Wolfpack

Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine

Navigation Guide
Written by: Koji Kamori

Version 1.8

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Preface:
Navigation is one of the most important aspects to any submariner crew and more so with a
wolfpack. The job role of the navigator is far and extensive as their duty is to chart the position
of the submarine, avoid obstacles, plot new courses, plotting convoy’s courses and planning
intercepts. Without a good navigator, the sub is lost and blind; and a blind sub is a sitting duck.

This guide serves to familiarize others to the concepts of navigation, the duties and role they play
and to teach others to sharpening their skills to become the most essential and effective member
of any U-Boat.

Chapter 1: The Navigation Station.

The Navigation table is to the port side of the ship in the control room. Located from left to right
above the charting table is a depth meter; center is the speedometer, the odometer inside on the
bottom of the dial with a black button which will reset the odometer; just below is a compass
wheel which will read your heading; and to the right of that is the ships clock set to the
mission’s time.

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Terminology:

Heading (HDG): The direction that your U-Boat is facing from north 0° counted clockwise.
True Heading is from true north. Magnetic Heading is from magnetic north. Magnetic North
and True North are not the same thing and True North references 0° Latitude. There is no
“Relative” heading as it would be your own heading or the heading of your target.

Bearing (BRG): The direction from a relative direction of 0° counting clockwise to another
object. Relative Bearing is from the bow of your own ship to another object. True Bearing is
from True North, Magnetic Bearing is from Magnetic North.

True Bearing = Relative Bearing + True Heading.

Relative Bearing = True Bearing – True Heading.

Course (CSE): The average heading of travel over a distance of time.

Location (LOC): Where you, or any other object is on the map derived from a set of
information.

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PlanQuadrat (Grid Square), quadrat: The particular grid which divides the map. Depending
where you are operating will differ but will always start with two letters followed by three to
four digits. Example AN 4941.

KeyPad: A division of 3rds of a four number quadrant.

Time (TME): The time it is during the mission.

Speed (SPD): How fast an object is moving measured in knots.

Knots (Knts): Speed equal to one Nautical Mile per hour, 1 knot is 1.94 meters a second.

Nautical Mile (NM): One minute of a degree of latitude or 1852m.

Distance (DST): How far your own U-boat or another vessel has traveled in a given time in
meters.

Range (RNG): How far another target is from your U-boat.

Angle On Bow (AOB): The Angle from another ship’s bow towards your U-boat

Centiradian (CR): The length of 1 meter if viewed at a distance of 100m.

Observational Periscope (OP): The periscope located in the control room, it has a larger head
and fixed height which makes it very noticeable on surface and should only be used while dived
on average of 10m to 11m depth and the magnification of 1.5x and 6x. It’s markings are in
centiradian and it will show the bearing from your bow at the top.

Attack Periscope (AP): The periscope located in the conning tower, it has a smaller head and
variable height which makes it easier to use on surface and still keep a low profile. Maximum
depth of the AP is around 13.5m and the magnification of 1.5 and 6x. It will show centiradian as
markings and the bearing from your bow at top.

Uberwasserzieloptik (UZO): A pair of binoculars mounted to the bridge on a pedestal, it is the

third optical device tied to the TDC after the periscopes, and has the magnification of 8x. Great
for early spotting of convoys while on surface and can be used for fast bow attacks.

Torpedo Data Computer (TDC): The computer is located in the conning tower next to the AP, it
has dials which sets the torpedo’s data from information gathered by the target. Tracking can be
tied to the OP, AP or UZO or manually.

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Nav Chart:

The navigation chart itself is simple to use and everyone has access to it, only at the navigation
table however are you able to see the speed of the U-Boat in Knots, the Heading, the Odometer
(how far you traveled in meters) and the Reset Odometer button while looking at the chart. All
these tools are very important to the Navigator and is why the Navigator has a designated station.

From the Top Left to Right:

Sketch Mode (Tab): Will created dashed grey lines, these marks can only be seen by the one who
drawn them and can be useful when needing to use geometry or trigonometry in course
calculations, it prevents the chart of becoming cluttered to others who read it including yourself.

Follow Protractor (F): When drawing a line the protractor will either stay at the point where you
started the line, or follow the mouse as you draw the line out. Very usefull when creating
opposite angles which are at the same angle but in the opposite direction. Example, 90° and 270°
are the same angle, but in opposite directions.

Snap (S): While placing lines, your mouse will snap to the end of the line or the point in which
you placed making drawing from any point precise.

Polyline (P): While holding default shift-key, you will start a line from the end of your last line,
useful for creating polygonal objects or shapes. While turned off the new line will snap to the

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start of your last line instead if snap is turned on and holding shift, useful for taking multiple
headings from your ship such as with the hydrophone.

Show Angle (A): Shows you the angle of the line you draw out which is relative from True
North. Will always show true bearing when drawn from your uboat.

Show Distance (D): Shows you the distance, in meters, of the line in relation to the map.

Reverse Compass (G): Will start a circle from the edge instead of the center, highly useful in turn
plotting and interval tracking of a given course.

Show Time: Will display the time it would take to travel a distance given a set speed. The speed
can be set with a slider at the top.

Show Protractor: Will show the protractor when drawing a line, useful for marking reverse
angles or quickly to draw out angles.

Reset Protractor: Resets the protractor to face back to magnetic north.

Undo: Undo’s the last mark.

Redo: Redo’s the last mark.

Time Slider: Used in conjunction when show time is selected to set speed.

Time: The time it is in the mission set to a 24hr clock.

Speed: The speed of your U-Boat in knots.

Heading: Where the bow of your U-Boat is pointed in relation to True North.

Odometer: The distance you are traveling at the moment, if you are moving this number will
increase.

Last Odometer Reading: The distance you traveled from the time you reseted the odometer.

Reset Odometer: Resets the Odometer to 0 and marks the distance in last odometer reading.

