Venezuela is the site of one of the world's largest
industrial complexes with emphasis on waste control
Pollution control in a new
n-
Maracaibo at El Tablazo in the state of Zulia This fully
integrated petrochemical facility, known as the Zulia El
Tablazo Petrochemical Complex, represents a series of
joint ventures between the Venezuelan government and
private corporations, and calls for a capital investment of
$1 2 billion by the completion date of 1979
The Venezuelan government has recognized that this
facility represents a potential source of pollution to an
ecologically sensitive body of water which already has
been subjected to various levels of pollutional input The
government is therefore initiating a pollution control pro-
gram through its agency, the lnstituto Venezolano de
Petroquimica ( I V P ) , which is designed to contain and
treat the waste waters discharged from the petrochemi-
cal production facilities to a quality level which will not
damage the receiving waters of Lake Maracaibo The M
W Kellogg Co and Engineering-Science, Inc 'Texas are
working cooperatively with IVP in engineering and con-
structing a waste water collection and treatment system
which will satisfy this objective
The El Tablazo Project in Venezuela is an excellent
example of pollution control development as i t represents
a new petrochemical installation large in size and com-
plexity, and located adlacent to an ecologically sensitive
body of water Answers to potential environmental prob-
lems such as these can be resolved only by properly
combining governmental initiative and support with sound
conceptual planning and engineering
This project is a manifestation of the Venezuelan gov-
ernmental policy for industrial development with environ-
mental control The significance of this project in terms of
governmental commitment precedence and environ-
mental sensitivity has underscored the need for thorough
investigation, corn prehensive en vi ron mental pla nn i ng
and proficient engineering
Lake Maracaibo and the petrochemical complex
Lake Maracaibo is a large estuary in the northern part of
Venezuela with a positive flow of water from the feed r i v -
ers in the South toward th of Venezuela in the
* a
9 fjl
North The estuary is approximately 90 miles long at the
the fact that it is eutrophied from several sources of pol-
lution which include untreated sewage discharges from
the City of Maracaibo and smaller cities around the lake
uncontrolled storm water runoff, and leaks from the 1200
oil production wells and transfer pipelines located in the
eastern portion of the lake The latter source probably
represents the most significant input of organic pollution
to the estuarine waters.
Venezuela already the world s largest exporter and
third largest producer of oil, is solidifying its position in
the petrochemical markets through its planned complex
at El Tablazo The government has attracted a host of
foreign partners to participate in this venture including B
F Goodrich and Dart Industries from the U S , Petro-
chemica Atlantic0 from Colombia, Ethylene Plastique
from France and other French, German and Italian in-
terests
Since large quantities of both associated and nonasso-
ciated natural gas are available in Venezuela natural gas
was selected as the raw material for the Zulia petro-
chemical complex at El Tablazo To induce various inter-
national petrochemical companies to participate in joint
ventures contributing both technical expertise and part of
the required capital, IVP undertook planning. manage-
ment, and financing of development of the site furnishing
of water supplies, electricity and fuel, preparation of
feedstocks for the process plants construction of port fa-
cilities for liquid and solid products personnel, tugs and
salt for the chlorine-soda plant as well as collection and
treatment of liquid waste material Various other Vene-
zuelan government entities-CVP (Corporacion Venezola-
na de Petroleos) INC (Instituto Nacional de Canaliza-
clones) INOS (Instituto Nacional de Obras Sanitarias)
and CADAFE (C A de Administracion y Foment0 Elec-
tricoi-participated with IVP in development of the site
and services
The need to develop basic utilities and feedstocks and
to provide graded plant sites dictated a phased program
of planning and construction Included in the facilities
making up the 1975 phase of the complex are the CVP
 Davis L. Ford
Engineering-Science, Inc., Austin, Tex. 78 722
George C. Patterson
The M. W. Kellogg Co., Houston, Tex. 77046
James M. Eller
Engineering-Science, Inc. /Texas, Houston, Tex. 77058
petrochemical complex
natural gas liquids plant the IVP olefins plant producing
ethylene and propylene, the IVP chloro-soda plant pro-
ducing chlorine for rrle vinyl chloride plant, the INOS
water systems with t a l k s , aquaducts and dams, and the
electric power generating plant to be operated by CAD-
AFE and integrated into the CADAFE regional and nation-
al systems These facilities, together with distribution pip-
ing systems and port facilities, serve a number of plastic
and fertilizer plants Other plastic and aromatic chemical-
producing plants are planned for 1979 operation Space
is available, and services are expandable for presently
undesignated future expansion
The first of the planned fertilizer plants is the Nitrogen
Ammonia-Urea Plant which goes on stream this year
This plant had originally been sited in Colombia and relo-
cated to Venezuela, therefore, design and procurement
of plant components were relatively further advanced
than other portions of the complex This necessitated
out-of-phase construction of certain facilities, including a
provisional system for effluent treatment by impoundment
* and irrigation.
