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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of foreign architecture on the ‘Neo-
Mughal’ or ‘Moorish’ style of design seen in Malaysian mosques of the colonial period
(1800-1930). The colonial period of Malaysian history is one of the best examples of the
emergence and influence of various imported types of architecture, especially Islamic
ones. The trend of ‘Neo-Mughal’ or ‘Moorish’ design is notable due to the different beliefs
and attitudes regarding the influence of Moorish or Mughal architecture. This difference
is already poignant even in its taxonomy, for instance, based on the classification of Dr.
Ghafar Ahmad (1997) in ‘British Colonial Architecture in Malaysia 1800-1930’, this trend
is regarded as being of Moorish influence while in the work of John Michael Gullick (1998),
the style was regarded that of the ‘British Raj’, created from the combination of Mughal
and Gothic styles. The significance of the research is to reveal the manner and contact of
Islamic foreign styles on Malaysian buildings, particularly in this period, where the amount
of influence from stranger styles was at its peak. The research methodology selected for
this paper is historical interpretative using the case study approach. The first step in the
research is studying different attitudes of the trend argument by reviewing secondary data.
This will be followed by the selection of a suitable case study and comparative analysis
between a case study of Malaysian mosques with samples of the Mughal and Moorish
architecture. The findings of research show
which Mughal and Moorish architecture
ARTICLE INFO influenced Malaysian mosques more and
Article history:
Received: 14 October 2014 which of the attitudes of this argument is
Accepted: 9 January 2015
more accurate.
E-mail addresses:
maryam.khazaee329@yahoo.com (Maryam Khazaee)
naziaty@googlemail.com (Naziaty Yaacob) Keywords: Moorish (Neo Mughal) style, Moorish
zakariaseikh@hotmail.com (Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad)
zuraini_mdali@um.edu.my (Zuraini Md Ali) architecture, Mughal architecture, influence, Malaysia
* Corresponding author
640 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 641
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
form archways and sub-domes from Mughal 13th and 14th centuries (Creswell, Pearson,
architecture (Chen, 1998). Meinecke, & Scanlon, 1961).
Tajuddin (2007) believes that the North The main characteristics of Moorish
Indian style is simply distinguished from mosques are a rectangular prayer hall and
other styles due to the usage of small an enclosed courtyard. Prayer halls have
and large onion domes, Chhatries (small a hypostyle plan with two types of aisle.
domed canopies), multi-foil and horse shoe Some of the mosques in that period were
arches. He also states that there are two small, with nine aisles perpendicular to
possible reasons for the proliferation of the the qibla wall and five transverse aisles
North Indian style. Firstly, the colonialist’s that were parallel to the qibla, taking into
choice of ‘Islamic Architecture’ was in account its contiguousness, but others,
order to pacify the people into accepting including the largest Maghribi mosques in
the colonist’s version of ritualistic Islam, Rabat (the mosque of Hasan, 1191-1199);
and secondly, the increase in the number the perpendicularity of the aisles to the
of Indian Muslim merchants in Taiping and qibla is combined with the parallelism of
Penang led to the building of mosques using the aisle contiguous to it. The number of the
Indian architecture in those places. perpendicular aisle varies, but the qibla aisle
typically stands alone (with the exception of
MOORISH ARCHITECTURE Rabat, which has three qibla aisles) (Pereira,
(13th-14th AD) 1994).
One of the main Islamic architectures that
were developed in the western territory of MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
the Islamic region (Maghreb, Spain and (16th-17th AD)
some areas of North Africa) was the Moorish The Mughal Empire was the last of the
style. The most famous and prominent great Islamic Indian empires and also was
buildings, which are preserved to this day, one of the largest centralised states in pre-
are the luxurious palace of Alhambra and modern world history. Mughal architecture
Córdoba mosques, built in the flourishing was a blend of Islamic, Persian and Indian
age of Moorish architecture between the architecture in the Indian subcontinent
Sultan Abdul Samad Secretarial Railway Station Old General Post Office
Buidings
Fig.1: Famous buildings of the colonial period (Ahmad & Malaysia, 1997)
642 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
(India, Pakistan and Bangladesh). Mughal One of the best ways for studying
architecture is rooted in India, and it brought historical events is through a case study.