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Navigational Markings:

The Map is divided into several grids and within that grid, we have even more grids. This is our
quadrant which we are currently in. The quadrant is based on the operational area designated by
the start of the mission and can be found in your mission log. The quadrant we are currently are
in is AN 494.

From the Top Down, we have all the tools we need for plotting and navigating. They are the
Cross, Time Stamp, Line, Circle, and Text. We have also the ability to erase any markings and to
rotate the protractor to any desired angle other than true north.

Cross: The cross is a simple cross which you can use as a point to snap to or even mark intervals
across a line, it is useful in conveying information such as estimated positions, future tracking, or
just as a way to highlight areas in plotting.

TimeStamp: The timestamp will mark a point in which will be of the mission time when you set
it. This is useful in plotting your own course and where you have been at a given time, the
convoy’s course at a certain time or even hydrophone readings can be marked as they are done
over set intervals. It is very useful in planning and plotting and most likely will be the most
markings on the map.

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Line: A line has many uses, it can measure angles which will always read heading. It can
measure distances in meters, and it can even estimate the time it will take to travel a distance
given a certain speed. The line can be drawn out when holding the left mouse button or while
holding shift which will allow multiple lines to be drawn from either the start of the line or end
of the line. The line’s distance can be changed precisely by entering the distance with the
keyboards numberpad then pressing ENTER after which the angle can be entered by the same
method.

Circle: The circle can either be drawn from the center of the object or from the edge. It will
always show distance and can’t show angle. However switching with a hotkey from draw line
to draw circle will retain the last position of the line so that you can draw out the angle you
wish for the radius before switching back to circle. The same method for the line also works
for the circle where you can enter the radius and angle with the keypad.

Sketch Mode: While in sketch mode, all markings will be greyed out, and circles and lines will be
dotted lines. This indicates that it is a sketch. This allows you to create markings which no one
can see but the one whom made them. This is useful for when you need to create objects as a part
of calculations which can begin to clutter, confuse or disorient others that are reviewing them.

Protractor Follow: When not enabled the protractor if show protractor is enabled, will always be
at the start of a line, if the protractor follow is enabled, it will follow the line to where your
mouse is.

Rotate Protractor: With the default spacebar, it will begin to draw a line, be sure that show angle
is turned on as you will see that 0 of the protractor will rotate to whatever new heading you set
for the protractor. This is useful for setting your protractor to your ship’s heading or course in
which bearings can then be read by using the protractor, you will now see the lines translated to
headings. Reset the protractor to north with the “X” key or the button at the top.

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Chapter 2: Location, Location, Location

Finding out where you are or where anything else is, be it another U-Boat or enemy convoys are
very important to the mission and detrimental to the success thereof. Failure to find your own
location can lead to disorientation, confusion and loss of the u-boat itself due to carelessness;
such as surfacing in front of an enemy warship. It is why knowing and tracking to make sure
everyone is on course is one of the most important jobs of the navigator.

By familiarizing yourself with the map you can see that our location is AN494 this is the
Quadrant that we are currently in and there are several other quadrants around us as well. Each
Quadrant is 33,336m x 33,336m or 18 Nautical Miles. It will take the U-Boat an hour at full
speed of 18 knots to travel the full length of a quadrant.

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By using the mouse scroll wheel we can zoom in the scale of the map and see that the map is
divided yet again into thirds. Our new quadrant is AN 4943 which means we are a part of AN
494 and the 3rd quadrant in AN 494. Quadrants are numbered from starting position of top left, to
top right of 1,2,3 then middle 4,5,6 and finally 7,8,9. Each four numbered quadrant is 11,112m x
11,112m in length or 6 nautical miles. It will take a u-boat only 20 minutes at full speed to cross
the length of a four numbered quadrant.

Keypad Method
We can be even more precise by dividing the quadrant yet again into thirds, traditionally this is
remarked as not a quadrant, but a Keypad. The keypad (KP) corresponds with the keypad of the
keyboard, starting from the top left of 7,8,9. Many will argue that the keypad doesn’t correspond
to the same numbering of the nautical map and so has been used as top row 1,2,3; however the
same designation KP is used to infer of a new subdivision in a quadrant.

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 Traditional Keypad Method

Keypad method of location is good when the exact location can’t be given, be it of yourself as
you are in the middle of a maneuver, or perhaps an convoy that was just spotted and there is no
other information ascertained at the time.

Pinpoint Method

To find the exact location of any object, be it yourself, another U-Boat or even another ship, you
can pinpoint the location by drawing two converging angles. The point of which they meet will
be the exact point of where you are or anything else you are observing.

The quadrants form a square, hence the name quad. Knowing this the quadrants have 4 points to
which we can use to draw an angled line towards our location. The rule is: From the Bottom Left
(BL) to us, From the Bottom Right (BR) to us.

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As you can see we have ourselves now in AN 4961, even though we can give a keypad, we
aren’t precise enough for others to gather whatever information they may need at the time, such
as timed hydrophone readings. By drawing two lines from the two points of the grid, we get two
angles, BL is 42° and BR is 292°. Remember the lines should always be drawn from the corners
not your location.

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As you can clearly see why not to draw from your location with the sketches, it makes things
rather complicated and confusing. In order to get the proper angle, you would have to rotate your
protractor around. Even though we can draw angles from any point of the grid, including the top,
the left, or the right, it is unnecessary for this purpose.

Pinpointing while at the quadrants boarders

While at the boarders, pinpointing your location or the location of any other can be rather
confusing to any inexperienced navigator. While trying to draw an angled line, you might only
get one angle from the bottom left while no angles can be received from the bottom right. This is
especially true if you are at or near the corners of multiple quadrants.

As seen here at AN 4953 we just crossed the boarders at the time of the time stamp when our last
location was given. We could ‘wait’ till we cross into the other quadrant before we get our
pinpoint location, however delays can upset the situation depending on circumstances.