The overall plot of the complex is shown in Figure 1
The facilities making up the first (1975) phase and the
second (1979) phase are all located in two strips in the
center of approximately 330 hectares (820 acres) The
undesignated futures will be located on both sides of this
center area
The two strips included in the first two phases of devel-
opment have been completely graded in a series of terra-
ces and surfaced with asphalt A network of roads with
ditches for collection of clean surface runoff from non-
process areas has been built These ditches discharge
into the lake without retention or treatment Fire water
piping electrical power cables drinking water, service
water piping fuel, and various feedstock systems are
also being installed sized for 1979 requirements Two
sewer systems are being installed also sized for the full
requirements through 1979 Provisions will be made for
metering and monitoring the major influents to the sys-
tem Included in the sewer systems are a number of l i f t
stations which deliver the two waste streams to the treat-
ment Dlant
The total investment in the Zulia El Tablazo production
facilities is expected to be approximately $1 2 billion by
the year 1979. Direct expenditures by IVP for site acqui-
sition, grading and earthwork. development of port facili-
ties, installation of electrical power generation plant. con- ~~~~
struction of feed preparation plants, installation of feed,
product, and utility distribution systems are expected to ~
approximate $150 million by 1975 This amount is exclu-
sive of the IVP share in joint venture companies and also
excludes the cost of raw materials and operating '
Ir ~
h
supplies
The contemplated expenditure for effluent collection
and treatment is a relatively small portion of the total
cost of the petrochemical complex Excluding cost of
ditches for collection of clean surface drainage, which is
included in general site grading. the cost of effluent col-
lection and treatment facilities is estimated to be $9 8
million by the year 1979
To develop a sound basis for designing a waste water
treatment system, a sequential approach for formulating
design criteria and process requirements was taken The
first task was to define each of the production pro-
cesses and predict the qualitative and quantitative char-
acteristics of the resultant waste waters Once the char-
acterization data were defined, treatability studies were
performed to evaluate candidate treatment processes
The results of these studies were then translated into de-
sign criteria, and the conceptual process flow sheets
were developed The program will be based on the prem-
ise that all revenues to operate and maintain the facilities
must be provided by the user industries
Major influent streams will be monitored by continuous
samplers, with charges for treatment computed on the
basis of both quantity and quality in terms of relative
treatability The composite samples from the various
points of discharge will be collected and brought to the
treatment plant for laboratory analysis Aside from the
normal measurement of organic parameters, BOD5 and
COD, allocation will be keyed to other treatability indices
such as the BODs 'TOC ratio Monitoring and analysis will
 FIGURE 1

Zulia complex at El Tablazo

also assess the content of toxic or inhibitory substances
which could reduce removal efficiencies and increase
treatment cost. Flow measurements and analytical re-
sults will be collated daily and taken to the IVP offices in
Maracaibo for coding and computer evaluation. Computer
printouts will then be returned to El Tablazo to assist in
plant operations. A computer program may also prepare
documented billings for invoicing the user industries.

General construction and financial procedures

Although the major incentive in building the Zulia El
Tablazo Complex is development of an indigenous petro-
chemical industry in Venezuela, a secondary goal is to
increase the self-sufficiency of domestic engineering.
fabrication, and construction companies. To this end.
Venezuelan groups have been used as completely as
poss i b I e.
