FIGURES OF SPEECH  Understatement: the representation of

something as significantly less than it

actually is.
Alliteration: the same sound is repeated noticeably
 
at the beginning of words placed close together
e.g. "That was some
 
sprinkle." (in reference to the
Examples--
four inches of rain which fell
 
an hour before)
"World Wide Web"
 
"Find four furry foxes"
Metaphor: an implied comparison between things,
 
events, or actions which are fundamentally unlike.
Allusion: casual reference to a famous historical or
 
literary figure or event.
 Metonymy: substituting a word--which is
 
suggested by it or which is closely
e.g., " . . . a turn of phrase even
associated with it--for another word
Shakespeare would appreciate."
 
 
Examples-- 
Apostrophe: direct address of an absent or dead
 
person or personified thing.
"He hit the bottle soon after his wife
 
died." 
 Invocation: an apostrophe to a god or
"She counted heads."
muse.
"The White House denied the
 
allegations."
Examples-- 
 
 
 
"God help me!"
 Synecdoche: using a part for the whole or
"Ambition, you're a cruel
the whole for a part
master!"
 
 
e.g. "The pen is mightier than
Irony: using words to mean the opposite of what is
the sword"
said.
 
 
 
 Sarcasm: cutting, sneering or taunting irony.
  Personification: representing a thing,
 
quality, or idea as a person
Examples-- 
 
 
 Examples-- 
"He's handsome if you like
 
rodents."
 "The book just begged to be
 
read."
 Hyperbole: exaggeration not meant to be
 "The ocean screamed its
taken literally.
fury"
 
 "Fear lived with us in
Examples--
Vietnam."
 
"I waited forever for him."
"I destroyed that test!"
"The world ended the day
my father died."
 
Onomatopoeia: using words to imitate the sound
they represent
 
Examples--
 
"I heard the hiss of steam
down in the access tunnel."
"The clock in the living room
cuckooed the hour."
"The clang of the cymbals
echoed across the square."
Parallelism (aka "Balance"): Expressing two ideas
of equal importance through similar phrasing.
 
 Antithesis: parallelism in grammatical
pattern but strong contrast in meaning.
 
Examples--
 
"Give me liberty or give me
death!"
"That isn't the truth, it's a
lie."
"You seem so wise, yet how
foolish you are."
 Paradox: a statement that seems self-
contradictory. The effect of this is to jolt the
reader into paying attention.
 
Examples--  "He was cold as an arctic
 
"He who loses his life for My
sake will save it."
"One day is sometimes
better than a whole year."
 
 Oxymoron: a paradoxical statement in
which two contradictory terms or words are
brought together.
Examples--
"The quiet was deafening."
"He was clearly
misunderstood."
"They were alone together."
 Anaphora: repetition of the same word or
words at the beginning or successive
clauses, verses, or sentences,
 
  e.g., "He came as
conqueror. He came as ally.
He came as a stranger. He
came as brother."
 
 Climax: The arrangement of a series of
ideas or events in ascending order of
importance, interest, or effectiveness.
Stresses the relative importance of ideas or
events.
 
 Anticlimax: the use of climax up to the end
of a series of thoughts and then the
insertion of some unimportant idea in the
last, most important position. Useful in
humorous writing.
 
Simile: an explicit comparison between things,
events, or actions which are fundamentally unlike. .
  Typically involves the words "like" or "as"
 
Examples:
 
"His arguments withered like
grapevines in the fall."
wind."
"Crooked as a dog's hind
leg."
"Casual dress, like casual
speech, tends to be loose,
relaxed and colorful"
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH Indirect Speech
1. Change of pronouns 1  John asked if / whether she was coming.
Direct Speech  2 John asked where Mary was.
John said, “I am coming.”
Indirect Speech • yes/no questions  -  use if/whether
   John said that he was coming. • wh-questions       -  use the wh-word
2. Change of tenses
Direct Speech 5. Actions : promises, orders, requests, advice etc.
John said, “I am coming.” Direct Speech
Indirect Speech John ordered Bill, “Clean my boots.” 
John said that he was coming. Indirect Speech
John ordered Bill to clean his boots. (object
3. Change of situations + to + infinitive)
Direct Speech
John said, “I did this exercise last night.” 6. Report using present and future tenses
Indirect Speech Direct Speech
John said that he had done that exercise the John said,'The sun rises from the east.'
previous night. Indirect Speech
  John said that the sun rises from the east.
• 'this' becomes 'that'
• 'last night' becomes 'the previous night' • if the original speaker’s present and future
is still present and future
• in other words, the tense is unchanged

Direct Speech Indirect Speech 7. Modals verbs

this that Direct Speech
here there  John said,'I must do my homework now.'
now then Indirect Speech
today that day  John said that he must do his homework.
yesterday the day before /
the previous day • would , should, could, might, ought to and
tomorro the next day must are unchanged
w the week before /
last week the previous week 8. Wh- Questions
the following Direct Speech
next month My friend asked,"Where is Venus?"
month before Indirect Speech
ago  My friend asked where Venus was.

TRANSFORMATION PROCESS:
4. Questions and answers 1) Put the subject before the verb.

Direct Speech 2) Change the pronoun: you to I

1 John asked her, “Are you coming?”
(yes/no question)
 2 John asked, “Where is Mary?”  (wh-
question)
3) Join the clauses using the how,
who, whom, where, when, why
4) Adjust the 2nd verb to
the time frame of the 1st verb.