With the sketched line of AN 4929 we only get one angled line of 90°and from AN 4937 the
same is true of an angled line of 270°. It would be rather confusing to use two quadrants to
convey our location while only one is needed. As we are at the top of AN 4953 and crossed into
it, we are going to use the one that we just crossed into. We now have two bottom corners which
form two distinct angled lines, 45° and 0°. Our location now can be conveyed easily to others.
Even though we could have had also used AN 4961, the rule is to use the one that
you are heading into, even if you are standing still.

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Pinpointing other U-Boats to help pinpoint convoys

Pinpointing with other marks other than the grids points isn’t useless and has some practicality.
When taking multiple hydrophone readings for example, the four bearing method will have you
draw out the readings from multiple location till they intersect, at which a targets course and
position can be determined. The point of where these lines are drawn from will be at the origin of
your ships location.

Here in the above example, we have pinpointed our exact location and the pinpoint of another U-
boat. At the same time, both subs conducted hydrophone readings, each at the same interval
apart. By doing so, we have pinpointed the convoy’s exact course and location by converging
lines. Where the angles meet gives us only one possible path and is the course of our convoy.

Chapter 3: Course Plotting.

On the surface of the water your U-Boat is represented by a black triangle with a circle around it,
it will move and update your location as long as you are on the surface. This makes it easy for
you to place time stamps in intervals of your position to plot your course. By keeping track of
where you have been and when, you are able plan ahead, as well as make educated guesses on
enemy behavior.

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By not knowing of your own course and plotting it accordingly, you can end up surfacing in the
middle of an enemy convoy too close for a torpedo attack and too dangerous to surface if there
are armed merchants, or destroyer escorts guarding the convoy. Worst of all is being forced to
surface due to lack of battery power or compressed air only to be sunk by the enemy’s deck
guns.

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Far worse is being rammed by another vessel because of failure to plot your own course. This is
why plotting is an important role for any Navigator.

Plotting your own course while on surface is fairly straight forward, over set intervals of time,
plot another time stamp. Eventually a pattern will emerge which will be your course of travel.

Because of our own plotted course, we can use this information in estimating the course of the
sighted convoy by paralleling them at distance on surface when advantageous conditions allow
us to do so without the risk of being spotted.

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While our course has been plotted in green, the convoys have been plotted visually and properly
ranged at various periods over time in blue. Careful monitoring was taken as we shadowed aside
of the convoy, we clearly saw the changes in their own course and planed an intercept as you see
made in orange. Many convoys, especially latter in the war, will try to evade any U-boats
through evasive maneuvering. Convoys will tend to serpentine through the waters which will
make their headings change constantly, however the general direction of travel will stay
relatively the same and this is their course. Only though repeated observation is a
convoy’s true course estimated.

There are many ways to estimate a convoy’s course, knowing your own course and location at
set times can help you understand the convoy’s behavior for you to play accordingly. The tools
available are your sight, as when the convoy is in visual range. The next are your ears, the
hydrophone and the radio while there is no visual contact or circumstances has limited use of
sight.

Chapter 4: Turning

While turning, either on surface or below, each turn will begin with a leading run followed by
the actual turn circle. Naturally the boat will list to the side and you will notice a slight deflection
in the opposite direction before the actual turn, an arc will be made before the actual turn circle

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and then the ship will be steady within the circle. The time for all of this however at this time is
negligible or so minute that it can be omitted.

There are three stages to a turn; the first stage is when the rudder force is first applied. After the
application of the rudder, the rudder itself will created a counter force in the opposite direction,
this force will be reciprocated by the hydrodynamic forces equal and opposite of the initial force.
To put it simply, there is no action without a reaction. When these forces come to equilibrium,
then the ship will start to turn towards the desired direction, currently this happens so minuscule
that it is almost negligible if at all existent.

Stage 1

The second stage is when the ship is about to make a full 90° turn. At this point the ships rudder
will balance with the hull moment and all angular and linear velocities will be equal to zero, at
this time the ship will start to undergo centrifugal forces and enter into the turning circle. (you
can also note yourself leaning to once side on the sub and being pulled to the outer side of the
turning ship)

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 Stage 2

The final stage is as the rudder maintains its deflection, the ship will continue in a circle and this
becomes a “Steady Turning State”. Centrifugal forces will continue to play a role in keeping the
ship in a constant circle as all other forces remain null.

Stage 3

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Advance: Unlike a car, ships can’t simply stop and will continue to glide through the water as
they turn. The advance is the distance the ship will travel after the rudder has been engaged. The
advance isn’t quite as noticeable and can be nearly negligible; however, it still exists within wolf
pack as rudder deflection to full rudder isn’t instantaneous. Slower and less rudder movements
will make the advance more noticeable and will vary from nearly 0 to 3 meters off the initial
approach.

Transfer: The distance the ship travels while it makes a 90° turn.

Tactical Diameter: The distance a ship will travel to make a full u-turn of 180°. The tactical
diameter is equal or nearly equal to the geometric diameter of the path.

Standards for turn preparation:

It is very important that the Navigator sets up turn points prior to the helm conducting a turn,
however, there are many cases in which the Captain may issue in an emergency to change
course, be it to evade depth charges, collision or perhaps the Helm fell asleep and the ship is now
veering off course. No matter what the case, turning is done though cooperation with the helm to
know the three stages of the turn as discussed prior. When the turn is initiated, when you enter
the turn, and when you leave the turn. If the navigator fails to recognize these events, or the
helm fails to call them out, the navigator can become quite lost which can put the entire ship

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hundreds of meters from the intended course or location. It should always be up to the helm to
call out the beginning of the turn, what the new heading will be, and when the turn is
complete.

The Navigator should be at the navigation table before a turn, or when one could be anticipated.
At this time the navigator should mark their location and draw out the initial heading of the ship
before the turn. The helm should also tell you what the new heading should be.

When the Helm calls out that they have begun the turn, the navigator should reset the odometer
this will measure the transfer distance which we need to calculate the radius of the turn.

When the Helm calls out that the turn is complete, reset the odometer again to get the distance of
which you have traveled in meters. Note the new heading, sometimes the heading will be 1° off.

Now that we have the distance, the initial heading, and the new heading, we can calculate the
radius of the turn.