For the effluent treatment plant, since this represents
the first industrial waste treatment plant of its type in
Venezuela, IVP engaged the services of experienced
U.S. consulting engineers, Engineering-Science, Inc.1
Texas. In part, use of a U.S. consultant was desirable to
facilitate treatability studies and establish design criteria,
as only in a highly industrialized area could the neces-
sary samples of plant effluents be obtained. Although the
conceptual and detailed design of the treatment plant fa-
cilities will be performed by Engineering-Science, design
of the plant control building will be performed by a
Venezuelan architect.
Construction of the treatment plant will be by Venezue-
lan contractors for earthwork and all other civil construc-
tion. electrical work, and for portions of the mechanical
erection. In common with the other components of the El
Tablazo Complex, maximum use will be made of Vene-
zuelan materials in the effluent treatment plant. Wherever
available, Venezuelan law requires that preference be
given to domestically produced materials. Among princi-
pal items available are seamless, electric resistance, and
fusion-welded carbon steel pipe; galvanized steel and
aluminum electrical conduit; vitrified clay tile pipe: con-
crete sewer and pressure pipe; weld rod: lightweight steel
shapes; steel tanks and pressure vessels (limited fabrica-
tion capacity): heat exchangers: low-voltage electrical
switchgear. transformers, wire. and cable: and cement
asbestos and aluminum roofing and siding. For the ef-
fluent treating plant, a limited amount of 'materials must
be imported which will include all-steel pipe fittings,
flanges and valves, instruments of all types, pumps, aer-
ators, centrifuges. and other mechanical equipment. me-
dium- and high-volrage switchgear and motor control
centers. and heavyweight structural steel shapes
Venezuela, because of the prominence of its petroie-
um industry and the advanced state of industry in the
country in general. has a large pool of highly skilled
workers in a variety of disciolines. As pay scales are rel-
atively high as comparea to other Latin American
countries. moderr: design aqd construction practices are
followed in lieu 0: waxlmizing labor content of an installa-
tion.. In structural e r e c t l o r . concrete is preferred over im-
ported steel. The \niidt?spread use of concrete structures
in the ccuntrv has ?o 2 hmoh degree of proficiency in
reiniorcep c3ncreie C D r j t r 2 r ? i o r with resultant low bn!'
cos:s. Corseouer:,l. ineve ;I a r Incentive to fully utilize
concr5:e s t , - u r ! u r e s V P ! ~ I D :ho w a 9 e Veatment complex.
Materia! procuremen! and construction management
A s a gove-nment lqstitute, ' V ? is subject to close con-
Trol by the Ministry of Mines and Hydrocarbons. the Fed-
eral Con:rolie:, and also by a special committee of the
Venezuelan legislature. To comply with the requirements
of the overseeing bodies, a series of strict and detailed
procedures has been developed for purchase of materials
and for subcontract of construction. The fact that the de-
velopment of the complex has progressed essentially on
schedule while complying with these procedures is a trib-
ute to the strenuous efforts and devotion of the managing
director and staff of the Zulia El Tablazo Complex.
Preliminary engineering phase steps
To develop a treatment system for a grass roots instal-
lation, it is. first necessary to define the production pro-
cesses in terms of capacity. major reactions, sources of
process waste water. and general operational proce-
dures. This information is required to establish a basis for
performing the treatability studies and predicting process
flows and pollutional loads. Reference to the literature
can be helpful in this regard. although sampling and ana-
lyzing waste waters from operating production units simi-
lar to the processes in question are the most accurate
approach. For this reason. waste water samples were
collected from operating petrochemical facilities in vari-
ous parts of the U . S . which used the same processes as
those planned for the Zulia El Tablazo Complex. A segre-
gated collection system is being designed for El Tablazo:
an organic sewer system will receive utility and low-or-
ganic process waste waters. The manner in which the
samples were collected therefore represented the base
process flow or that waste water which would be con-
veyed to treatment in the organic sewer
A comprehensive treatability program was conducted
to evaluate the appiicabiii!v of various processes i r l treat-
in9 :he E: 7aD;azc waste watei. Bench-scale simulatioi;
techninues 'were used to evaluate pretreatment oro-
cesses. secondary biological treatment and ancillary
studies reiated t o sludge handling ana carbon adsorption.
information from these studies was deve!oped relative to
process aaoilcabilit).. predictor relationships. and effluent
auality.
