve two purposes – low cost and good protection
of quality. Costs per unit per time increase remark-
ably towards the end of the chain, where smaller
tude, the buffer function tends to move towards the
end of the chain. The storage function of all the
preceding links is minimized for a maximization of
quality at the retail outlets. The retailers, however,
favor daily shopping, which generates greater sales,
and reduces quality problems that result from long
residence times at suboptimal conditions at the retail
end of the chain. The buffer function is thus located at
the wholesalers and distribution centers, which often
have to take care of the delivery service as well,
governed by effective order processing.
Combination of Product Flows
A powerful means of reducing logistic costs is given 0160

facilities are in use, together with decreasing protec- by the combination of goods in consecutive links of
tion. Longer lead-times for storage at large facilities the distribution chain; Table 9 gives an example.
lead to cost and quality savings. Shorter lead-times at The possibilities for combination depend on the 0161

small facilities are favored for the same reason, and
reduce inventory costs. An effective information
system is necessary to guarantee the continuity of
the product flow to the customer.
Location of Facilities along the Logistic Chain
0157 The general model of a logistic chain for agrofood
required conditions and lead-times, but can also be
enlarged by multicompartment, multicondition facil-
ities for storage and transportation. In this field, pro-
tective packaging for specific products has its special
merits, allowing for combinations which are other-
wise impossible.
Considerable reductions of transportation costs are 0162

products is the tree of Pythagoras, showing the col-
lecting and the distributing function on both sides of
the trunk. Small facilities are located at the beginning
and at the end of the logistic system, implying high
flow speeds for cost and quality reasons. Large
facilities mark the middle of the trunk, the center
of the logistic system.
reported through savings on labor, equipment, and
energy costs. The total savings percentages are much
less spectactular, but interesting enough with respect
to price competition. In storage links, the advantages
of combination are more indirectly realized by sim-
plified, uniform inventory administration and order
processing.

tbl0009 Table 9 Integration of product flows for delivery at retail level; developments in Europe (Netherlands) and USA, 1984–1990

Product group Conditioning Average volume flow (%)