Turn Radius Calculation

If Initial Heading > New Heading

Turn Angle = Initial Heading – New heading

Turn Angle = New Heading – Initial Heading

If Turn Angle > 180

Actual Turn Angle = 360 - Turn Angle

If Turn Angle < 180

Actual Turn Angle = Turn Angle

Turn Radius = (Transfer Distance *180) ÷ Π * Turn Angle

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Turning in practice

Let’s say we have the initial heading of 0° (360°) North. We would want to mark that out on the
map. When the helm calls out that he starts the turn, we hit the Reset Odometer to keep track of
our distance we have traveled.

The helm calls out that he had ended the turn and the new course is now 90°, the odometer reads
355m.

Turn Angle = Initial Heading – New heading

90-0 = 90 or 360-90 = 90

That is our turn angle. Since the angle is less than 180° we need not to subtract it from 360°

Now that we have the odometer distance, and our turn angle, we can then calculate our turn
radius.

Turn Radius = (Transfer Distance *180) ÷ (Π * Turn Angle)

Order of Operations: Parenthesis Exponents Multiplication Division Addition Subtraction

First we plug in all of our variables into the equation.

(355 *180) ÷ (Π * 90) = Turn Radius

We now work the problem starting with parenthesis.

(63,900) ÷ (Π * 90) = Turn Radius

Next comes the multiplication

63,900 ÷ (282.74) = Turn Radius

Now the division

Turn Radius = 226.00m

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Now we put all of this to the test. Here we see that our approach course is a 360° North or 0°.
Since both are of True North we can use either value as in the example above. We will mark our
course with a line on the map, and the point of when the rudder is engaged. You as a Navigator
can even set up turns in advance and call out to the Helm when to engage the rudder. This will
give you better control and more accuracy. Otherwise the Helm will call out when he started the
turn and you as Navigator need to mark the point of entry on the map as well as reset the
odometer.

When the Rudder is Engaged, Reset the Odometer and then reset it again when the turn has
ended. As we already calculated the turn Radius, all we need to do is draw the circle out using
Reverse Compass tangent to the approach course. Tangent means that it is as a 90° angle to the
approach course where only one point will touch. Rotate your protractor to your course, and
then mark a line out from 90° if you are turning right (Starboard) or 270° if you are turning left
(Port).

Our radius is at 226m, we enter that into the keypad, press enter, then enter 90 for the degrees
and press enter. Our circle should be now at the correct radius and tangent to our approach.

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To find where of the turning circle we escaped from, all we need to do is turn our protractor from
the circles origin till 0° is pointing at 270°. If you are turning right (Starboard) North Faces West
(270°), If you are turning Left (Port) North Faces East (90°)

From there draw a line out to the new heading that the ship turned to using the protractor and that
will be the escape point. The chord length is the distance from entry to escape and can also be
used to calculate the escape point.

Finding the Chord of a circle

Additionally we can use a chord to measure from the entry of the turn circle to the exit point. A
chord is a segment of a circle which measures an arc. Refer to page 22’s diagram.

Chord Length = (2 * Turn Radius) * Sine (Turn Angle ÷ 2)

(2 * 226) * Sin (90 ÷ 2) = Chord Length

(2 * 226) * Sin (45) = Chord Length

(452) * .7071= 319.61

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If you drew out your circle first then all you have to do is connect the chord from the point of
your turn entry and move that line till it intersects the inside of the circle, that point will be the
exit. Additionally you can use the same protractor to find the angle of the exit point then draw
your chord to length to meet it, that point will also be the exit point.

But what if you didn’t want to draw a circle first? Can you represent a turn with only a triangle?
The answer is yes, you can with only knowing the length of the chord, you can determine the
angle from north you need to come off from your original course to then reach your exit point of
the turn.

As you can see we don’t always need to draw a circle to calculate the turn, though a circle is a
more accurate representation of a turn than simply a straight line.

To find this angle for the chord, we have to know a bit behind the geometry of a triangle. Our
exit point will be determined by the angle from 270° if making a right turn and from 90° for a
left turn as we previously learned before. Thus we know that this line is also the same length of
the radius from our tangent line from our original course.

Our chord however, is of a different length, what we end up with is an Isosceles Triangle where
two sides are of equal length but also two angles of the triangle’s base. What this means is that
by knowing the difference between our tangent angle from course and the angle towards our exit
point, we can gather the angle of the chord from our original course.

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Here we have a problem of finding our chord angle. Our definitions are as follows

����
𝐴𝐶 = Original Course
𝐶𝐷 = Radius tangent to Original Course
𝐷𝐸 = Segment from center of turn circle to turn exit, equal to turn radius.

α = Angle between the turn radius drawn tangent from original course and our segment to our
new course exit point.
β = Angle from Segment to Chord.
γ = Angle from Turn Radius segment and chord

Since β and γ are similar angles, all we need is the angle of α to find both β and γ. To get this
angle we need to first draw the exit segment or get its angle from true north.

𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒏:
𝟐𝟕𝟎° ± 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒏
𝟗𝟎° ± 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

As with the problem above our new course is 40°, we are turning right so we use 270°. Our
original course is greater than 270° so we will add. We get a new angle of 310°, this is the angle
of 𝐷𝐸.

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We need to now find the angle of α. To do this we need the difference of the angles and it may
be easier to draw through to get easier numbers to work with. To get the opposite angle to 310°
all you need to do is subtract 180 from the angle.

Now we have 130°. Notice that angle α and angle θ are the same angles so we can work with
this.

𝟏𝟑𝟎° − 𝟓𝟎° = 𝟖𝟎°

Now we need to find γ or β since these two angles are also the same. Remember all angles of a
triangle will always equal to 180°.

𝜶 + (𝜷 ∗ 𝟐) = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

180° = 𝛼 + (𝛽 ∗ 2)
180 = 80(𝛽 ∗ 2)
180 − 80 = 100
100 ÷ 2 = 50°
50° − 50° = 0° 𝑜𝑟 360°

Where 50° was the angle tangent to our original course and 50° was how much we had to
subtract to find the chord angle from true north.