The pretreatment studies included consideration of pH

908 Environmental Science & Technology

level and variation, oil removal, and chemical coagulation
and sedimentation. A participating company must meet
certain quality reqilirements before it can discharge
waste water into either the organic or inorganic sewer.
Since this forces pretreatment for oil removal and pH
control at the plant source, no pretreatment facilities are
envisioned at the treatment plant site. An equalization
basin and temporary pond will be provided. however. to
safeguard the treatment system and allow more opera-
tional flexibility. Chemical coagulation studies indicated
only slight removal of organics from the raw waste water,
and it was concluded that chemical treatment is not ef-
fective as a primary treatment process.
The biological treatability studies were programmed to
determine the applicability and design criteria of the acti-
vated sludge process for treating the waste waters dis-
charged from the Zuiia El Tablazo Petrochemical Com-
plex. Specific objectives of the study included determina-
tion of organic removal rates, oxygen requirements. and
sludge yields. Two continuous bench-scale reactors were
operated for a period of two months using the composite
waste water as a feed source.
Although the use of activated carbon as a total treat-
ment system or an effluent polishing device is yet un-
proved in the industrial pollution control field. adsorption
isotherms were perfor med using both the raw composite
waste water and t h e biologically treated effluent. Iso-
therm tests can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of
activated carbon in removing organic constituents from
waste water by relating the amount of contaminant in the
adsorbed phase to that in solution.
The objective of the preliminary engineering phase of
this project was to develop a conceptual treatment sys-
tem. After these precepts were considered and the re-
guits of the treatability study were evaluated, an activated
sludge system was deemed to be the most practical. reli-
able, and economical method of treating the El Tablazo
waste waters to the desired quality level. This recommen-
dation was predicated on the positive results observed
from the activated sludge simulation studies. on the neg-
ative results observed from the alternate methods of
physical and chemical treatment, and the experience of
Engineering-Science. Inc. /Texas in previous investiga-
tion, design. and operation of treatment :systems receiv-
ing waste waters from other refinery and petrochemical
installations.
A simplified schematic of the proposed treatment sys-
tem is shown in Figure 2. The system is devised so that
all the dry weather organic sewer flow and any required
portion of tne inorganic sewer flow goes to treatment, An
impoundment basin with a surface area of four acres al-
ready has been constructed to serve as an interim evapo-
ration pond for the ammonia-urea plant waste water.
This production facility has just gone into service. and i t
was necessary to keep the ammonia-laden waste waters
out of the Lake. Once the treatment facillty is completed.
this basin will be converted to an impoundment basin for
temporary storage and controlled return to treatment of
specified waste waters. The treatment system also in-
cludes an equalization basin which will at?enuate hydrau-
lic fluctuations and equalize waste water quality varia-
tions. The equalized flow will then be conveyed to para lei
activated sludge basins. Additional parallel units will be
constructed as more treatment capac,ty is required. The
excess biological sludge will be further aerated. thick-
ened, and dewatered by basket centrifuge. These sol ds
along with other sources of solid wastes will be hauled to
selected sites for land disposal.
 The first phase of the El Tablazo production facilities
will be completed in 1975, with the second phase sched-
uled to be completed in 1979. Based on the information
currently available, the first phase production units will
discharge approximately one third of the design organic
load, and the treatment capacity will be phased accord-
ingly.
Waste water management and quality control will be
the responsibility of IVP, including establishment of
acceptability requirements for discharge into organic and
inorganic sewers by the participating companies. This, in
effect, dictates the amount of pretreatment required by
the individual companies. These acceptability require-
ments are sensitive to the biological treatment systems
tolerances and the receiving body of water effects.