Europe (NL) USAa
1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

General grocery n 52 D 53 D 42 D 42 D 67 D 76 D
Meat products ch 8R 6R 23 D
Cheese/eggs ch/n 2R 2R 2R
Fruits and vegetables ch/n 18 R 11 R 17 R
Frozen food df/f 2R 2R 2R 9R 7D
Fresh meat ch 5R 5R 7R
Milk products ch 13 R 9R 13 R 13 R 13 R 13 R
Bakery products n 10 R 7R 11 R 11 R 11 R 11 R
100 100 100 100 100 100
a
First digit (1,2) represents different stores; second digit (1–4) represents steps of development.
n, nonconditioned; ch, chilled; f, frozen; df, deep-frozen; D, from distribution center; R, from regional depot/wholesaler.
 5850 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD
Logistical Policy
0163 In agrofood logistic systems, storage and trans-
portation – the main activities in all logistic systems
– are, in addition, characterized by critical design
considerations originating from product quality de-
velopment in time, and conditioning. The two activ-
ities compete for minimum costs, by aiming for the
largest possible facilities in the relevant links of the
transport chain, but under the limiting influences of
differentiated product requirements and restrictions
imposed by high housing costs and traffic regulations
in cities.
0164 Total cost analysis provides a methodology for the
integrated design of activities along the whole chain
of operation. For a complete analysis in the planning
phase, a wide variation of design alternatives has to be
considered: alternative location of primary (produc-
tion), secondary (distribution), and tertiary (retail)
storage facilities, type of transportation, shipment
size, appearances, equipment for processing, condi-
tioning, and handling.
0165 As decision criteria, maximum service, maximum
profit, maximum competitive advantage or minimum
investment (hired services) may be used. Regardless
of the chosen strategy, the desired level of customer
service should be accomplished at minimum total
cost. The number of possible alternatives to reach
this aim can only be tested by the use of mathematical
models. The formulation of a total cost analysis is not
without practical problems, especially the appreci-
ation of quality degradation.
0166 Limitations of throughflow time deal only with the
general logistic aspect of product flow. The limitation
of conditions, the most important of which is tem-
perature, is considered the second most important
aspect for perishable products, whereas only the com-
bination of the two can yield the appropriate criteria
in terms of quality maintenance in the chain.
0167 Supervision of chain processes, therefore, should
be based on information on time–temperature load
on the product rather than only time-based informa-
tion (shortest remaining shelf-life instead of FIFO as
the management criterion). This requires a new
system of control, which in its simplest form is pre-
sented by cheap physicochemical, directly readable,
time–temperature integrators for each lot of product.
A more suitable approach can be expected from the
application of microelectronic sensors backed up by a
computer-assisted inventory management.
Standards and Recommendations
0168
0169 ANSI, American National Standards Institute. MH
10.2–1973.
AUF, Australian United Fruit and Vegetable Organ- 0170
ization. 1980, Product Manual.
EC, European Community. Directive Deep Frozen 0171
Food for Human Consumption, 1990, Brussels.
ECE, Economic Commission for Europe. Agreement 0172
on the international carriage of perishable foodstuffs
and on the special equipment to be used for such
carriage (ATP), Geneva, 1970, and amendments,
revised 1991.
Food Marketing Institute. MUM-project. Trade 0173
Practice Recommendations for the Fresh Fruit and
Vegetable Industry, Washington, DC (1982).
IIR/IIF, International Institute of Referigeration, 0174
Saving of energy in refrigeration, Paris, 1980. Re-
frigeration of perishable products for distant markets,
1982. Cold chains in economic perspective, 1988.
ISO, International Organization for Standardization. 0175
3674-1984, Packaging – Unit Load Sizes – Dimen-
sions. 3394-1984, Dimensions of rigid rectangular
packages – Transport packages. 6780-1988, Gen-
eral-purpose pallets for through transit of goods –
Part 1: Principal dimensions and tolerances.
1496/2-1988, Series 1 freight containers – Specifica-
tions and testing – Part 2: Thermal containers.
SAA, Standards Association of Australia. AS 2348- 0176
1980, Modular Unit Loads.
UK, Food Hygiene Regulations, 1990, London. 0177
See also: Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation;
Parameters Affecting Storage Stability; Shelf-life Testing
Further Reading
Broetz W (1958) Grundriss der Chemischen Reaktionstech-
nik. Bergheim/Weinstrasse: Verlag Chemie.
Derens E, Canourges EM, Bennahmias R and Billiard F
(1990) Les enregistreurs de temperature. Revue General
du Froid, July/August: 63–68.
Jordan JL, Shewfelt RL, Prussia SE and Hurst WC (1985)
Estimating the price of quality characteristics for toma-
toes. Horticultural Science 20(2): 203–205.
Karel M (1982) Prediction of shelflife of stored food. In:
Refrigeration of Perishable Products for Distant
Markets, pp. 202–209. Paris: IIF/IIR.
Kast FE and Rosenzweig JE (1985) Organisation and
Management. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Koelemeijer K (1991) A conceptual model of customer
service evaluation. In: Bradley F (ed.) Marketing
Thought around the World. Dublin: University College.
Labuza ThP (1982) Shelf Life Dating of Foods. Westport,
CT: Food and Nutrition Press.
LaLonde BJ, Cooper MC and Noordewier TG (1988) Cus-
tomer Service, a Management Perspective. Oak Brook:
Council of Logistic Management.
LaLonde BJ and Zinszer PH (1976) Customer Service:
Meaning and Measurement. Chicago, IL: National
Council of Physical Distribution Management.