In summary you don’t always need to use to tools on navigation table to determine a turn circle
though it will greatly simplify the process. You also don’t always need a circle to use to
represent a turn, but again it will be more accurate to do so. Math is as a part of any form of
navigation and it is important to understand the concepts of the math behind even the simplest of
solutions so you are prepared no matter what the circumstances may be.

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Turn radius through quadratic functions

It is actually possible with any given speed to determine the turn radius of a turning circle at full
rudder deflection. Below 20° rudder deflection is when significant increase to the turn radius
occurs and a new model of regression must be accounted for or a new method to increase
accuracy. Note the minimal turn radius as with the next section.

Turning with the U-boat isn’t a linear path; it is a quadratic curve which takes the function of,

−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝒙=
𝟐𝒂
Where x is our known speed then y becomes our radius of the turning circle.

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

Where y is equal to the turn radius while x is equal to speed of the U-boat in knots.

It was through the collection of data and use of regression methods that the function f(x) could be
derived where.

𝒂 =. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟓
𝒃 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟗
𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟐𝟑

27
Thus given a known speed that can be read on the speedometer, we can determine our turning
radius. Here we will use the top speed of 18 knots with full rudder deflection of 35°.

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

𝒚 = (. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟓)(𝟏𝟖)𝟐 + (𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟗)(𝟏𝟖) + 𝟐. 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟐𝟑

𝒚 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟑 + 𝟑𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟔 + 𝟐. 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟐𝟑

𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟗

Minimal Turning Circle

Typically on still calm waters the minimal turn circle of a vessel will average to about 4 to 5
times the length of the vessel; however this is dependent on the size of the rudder, profile of the
ship, and conditions of the seas. Every vessel there is will have an absolute limit to how sharp
they can turn given these conditions and the minimal for the U-boat will be 102m.

When the speed has reached ~5 knots, the vessel has reached its limit to how sharp it can turn.
Likewise increasing speed will increase the turn radius, so will shallow turn defection.

28
Path Sweep

Here is the Minimal Turn Radius overlayed with a diagram of the actual U-Boat set to the
dimensions of the actual Uboat. The Type VIIC is the boat which you are aboard.

Dimensions:

Length: 67.2m

Beam: 6.2m

Draught: 4.8m

As you can see the Black Triangle is a gross representation of our position on the map but it
doesn’t tell us where our bow is, nor our stern. Hence to the novice navigator, by assuming that
you are exactly the size of the mark on the nautical map can lead to grave mistakes where
precision is paramount to avoid collision with other obstacles or terrain.

As you move in a circle your center of mass will form a well formed circle, meanwhile your bow
and stern will create sweeping arcs as you turn this is the sweep path. As you can see in the
diagram above when you are moving in a tighter circle, your sweep path will be much larger than
that of your actual turning radius. This is because there is a greater change in degrees over time.

29
However as your speed increases, or your rudder deflection decreases; your turn angle will be
much shallower, hence the sweep path will be much tighter to the sides of the ship.

30
Chapter 5: Dead Reckoning

Under water navigation is one of the most important tasks of the Navigator and requires the full
attention of the navigator to maintain a course which will not impede the safety of the crew by
crashing into obstacles, surfacing in the wrong place, or risk being spotted by the enemy.

While the U-boat is underwater, the Navigator and Helmsman must work in sync to make sure
that they both know what they are doing and when. The moment the U-boat is underwater, you
no longer will be updated on your position on the navigation chart by a black triangle, it will turn
grey and only the last known position will be displayed until the sub resurfaces. From here on, it
is up to the navigator to track and plot your position under water based on what information we
have available. Our current heading, our speed, the distance we traveled, when we are about to
make a course adjustment, when we initiated a course adjustment, and when we are finished with
the course adjustment and are on a new course. This is why the Navigator and Helm must work
together to convey such information so they can plan accordingly and keep the charts with the
least room of error.

Dead Reckoning is to advance your position on a map from the last known position given what
is known, Course, Speed, Distance Traveled, and time. As you advance your position your new
updated position that is calculated becomes your Estimated Position.

31
The Odometer
When the captain orders to dive the U-boat, it is up to the Navigator to be in position of the
odometer. The odometer is the only instrument which can measure the distance that the U-boat
has traveled over the surface. This is important, from the moment that the boat dives will
determine all the distances from the last known position. If the odometer hasn’t been reset since,
it could read all the meters traveled on the surface which could be well over 40,000 meters. The
only way you can know your true position is to add up all the distances from each time stamp
and subtract that from the odometer to omit it from your dive distance which can not only be
rather a headache, but highly inaccurate due to any error that may be present.

Advancing Your Position

If you have made it this far and read through how to plot your course as well as how to draw a
turning circle, then you would have all the information you need to then use the additional from
your vessel to calculate your course. All you need is to keep track of the Odometer and reset it
from the moment you lose your position (turn grey on the map). From there you will periodically
advance your position from your last known position by drawing out the distance traveled as
read by the odometer. Mark a timestamp, and continue to plot your course.

32
When you make a course correction to a new heading note the moment you enter the turn and the
moment you exist the turn with the odometer, mark the distance traveled then use any method to
calculate the turn radius, the enter point and exit. It is more beneficial if you can set up the turn
in advance with the helm so you can accurately mark the entry on the map by advancing your
position beyond your actual position, note the odometer reading, then inform the helm to start the
turn when the odometer reads a certain distance such as, “Turn Left to Heading 040° at 35m on
dial.” This will be clear to the helm what needs to be done and allow you to set up the turn in
advance. You won’t always have this luxury as certain situations will call for certain maneuvers
but it should always be up to the navigator to work together will all the crew to ensure accurate
plotting.

33
If you have done all your calculations right, kept up with your distance traveled, heading and
speed, you should arrive right on time and where you need to be when you resurface your Uboat.