in influences from the West via Islamic Even though the case study is preferred
planning refined by scholarly exchange in the examination of contemporary
between Persian principles and Europe. This events, the relevant behaviours cannot be
period was famous for the construction of manipulated. The case study relies on many
some of the most magnificent freestanding similar techniques used in history research
monumental sacred buildings in the country (Gillham, 2000; Yin, 2009). The suitable
(Nath, 1982). type of case study design for this research
The main characteristics of the Mughal is the single case study.
mosque are that it is made up of vast For research design, initially with
complexes with a large courtyard enclosed studying secondary sources, the different
by a sanctuary or Pishtagh, represented by attitudes and views about Moorish or Neo-
a vertically extended bulbous dome. The Mughal as a main sub style of colonial
vertical emphasis is further strengthened by architecture were investigated together with
the Chhatris (domed-shape pavilion) and the general characteristics of each foreign
ornamental minarets, and sometimes by the style (Mughal and Moorish architecture)
large functional minarets on the other side of was studied.
the courtyard cloisters and ivans (Frishman The case study of Moorish or Neo-
& Khan, 2007; Pereira, 1994). Mughal style was then selected. Comparative
analysis of this case study and the samples of
MATERIALS AND METHODS the two foreign styles (Mughal and Moorish)
Hatch and Groat (2002) pointed out four was carried out focusing on the level of
approaches of qualitative research in similarity and influence of the two foreign
architecture, that the special approach for styles of architecture in Malaysian mosques
historical research is called the interpretive– of the colonial period could be identified.
historical approach. Historical inquiry is very
similar to qualitative research concerning a Identification of Case Study
complex social phenomenon. Since this Based on the view of Dr. A. Ghafar Ahmad,
paper’s study aim involves the investigation 21 mosques built between 1800 and 1930 in
of the origins of architectural styles from Malaysia (colonial period) can be divided
various imported foreign styles, the main into two categories: colonial mosques and
focus of the research is the interpretation of vernacular mosques. According to Rasdi and
historical events. Therefore, the indentation Tajuddin (2007), Eleven colonial mosques
and collection of evidence concerning are in the design of various foreign styles
historical events are required. In this case, such as European Classical, Sino-Eclectic
the interpretative method is the paradigm and Indo-Gothic (or Moorish). The Kapitan
best suited to the task. Keling Mosque in Penang, the Jamek
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 643
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
Mosque in Kuala Lumpur and the Zahir Source of Evidence Related to Case Study
Mosque in Alor Setar are prime examples Among various types of source evidence
of Neo-Mughal or Moorish influence. The mentioned by Yin (2009a, p. 101) and
single case study was carried out using Gillham (2000, p. 21) and Creswell (2012,
a survey of the mosques covering site p. 182), the useful ones for this study
investigations and photographic studies. were deemed to be documentation, direct
The Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque was observation and audiovisual materials. In
selected as a case study (see Fig.2). This the direct observation and site inspections
mosque is located in a historical zone of the step, the detailed architectural style, and
centre of city, near two analogous important architectural elements and factors were
buildings, Sultan Abdul Samad Secretarial noted and recorded on mosque survey forms.
Buildings and the Railway Station, two Key information recorded in the forms
major famous colonial buildings. included general form, ‘mass and space’
and Islamic elements of the mosque (ivan,
Ubudiah Mosque Jamek Mosque Kuala Lumpur Kapitan Keling Mosque Zahir Mosque
644 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
minaret, Mihrab and dome). The mosque •• The Jama Masjid, Delhi (1656AD)
was studied externally and internally was the largest mosque in the Indian
following permission from the mosque sub-continent, after the Friday mosque
authorities. Moreover, other documents of Lahore (Pakistan). This mosque
(measure drawings and other information) was built by Shah Jahan, the most
were gathered from The Heritage Malaysia famous king of the Mughal Empire,
Trust (Badan Warisan Malayisa). and is characterised by two parts: its
main prayer hall and a large courtyard
Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque enclosed by cloisters. The mosque is
(1909AD) constructed upon a raised platform that
leads to three stairs from the north,
The architect in charge of the design of the
south and east entrance. The Haram, or
Jame Mosque was A. B. Hubbock. He was
prayer hall, is projected into the court as
also the architect in charge of the design
a totally freestanding block (Stierlin &
of Masjid Ubudiah in Perak, which was
Stierlin, 2002; Bunce, 2008).