Engineering Science recommended acceptability re-
quirements for discharge into the organic and inorganic
sewer. The final effluent to be discharged into Lake
Maracaibo also will be the quality control responsibility of
IVP. Although no effluent quality standards presently
exist in the Lake Maracaibo basin, tentative standards
are presently being developed for the El Tablazo Zulia
Complex. The effluent quality criteria to be recommended
must be compatible with the obtainable effluent quality as
recorded in the treatability studies, yet sufficiently strin-
gent to preserve the quality of the receiving waters of
Lake Maracaibo. The proposed standards also will gener-
ally conform to those presently in force for similar instal-
lations in the U.S.
Proposed waste water management program
Efficient operstion of the El Tablazo treatment facility
will be dependent upon the timely and intelligent re-
sponse to changes in the influent waste water composi-
tion and to the effect of these changes on the various
process units. The decision-making information needed
to affect process control must be supplied through a
well-coordinated and -implemented sampling, flow moni-
toring, and analytical program.
The heart of the treatment plant will be the biological
system, and considerable attention was given to pro-
tecting and controlling this process. The first line of de-
fense against process upset will entail the rigid enforce-
ment of pretreatment requirements. However, consid-
ering the larger number of user industries, periodic non-
comDliance must be anticipated. In view of this, acciden-
Davis L. Ford, vice-president o f Engi- George C . Patterson IS p r o j e c t engl-
neering-Science, Inc., is responsible neering manager of The M. W.
for administration and conducts ail Kellogg Co. He has directed engi-
civil, sanitary, and environmental neering projects in many sections of
health engineering projects in the the U.S. and
Austin, Tex., office. He is a consul- countries
tant for over 40 industries, the United
Nations, U.S., EPA, various state
agencies and municipalities, and the
governments of Mexico and Venezu-
ela. Address inquiries to Dr. Ford.
910 Environmental Science &Technology
in the i 8 - M g holding pond and returned at a controllea
'
rate for treatment. Moreover, the equalization basin will
attenuate fluctuations in organic loading, and further pro-
tection can be provided by appropriate apportionment of
the inorganic diluent. Process control will be accom-
plished by regulating hydraulic and organic loading
through regulation of the pump-over from the holding
pond and dilution with inorganic waste waters. Further-
more, though more subtle, control will be applied by vary-
ing the mixed liquor suspended solids through pro-
grammed sludge wasting. The decision-making informa-
tion needed to determine process control requirements
will be supplied through a sampling, flow monitoring, and
analytical program.
Operator training
Since well-trained and motivated personnel are the key
to efficient operation, IVP is taking steps to implement an
extensive operator training program. Engineering-
Science, Inc./Texas has already been engaged to pre-
pare a detailed operations manual and to assist in starl-
up of the facility. Personnel will be selected and retained
during the early stages of construction, and the comple-
tion of the start-up manual will be timed to coincide with
the initiation of the operator training program. This pro-
gram will include classroom instruction in Venezuela, fre-
quent inspection of the site during construction, and pos-
sibly a period of training at a similar facility in the U.S.
Experience gained during the initial period of operation
will be utilized to refine and transform the start-up manu-
al into a permanent operations document.
Additional reading
"The Ante Goes Up at El Tablazo," Chemical Week, Jan. 19,
1972.
Eckenfelder, W. W.. Ford, D. L.. "Water Pollution Conlrol."
Pemberton Press, Austin, Tex.. 1970.
Ford, D. L., Buercklin, M. A.. "The Interrelationship of Biologi-
cal-Carbon Adsorption Systems for the Treatment of Refinery
and Petrochemical Wastewaters." Sixlh International Confer-
ence on Water Pollution Research, Jerusalem. Israel, 1972.
The Texas Water Quality Board, Board Order 65-9. for the
Houston Ship Channel, Zone 2, and Board Order 70-0828-5.
limiting heavy metals concentrations in effluents discharged to
tidal waters.
The Delaware River Basin Commission, "Interpretive Guidelines
for Water Quality." Water Quality Standards, Sec. 2-1.2(1)
James M. tiler, general manager v i
Engineering-Science, inc./Texas, is
responsible for a l l studies and design
projects from the Houston office. He
various foreign is personally responsible for prelimi-
nary design and feasibility sfudies,
and final design assistance for waste
treatment in several refineries and
chemical companies. He is also
chief engineer for the Acapulco Bay
Study in Mexico.