Advanced Maneuvering
It should come to no surprise that dead reckoning isn’t always about your last known position but
could be from any known position. When you go underwater however it will always be the last
known position. If your position is known, though being on the surface or estimated with dead
reckoning, then you can always plot ahead and plan ahead. Plan your turns in advance to ensure
accuracy, plan ahead to determine if you will intercept a convoy at your current course, plan
ahead to get you where you need to be and know where you will be.

34
Chapter 6: Margin of Error

Nothing is without error and humans are not machines. We tend to make assumptions; we tend to
round numbers and we tend to get as close as we can without really reaching there. There could
be 100 reasons why an error may occur but we won’t cover all of them here.

Error: Difference between a specific value and the standard value.

As previously stated, we aren’t computer and so no human is perfect, even computers tend to get
bugs time to time. Error is what is created because of imperfections. Example of imperfection
would be measuring precisely in fractional degrees using nothing more than the protractor. You
could easily see each whole number but not 273.5987°. When you draw a line it can be off by
any degree of a fraction, these are errors.

Mistake: More or less the error of a person rather than their instruments. Misreading the
numbers, not being there to hit the odometer or having anyone call out that you are diving, taking
the distances from the wrong chart or miss identifying a ship. All of these are mistakes.

Standard: The actual and agreed upon value, governed by laws, facts, mathematics or science.
Any deviations from the standard are errors.

Accuracy: The difference from the standard of the correct value. As with the protractor, it is
only accurate to the nearest whole degree.

In navigation there are three types of accuracy:

Absolute Accuracy: Accuracy of a position with respect to the true geographic location.

Repeatable Accuracy: Accuracy with the navigation system that can return to a previously
identified position.

Relative Accuracy: Accuracy of two deferent receivers of the same type to determine a position
at the same time.

Precision: How close to the actual standard of the current value.

Systematic and Random Error

There are two types of error, Systematic and Random Error.

Systematic error: Error which follow a standard predictable pattern.

35
Random Error: Unpredictable errors that follow no set or know rule or pattern.

All errors are governed by probability.

So what does this all tell us? That you will make mistakes and mistakes will be made? That all
things aren’t without error? The fact is all of the above but because we know this fact we can
predict our chances of error and adjust accordingly to increase our accuracy with our
measurements.

Since Probability governs error, we can directly estimate when error will accurate and by how
much. Error is most likely to increase over time but will settle usually around a given mean or
average value.

If we had 100 observations of a hydrophone we can graph out the error and see the frequency of
each error in the measurements that we took.

By doing this we can use a very important characteristic of

probability which is standard deviation. Standard Deviation is the
measure of distribution of probability for a given set.

𝑵
𝟏
𝒔=� �) 𝟐
�(𝒙𝒊 − 𝒙
𝑵−𝟏
𝒊=𝟏

For our set we have a total of 21 values. N is the number of total

observations with error. 𝑥̅ is the mean or the average of all the
observations.

By squaring each error, and then multiplying the square by the

number of errors for each value then summing the values; the new
value is then divided by one less than the total number of
measurements. We then take the square root of the quotient to find
the standard deviation.

𝟖𝟖𝟐
𝒔=� = √𝟖. 𝟗𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖
𝟗𝟗

36
Dark blue is one standard deviation on either side of the mean. For the normal distribution, this
accounts for 68.27 percent of the set; while two standard deviations from the mean (medium and
dark blue) account for 95.45 percent; three standard deviations (light, medium, and dark blue)
account for 99.73 percent; and four standard deviations account for 99.994 percent. The two
points of the curve that are one standard deviation from the mean are also the inflection points.

The normalized curve of any type of random error is symmetrical about the line representing
zero error. This means that in the normalized plot every positive error is matched by a negative
error of the same magnitude. The average of all readings is zero. Increasing the number of
readings increases the probability that the errors will fit the normalized curve.

When both systematic and random errors are present in a process, increasing the number of
readings decreases the residual random error but does not decrease the systematic error. Thus, if,
for example, a number of phase-difference readings are made at a fixed point, the average of all
the readings should be a good approximation of the true value if there is no systematic error. But
increasing the number of readings will not correct a systematic error. If a constant error is
combined with a normal random error, the error curve will have the correct shape but will be
offset from the zero value. (Bowditch)

Most Probable Position

37
Chapter 7: Convoy tracking

Navigation is not only about knowing where you are, but also knowing where the convoy is
relative to your location. By knowing where you are and where the target is, a bearing to target
can be found and a targeting solution can be solved so that a torpedo can be accurately fired at
the target with deadly precision. A good crew will work together with the navigator to plot the
convoy and determine the best solution for any targeting problem. The captain will determine the
best strategy to use depending on the situation.

Identifying Ships

A good crew will have several watch officers on the bridge at all times while on the surface,
below the surface at least one on either periscope if at periscope depth. Visual awareness must be
kept and maintained at all times in order to identify ships and ships must be identified before any
solution can be made with any degree of accuracy.

As a suggestion, in a crew of five at least 3 officers, including the captain, should be on deck
while two stay below in the event that the sub needs to crash dive. By the time the two main
ballasts are filled the whole crew should be inside and then ready to quickly dive. It is up to the
captain to then choose which of the 3 officers will be on deck during any or all times.

While there is crew on deck, it should be up to them to identify quickly the size of the convoy
and the consistency. A convoy may or may not be escorted by warships, a convoy may or may
not have trollers, a convoy may or may not have escorts which have may have deck guns of
them. A quick glance at any convoy will give you a good estimate of what you are dealing with
so then you can plan accordingly.

Identifying ships should be done with the recognition manual and from the furthest possible
distance to avoid being detected.

The ships that you identify should be recorded with the details of the ship written so that it can
be recalled again and again very quickly.

38
When you have the scope of the convoy you can use a variety of methods to aid in ship recall.

Columns and Rows

You can use the nav map to quickly plot in an empty corner the shape of the convoy and mark
any general position of targets including warships or trollers which will have guns. This is to
quickly be a method for target acquisition and recall and not a method to determine their precise

39
position, where they are from you, nor their actual location. As many convoys tend to be in great
blocks in later years of the war, it helps to visualize their position before plotting a firing solution
and so that they can be easily scratched off whenever they are sunk.

