Schools

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In the Church 

The Christian Church

By virtue of her Divine charter, "Going, teach ye all nations", the ​Church​ is essentially a
teaching organization. Teaching is included in her task of saving ​souls​. Primarily she
was instituted to dispense the means of ​salvation​, and to teach the ​truths​ which are
necessary to ​salvation​. These ​truths​ are spiritual and moral, and her catechumenal
schools were instituted for the purpose of teaching them. Truths which are not of their
nature spiritual, ​truths​ of ​science​, of history, matters of culture — in a word, profane
learning — these do not belong intrinsically to the programme of the ​Church's​ teaching.
Nevertheless, they enter into her work by force of circumstance, when, namely, the
Christian​ youth cannot attain a ​knowledge​ of them without incurring grave danger to
faith​ or ​morals​. They enter also into the ​Church's​ task by reason of a pedagogical
principle which she has always recognized in practice. Religion being the supreme
co-ordinating principle in ​education​, as it is in life, if the so-called secular branches of
knowledge​ are taught without reference to religion, the ​Church​feels that an ​educational
mistake is being made, that the "one thing necessary" is being excluded, to the
detriment of ​education​ itself. Therefore she assumes the task of teaching the secular
branches in such a way that religion is the centralizing, unifying, and vitalizing force in
the ​educational​ process. Whenever there is positive and immediate danger of loss of
faith​, the ​Church​ cannot allow her children to run the risk of perversion; whenever
religion is left out of the curriculum, she tries to supply the defect. In both cases she
establishes under her own control schools which are called ​Catholic​ and which, in the
vicissitudes of historical development or from the particular circumstances of their
foundation, scope, or maintenance, are specifically known as ​catechetical​ schools,
monastic schools, ​cathedral​schools, ​chantry​ schools, guild schools, ​parochial​ schools,
etc.

Catechetical schools

These flourished about the middle of the second century of the Christian era. They were
brought into existence by the conflict of ​Christianity​ with ​pagan​ philosophy. They were,
consequently, academies of higher learning. Out of them grew the first great schools of
theological​ controversy and also the schools for the special training of the ​clergy​,
although there were, almost from the beginning, schools attached to the household of
the ​bishops​ (episcopal schools) where ​clerics​ were trained, We have reason to believe
that in some instances, as in the ​catechetical​ school of Protogenes at ​Edessa​ (about
180), not only the higher branches but also the elementary branches were taught in the
catechetical​ schools. Schools of this type became more numerous as time went on. In
the Council of ​Vaison​(529) the ​priests​ of Gaul are commanded to take boys into their
household and teach them to read "the ​Psalms​, and the ​Holy Scripture​and to instruct
them in the ​Law of God​". From these sprang the ​parochial​ schools of ​medieval​ and
modern times.

As the conflict between ​Christianity​ and ​pagan​ philosophy gave rise to the ​catechetical
schools, so the more general struggle between ​Christian​ and ​pagan​ standards of life
gave rise to other provisions on the part of the ​Church​ for safeguarding the ​faith​ of
Christian​children. In the first centuries great stress was laid on the importance of home
education​, and this task was committed in a special manner to ​Christian​ mothers. It is
sufficient to mention the ​Christian​ matrons ​Macrina​, Emmelia, Nonna, Anthusa, ​Monica​,
and Paula, mothers of ​saints​ and scholars, to show how successfully the home under
the direction of the ​Christian​ mother was made to counteract the influence of ​pagan
schools. There were also private schools for ​Christian​ youth, taught by ​Christians​, for
instance the school at ​Imola​, taught by Cassian.

Monastic schools

Monasticism as an institution was a protest against the corrupt ​pagan​ standards of