Levenspiel O (1972) Chemical Reaction Engineering, 2nd
edn. New York: Wiley.
Meffert HFTh (1990a) Economic developments pertinent
to chilling foods. In: Chilled Foods, the State of the Art.
London: Elsevier Applied Science.
Meffert HFTh (1990b) Chilled foods in the market place.
In: Processing and Quality of Foods, vol. 3. London:
Elsevier Applied Science.
Meffert HFTh (1990c) Quality development of foodstuffs
under time–temperature conditions in cold chains. In:
Progress in the Science and Technology of Refrigeration
in Food Engineering. Paris: International Institute of
Refrigeration.
Nowotny S (1988) Computer-modelling of cold chain
systems. In: Cold Chains in Economic Perspective.
Paris: International Institute of Refrigeration.
Rich E (1988) Artificial Intelligence. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Saguy I and Karel M (1980) Modelling quality determin-
ation during food processing and storage. Food Technol-
ogy 34(2): 78–85.
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
D A Bender, University College London, London, UK
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Background
0001 The tricarboxylic acid cycle is the major energy-
yielding metabolic pathway in cells, providing the
greater part of the reduced coenzymes that will be
oxidized by the electron transport chain to yield
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The pathway is some-
times known as the citric acid cycle, or the Krebs’
cycle, after its discoverer, Sir Hans Krebs. In addition
to its role in energy-yielding metabolism, and the oxi-
dation of 2-carbon units, the cycle is also the major
pathway for interconversion of 4- and 5-carbon com-
pounds in the cell, many of which arise from, or are
intermediates in the synthesis of, amino acids. Oxa-
loacetate, a key intermediate in the cycle, is the main
precursor for gluconeogenesis in the fasting state.
Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
0002 As shown in Figure 1, the tricarboxylic acid cycle
provides a pathway for the oxidation to carbon
dioxide and water of the acetate moiety of acetyl coen-
zyme A (CoA) arising from the oxidative decarboxyla-
tion of pyruvate (the end product of glycolysis), the
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE 5851
Schoorl D and Holt JE (1981) Fresh fruit and vegetables
distribution management of quality. Scientia Horticul-
turae 17: 1–8.
Shewfelt RL, Prussia SE, Hurst WL and Jordan JL (1985) A
system approach to the evaluation of changes in quality
during postharvest handling of southern peas. Journal of
Food Science 5: 169–772.
Simpson R, Lee Ken-Youn and Torres A (1989) A manage-
ment tool to improve microbial quality of refrigerated
foods. In: Technical Innovations in Freezing and Re-
frigeration of Fruits and Vegetables. Paris: International
Institute of Refrigeration.
Spiess WEL (1988) Changes in quality of deep frozen food
on the frozen food chain. In: Cold Chains in Economic
Perspective. Paris: International Institute of Refriger-
ation.
Westerterp KR, van Swaail WPM and Benneckers AACM
(1984) Chemical Reactor Design and Operation.
Chichester: John Wiley.
b-oxidation of fatty acids, the metabolism of ethanol,
ketone bodies, and a number of amino acids. For each
mole of acetyl CoA oxidized in this pathway, there is a
yield of 12  ATP equivalents, arising from:
. 3  nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADþ) re- 0003
duced to NADH, equivalent to 9  ATP when reox-
idized in the electron transport chain;
. 1  flavoprotein reduced, leading to reduction of 0004
ubiquinone, equivalent to 2  adenosine diphos-
phate (ADP) when reoxidized in the electron trans-
port chain;
. 1  guanosine diphosphate (GDP) phosphorylated 0005
to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), equivalent to
1  ATP.
The four-carbon intermediate, oxaloacetate, reacts
with acetyl CoA to form a six-carbon compound,
citric acid. The cycle is then a series of steps in
which two carbon atoms are lost as carbon dioxide,
followed by a series of oxidation and other reactions,
eventually reforming oxaloacetate. The CoA of acetyl
CoA is released, and is available for further formation
of acetyl CoA from pyruvate, fatty acids, or ketone
bodies.
Although oxaloacetate is the precursor for gluco- 0006
neogenesis, fatty acids and other compounds that give
rise to acetyl CoA or acetoacetate cannot be used for
net synthesis of glucose. As can be seen from Figure 1,