The most important information that you need is any method to recall what the ships is, and its
overall length, and height of its mast.

You can also use a piece of paper or a spreadsheet, anything really to write down ship
information. The key is to recall. Note their positions will change and not be so orderly after the
first attack, be it made by you or another U-boat. It is also best practice to not just identify 4
ships but multiple, at the very least 14 as that is how many torpedo’s a U-boat holds.

40
Using masts to identify ships.

From Left to Right:

1) Crow’s Nest Mast, 2) Guyed Mast, 3) Cage Mast, 4) Lattice Mast, 5) Davit, 6) Gin Pole, 7)
Jury Mast, 8) Stowed Derrick, 9) Single Boon Derrick, 10) Four Boom Derrick, 11) Fixed Frame
Slewing Derrick, 12) Union Purchasing Rig, 13) Union Purchasing Rig (with Crosstree,) 14) Jib
Crane,

By knowing the type of masts, you can quickly then add a note to any ship identified via the
manual and quickly relocate and require the target.

Using Kingposts to Identify Ships

41
Kingposts can be used to help identify ships as their boons will either face towards the stern or
towards the bow.

Range estimation

After the ships are identified, then you can use any of the periscopes to read the centiradians in
height of the mast. There is a range table in the recognition guide but it doesn’t read every mast
height at every mark. If you wanted more precision, then you could further divide into 10ths of a
centiradian, ie 5.3 centiradians high.

1 Centiradian = 1 meter at 100 meters

Given a known mast height of 30m, all we need to do is divide by the view angle (centiradians)
to get the distance in hectometers, which is 100 meters.

Say we have a merchant vessel with the mast height of 30m and we view the ship to be 3
centiradians high. By dividing the true mast height by how tall it is in our view, we get the
distance in hectometers, which is the same value the TDC uses. To plot it on the map in meters,
multiply by 100.

𝟑𝟎𝒎 ÷ 𝟑𝒄𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒉𝒎

𝟏𝟎𝒉𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝒌𝒎

Conclusion

In order to track targets you must be able to identify, recall and use the information about the
target that is known, to be able to find out what isn’t. If you don’t know the mast height, you
can’t range it, without length, you can’t get its speed. When it comes to recognition of targets,
most of the time it is optical based. By having an understanding on how to identify ships and
being able to recall them, you will easily be able to track which targets are the most valued and
be able to calculate a fire solution to the target.

42
Calculating Target Course

When you have a target sighted, be it by sight, radar, or hydrophone, one must gather
information to gain a target picture. Getting a target picture deals with gathering information to
determine the target’s course, heading, track, angle on bow and speed. A target picture is all the
information you need to calculate a torpedo course.

There are many ways that you can go about gathering a target picture and it is based on what
information there is available. The Hydrophone will have accuracy up to ± 5 to ± 10 degrees off
target. The Two Periscopes will have accuracy to the nearest whole of 360°s. These two
periscopes have 1.5x to 6x zoom. The Uzo however has 8x zoom but no bearing ring, however
with either the two periscopes or the Uzo, you can pair it with the TDC for bearing readouts in
10ths of a degree thus is the most precise method. The Uzo, nor a man on deck with binoculars
has any way to range. Thus a periscope is the only range finder unless other methods were taken
to find range.

Multiple Bearings on target

Be it that you using a hydrophone, radar, or by use of optics, bearings on targets can be useful as
we can use various methods to determine a targets course and speed just through trigonometry,
geometry and algebra. Yes everything highschool told you about while you were trying to
become class clown in the year book. However, the concepts is what is needed to understand all
the tools you need to solve a problem is right there on the Nav Map. The Line Tool, The
Protractor, and the Compass.

Fixed 4 bearing method

The four bearing method can be done either from a known fixed location or while moving. We
are going to look at the fixed method first. This method can be used with the hydrophone or any
optical device.

From your known location you plot it with a time stamp on the map, this is to show when you
started this process. Each new bearing will also have a time stamp so you know how far apart the
readings were.

The Captain will order the U-boat to come to a complete stop and on a time mark, will ask for a
bearing to target. If you are underwater then the radio man should give bearings and mark them,
if on the surface, The Captain or watch officer should mark bearings.

Time an interval till the next bearing; the longer you wait between bearings, the more accurate
you will get in determining their course. Take a total of 3 bearings, the 4th bearing will be a

43
“projected” bearing. What does this mean is that if you were to continue to stay in the same spot
then the target will be at that bearing. But you have to find the 4th bearing first.

Here we have 3 bearings to our target, we don’t know where the target is exactly but we do know
that they are somewhere along that line. The angle between the first and second, versus the
second and last has the last and a less of an angle. When the angles widen, the target is moving
towards us, if they narrow, they are moving away from us. That still isn’t enough information.

What we need to do is to copy the angle from the last bearing onto the side of the first, from
narrowest angle to widest. To do this, rotate your protractor to match the 2nd bearing.

Here we are reading from left to right, 1st to 2nd. The convoy can be moving anywhere on the
map and your first bearing may be on the right. Note that I refer to bearings as 1st, 2nd and 3rd
for your benefit and understanding.

44
Now we have our protractor set to 312°, we need to draw a line that will intersect the 2nd bearing
at a perpendicular angle, at 90° or 270°.

Now we aren’t done just yet, we need to now copy our angle of the 3rd bearing to the other side
inside of our 1st and 2nd bearing. To do this, we are going to use the compass to draw out a circle

45
where we need that line to intersect.

The circle must touch the bearing of the narrowest angle or in this case the 3rd. Where the circle
intersects our previously drawn line, put a mark because this is where we are going to draw out
our 3rd bearing from.

46
We have drawn out the 3rd bearing and we drew it out far enough where it then intersects the first
bearing.

All we need to do is then finish the solution by drawing from the point that intersected the first
line back through the 2nd bearing where we have our other point. What we just did was find the
targets true course. The targets true course is the angle of which the lengths of the lines through
each bearing are equal.