the first mosque to use the onion-shaped
dome in Malaysia. Hubbock previously •• The Mosque of Córdoba (987AD), also
served in India as the Deputy Director of known as Great Mosque of Córdoba
the Architecture Department of the Public was a wonderful masterpiece of the
Works. This experience prompted him to medieval world for both Muslims and
adopt features from Northern Indian Mughal Christians. The mosque was built over
architecture. The first attempt at the concept the site of a Roman temple. The Great
was on the Sultan Samad hall. After that, this Mosque of Córdoba has a hypostyle
concept was repeated on the Jamek Mosque plan, consisting of a big rectangular
(Malaysia, 2008). prayer hall and a medium enclosed
courtyard. The style of the mosque
Moorish and Mughal samples follows the design of the Umayyad
and Abbasid mosque in both Iraq and
Samples of each Moorish and Mughal
Syria. Nevertheless, the articulation
architecture were selected. The criterion for
of the interior of the prayer hall was
the section was that the samples representing
unprecedented (Creswell, 1958).
their architecture and the main characteristics
of mosques in their architecture can be
DATA ANALYSIS
seen in these samples. Moreover, they
are included as congregational mosques. The analysis measured two major Islamic
The best Moorish-design mosque for this foreign architectural influences in the
research is the Mosque of Córdoba and for Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque by some
the Mughal-design mosque it is the Jama Islamic architectural elements. There
Masjid, Delhi (refer to Fig.3). The overview are two categories in this analysis which
of these mosques is as follows: include specific mosque elements (prayer
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 645
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
hall, minaret and Mihrab) and general mass (prayer hall, portico). The courtyards
elements for Islamic buildings such as the in the Kuala Lumpur Mosque mirrors the
dome and the arch. Besides that, scale, form design commonly found in Moorish styles.
and ‘mass and space’ as general factors Generally, the ratio of mass to open
were analysed. Each of these elements and space in the Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque
factors was studied in the case study (Kuala (0.2) is analogous to that of the Córdoba
Lumpur Jamek Mosque) and both samples Mosque (0.3) rather than to that of the
of Moorish and Mughal architecture. Delhi sample (0.8), which implies the
non-essential role of the courtyards in the
General Analysis Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque (see Table
The significant point of view in the Kuala 2 & Fig.4).
Lumpur Jamek Mosque dictates that scale
of mosque is smaller and inadequate for the Prayer Hall
purpose of Friday congregational prayers. The enclosed space of the Delhi Mosque was
Due to this, the enclosed spaces were added designed based on hierarchy. An observer
to the mosque in post-renovation (one in the first comes across the ivan, followed by the
centre and two at the sides of the prayer hall) aisle, then finally, the gallery. On the other,
(see Table 1). the hypostyle plan as seen in the Córdoba
It is rather common for mosques to Mosque consists of a rectangular prayer hall
have a surrounding courtyard. Unlike the and an enclosed courtyard. The system of
importance of the courtyard in the Mughal columns supporting double arcades of piers
style, the courtyard in the Córdoba Mosque and arches are rather unusual (Barrucand
was never able to function as the heart of & Bednorz, 2007). Columns and domes
the mosque, and has always been minor intricately articulate the Kuala Lumpur
despite its mass (Hillenbrand, 1994). The Jamek Mosque, which disregards the
Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque previously articulation of internal space, placing more
lacked a courtyard. During renovations, the emphasis on continuous space throughout
courtyard was added and it was covered, the prayer hall.
although it was not surrounded by the whole
646 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
TABLE 1
General Analysis Based on Scale (Authors)
Scale
Name of Mosque Function
Small Large
Delhi Mosque ■ Congregational
Córdoba Mosque ■ Congregational
Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque ■ Congregational
TABLE 2
Analysis of Mosques Based on Form and Proportion (Authors)
TABLE 3
Analysis of Prayer Hall of Mosque Samples (Authors)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 647
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
TABLE 4
Analysis of Samples ‘S Ivans (Authors)
Position of ivan
Name of Mosque Material
North East West South
Delhi Mosque ■ ■ ■ ■ Red sand stone
Córdoba Mosque - - - - -
Kuala Lumpur
- - - - -
Jamek Mosque
648 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 649
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
this can be seen in the Maghribi buildings, be noted that the domes have an octagonal
which exhibit a fascination with domes. base to them, due to the difference in time of
They are less structurally impressive and construction. The structure of the dome was
emphasise more scintillating decorative built with new material (steel) for support.
inventiveness. The importance of the The flat roof system used here is merely a
central nave is enhanced by its being roofed modern addition to the original mosque’s
with ataractic domes, terminating on the design.
outside in the form of paramedical roofs
(Creswell, 1958). Another characteristic Mihrab
of the Maghribi mosques is the use of the Generally, it was noted that the mihrab was
pierced, ribbed or fluted dome, especially rather decorative, ornamented with Islamic
over the Mihrab (Hillenbrand, 1994). geometric patterns and covered in expensive
According to Table 6 & Fig.8, there materials such as red and white sand stone
are three bulbous domes in the roof of the (Jama Masjid, Delhi) and coloured plaster
Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque exhibiting and marble (Córdoba Mosque). However,
influences of Mughal architecture. It should the simple mihrab found in the Jamek
TABLE 5
Analysis of Sample’s Minarets (Authors)
TABLE 6
Analysis of Mosques’s Domes (Authors)
650 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
Mosque of Kuala Lumpur is situated present the view and analysis of arches in the
opposite the main entrance to this space. samples. The arches of the Kuala Lumpur
As a matter of fact, the mihrab here was Jamek Mosque are in the multi-foil design,
a common closed niche with a horseshoe while the ogee arch acts as the peak of the
arch (like the Córdoba Mosque) having set. Additionally, the horseshoe arch derived
internal walls perforated by tiny holes (refer from the Moorish style can be seen in some
to Fig.9). architecture in the centre of each edge and
the windows.
Arch
Hillenbrand (1994) mentioned that one of Courtyard‘s Façade
the main features of the Córdoba Mosque The façade (from up down) of the Mughal
is the usage of wide ranges of the arch sample includes the arch, separate frieze for
(horseshoe, lobed, multi-foil, interlaced, each arch and shallow eave. However, both
cusped, trefoil, lambrequin) and that the the Córdoba and Kuala Lumpur Mosques
Delhi Jama Masjid was designed using the use shallow eaves without any frieze, which
cusped and ogee arch. Table 7 and Fig.10 makes their height less than that of the Delhi
Córdoba Mosque
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 651
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
TABLE 7
Analysis of Sample‘S Arch (Authors)
Kuala Lumpur Jamek Mosque Jama Masjid, Delhi Córdoba Jame Mosque
652 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015)
Mughal or Moorish Architecture: The Origins of Malaysian Mosques During Colonial Periods
TABLE 8
Analysis of Courtyard Façade (Authors)
TABLE 9
Analysis of Indian Formal Element
Name of Mosque Position of Chhatris Material Shape of
Gateways Roof of Minaret Corner Drum
Prayer Hall
Delhi Mosque ■ - ■ ■ White marble Polygonal
Kuala Lumpur Mosque - - ■ - Concrete & Polygonal
stone
Kuala Lumpur Jama Masjid, Delhi Córdoba Mosque Chhatris in Jama Masjid, Delhi
Jamek Mosque
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 23 (3): 639 - 654 (2015) 653
Maryam Khazaee, Naziaty Yaacob, Zakaria Alcheikh Mahmoud Awad and Zuraini Md Ali
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