47
We found this to be true through Traverse angles. It works because the angles we formed will
form two equal but opposite triangles where the sides of equal length lie on the targets true
course. Now what we need to do is move as far from our original location that we can, to do to
we need to predict the 4th bearing. If our time between each bearing was that of 5 minutes then
we must draw our next bearing at 5 minutes away from our 3rd bearing, however perhaps it took
5 minutes for you to read this guide and now you must find a new 4th bearing. Always plan
ahead, even the U-boat can’t move very far in 5 minutes so plan at least 10 to 15 ahead or at least
two steps ahead.

First we need to extend out the targets course from the predicted course. Then using the reverse
compass tool, we can draw our multiple circles from one bearing to the next to predict where the
convoy would be in the next 5 minutes (or however long your interval is).

48
As you can see we extended the course well over our interval time to give us enough time to
move away from our position to a new one so we can get a good fix on the target’s actual
location.

Now we draw out this new bearing. If we were to stay still then in several minutes time, the
target would be anywhere along that new 4th bearing, however it wouldn’t tell us anything new.
We need to know the targets range. So we have to move to get a new bearing.

49
After several minutes of traveling, we finally are far away enough from our last position and now
can get a true 4th bearing that intersects our predicted 4th bearing. Where these two lines cross is
where your target actually is. As we already determined the course of the target, all we need now
to do is draw out the targets course.

Now we are starting to get a picture of our target. We found the targets course, and by moving
found its exact location. To find out where it is going to be, all we have to do it draw out its
course, and advance its position the same way we did when finding the 4th bearing.

50
Now that we know its course and location we can measure the equal distances between previous
bearings to get its speed.

Let’s say 2053m over 5 minutes

𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝒎 ÷ 𝟓 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎. 𝟔 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆

𝟏𝒌𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

1kn = 30.8664 meters a minute

𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 ÷ 𝟑𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟒 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒔

We now have the targets exact location, their course, and their speed. We know where they are
going to be and when by just drawing out their course indefinitely unless they change course.

51
We have now all the information that we need for the TDC except for the Angle on Bow. Read
ahead to find out how to find the angle on bow.

Moving 4 bearing Method

While on the move it is also possible to use the four bearing method to triangulate the position of
any target. The key difference is that as while we were stationary we determined the course of
the target before its position, the reverse is true while we are on the move.

Speeding up and Slowing Down

Sawing the Horizon

Bearing and Range

Mark to Bearing

52
Angle On Bow

If you have already plotted the targets course, and or convoy, then you already have all the
information you need to find its AoB.

All you need is a bearing to the target from your location. Rotate your protractor to the target’s
course and then read the angle between its course and your bearing, the angle is the targets AoB.
Our target is approximately 235° or 125° Bow Left.

Because convoy’s tend to travel together on the same course, their course is also parallel. This
means that when you find the AoB for one target, you find it for all. The TDC will remember the

53
AoB inputted into it and will calculate accordingly.

As you can see by the protractor and the map, what is true for one is true for all. All angles will
be the same through parallel lines. However, this is only true if their courses are the same.
Destroyer Escorts and other warships will actively try to zig zag and convoy ships will do if you
are ever spotted, (such as after a torpedo run) thus you will need to recalculate the new targets
course.

54
Aob Through Optics

When you look through the periscope towards any given target what you are doing when you
measure the centiradians is creating a view angle. If you have a positive ID in the target, then it
should be quite easy to find its angle on bow just through the view angle.

55
If we were to look top down at what we are seeing then we would see that ray �����⃗
AB represents the
crosshairs of the periscope and is perpendicular to the target. ∠CAD however represents the
angle as seen in centiradians through the periscope. If precision is required, bearing can be used
instead though timing of multiple optics to get angle.

By knowing the targets range, we can then plot the visual perceived length tangent to the
periscopes focal point. From there we draw out the perceived length.

���� will be drawn outward tangent to ����

𝐶𝐸 𝐶𝐷 and be drawn from view towards the target’s furthest
side. If it is coming toward you, then it be the stern, otherwise if it is going away it will be the
bow.
����
𝐷𝐸 is the ships true length as determined through the recognition manual. It can be draw out till
����
it touches 𝐶𝐸

Since we already know the perceived length of the ship and the true length, we can solve for ����
𝐶𝐸
2 2 2 2
also through 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 where 𝑐 is equal to the true length of the ship.

∠CDE is the targets true heading which here is 44°

∠FDE is the targets AOB which is 251° or 109° Bow Left (port)

Additionally AOB can be found through an equation.

𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 ∗ 𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑨𝟎 𝑩 = 𝟗𝟎° ± 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 � �
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 ∗ 𝐂𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐫𝐚𝐝 𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

56
Additionally true

����
𝑨𝑩 ∗ ∠𝐂𝐀𝐃
𝑨𝒐𝑩 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
����
𝑫𝑬
Where ����
𝐴𝐵 is the range to the target and ∠CAD is the view angle derived from your ship ����
𝐷𝐸 is
the targets actual length.

This means that as long as you have the range to target and the actual length, you can determine
its AOB with just the preserved length.

Thus we can re write for clarity.

������������������������
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑻𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒕 ∗ ∠𝐖𝐢𝐝𝐭𝐡 𝐢𝐧 𝐂𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐬
𝑨𝒐𝑩 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝑨𝒄𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒕

Chapter 8: Navigating the ocean floor

Echo Sounders and Hydrographic Surveying

Chapter 9: Course Intercepts

Leading Angle

Fast 90°

Gyro Intercept

57
Bibliography
Bowditch, Nathaniel. American Practical Navigator. 1995 - 2017. Print.

Marine Insight. https://www.marineinsight.com/category/marine-navigation. n.d. Web. 2019.

Rosseloh, et al. Wolfpack Community Guides 2019. Discord.

Training, US Captains. https://uscaptainstraining.com/. 2019. Web.

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