living which had begun to influence not only the public life of ​Christians​ but also their
private and domestic life. Even in the fourth century, ​St. John Chrysostom​ testifies to
the decline of fervour in the ​Christian​ ​family​, and contends that it is no longer possible
for children to obtain proper religious and moral training in their own homes. It was
part of the purpose of monasticism to meet this need and to supply not only to the
members of the ​religious​ orders but also to children committed to the care of the
cloister​ the moral religious, and ​intellectual​ culture which could not be obtained
elsewhere without lowering the ​Christian​ standard of life. At the same time episcopal
schools, though instituted primarily for the ​education​ of ​clerical​candidates, did not
decline to admit secular scholars, especially after the State schools of the empire had
fallen into decay. There were ​parochial​ schools also, which, while they aimed at
fostering vocations to the ​priesthood​, were expressly commanded not to deny their
pupils the ​right​ to enter the married state as soon as they reached the age of maturity
(​cum ad œtatem perfectam pervenerint)​ . The explicit enactment of the Council of
Vaison​ (529) in this matter is important because it refers to a similar custom already
prevailing in ​Italy​. It remains ​true​, however, that although the episcopal and
presbyteral (parochial) schools thus contributed to the ​education​ of the ​laity​, the chief
portion of the burden of lay ​education​ in the early ​Middle Ages​ was borne by the
monasteries​. The earliest monastic legislation does not clearly define the organization
of the "internal" and "external" schools. Nevertheless, it recognizes the existence in the
monastery​ of children who were to be ​educated​, not for the ​cloister​, but for the world.
In ​Ireland​, as Archbishop Healy says, the ​monks​, "taught the children of the rich and
poor alike" ("Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars", 102), and to ​Ireland​ went not
only ​clerics​ but ​laymen​ from ​England​ and the Continent, to receive an ​education​. On
the Continent also the ​education​ of the ​laity​, "gentle and simple", fell to the lot of the
monks​. It is difficult to say when the distinction between the "internal" school (​schola
claustri​) and the "external" (​schola canonica, s. externa​) was first introduced. We find it
in St. Gall, ​Fulda​ and ​Reichenau​ in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the internal school
the pupils were ​novices​, future members of the order, some of whom were offered up
(​oblati)​ by their ​parents​ at a tender age. In the external school were the children of the
neighbouring villagers and the sons of the nobility; many of the references to this class
of pupils in the monastic code lay stress on the ​obligation​ to treat all with equal ​justice​,
not taking account of their rank in life. There was a similar custom in regard to the
reception of young girls in the ​convents​, as appears from several enactments of Bishop
St. Cæsarius of Arles and his successors. At Arles, moreover, according to Muteau (see
bibliography) open schools (​écoles ouvertes)​ were held by the ​nuns​ for the benefit of
the entire neighbourhood. The curriculum of studies in the monastic schools comprised
the ​trivium​ and ​quadrivium,​ that is to say, grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic,
geometry, ​astronomy​, and the theory of music. Besides, the ​monks​cultivated the
science​ and art of healing; they devoted attention to agriculture, building, and the
decorative arts. They took pains to transcribe the Classics as well as the distinctly
ecclesiastical​ works that had come down to them; and in doing this they developed the
art of penmanship and that of illumination to a high degree of perfection. They were
annalists​ also, noting down year by year the important events not only in the life of
their own community but also in the ​Church​ at large and in the political world. Finally,
by example and precept they dignified manual labour, which in ​pagan​ ​Rome​ was
despised as fit only for slaves.

The head of the monastic school was called ​magister scholœ, capiscola, proscholus,​ etc.
By the end of the ninth century, however, the usual name for the head of the school
was ​scholasticus.​ His assistants were called ​seniores.​ The method of teaching was
influenced largely by the scarcity of books and the need of handing down without
diminution the heritage of the past. The master dictated (​legere​was the word used to
signify the act of teaching), and the pupils wrote not only the text but also the master's
explanation or commentary. Of the many textbooks in use the most popular was the
work by Marcianus Capella (about 420) entitled "Satyricon, seu de Nuptiis Mercurii et
Philologiæ". That the instruction given to the ​laity​ in the monastic schools was entirely
gratuitous is evident from the ​decree​ of Bishop Theodulf of ​Orléans​ in the eighth
century, and from other documents. When, at ​Tours​, the external school was
frequented by a number of wealthy pupils, whose ​voluntary​ gifts to the ​monastery​ put
the poorer students in a position of apparent inferiority, the ​bishop​ of that ​see​, Amalric,
gave a generous donation to the ​monks​ to be used in the maintenance of poor
students. The ​Carlovingian​ revival of ​education​ affected not only the internal schools of
the ​monasteries​ but also the external schools, and, during the reign of Charles's
successors ​bishops​ and ​popes​ by a number of decrees showed their interest in the
maintenance not only of schools of ​sacred science​, but also in schools "for the study of
letters". The external school had by this time become a recognized institution, which
the sons of the farmers in the neighbourhood of the ​monasteries​ frequented not by
privilege but by a right freely acknowledged. We ​know​ that before the end of the ninth
century both boys and girls attended the schools attached to the ​parish​ churches in the
Diocese of Soissons​. As time went on the establishment and maintenance of schools by
the ​Church​ was made a matter of express canonical enactment. No document could be
more explicit than the ​Decree​ of the Third Council of Lateran (1179): "That every
cathedral church​have a teacher (​magistrum​) who is to teach poor scholars and others,
and that no one receive a fee for permission to teach" (​Mansi​, XXII, 234).

Cathedral schools

The ​cathedral​ schools sprang from the episcopal schools which, as has been said,
existed from a very early time for the training of ​clerics​. Chrodegang, ​Bishop​ of ​Metz​,
742-66, is said to be the founder of ​medieval​ ​cathedral​ schools, but only in the sense
that he organized the ​clergy​ of his ​cathedral church​ into a community, and ordained
that they undertake the conduct and management of the school attached to their
church. The ​bishop​ himself was to have control of the school and under him was to be
the immediate superior of the school (​magister scholœ​). In the cities and towns where
there was no ​cathedral​, the canons of the local church were organized after the manner
of the ​cathedral​ ​clergy​, and conducted a "canonicate" school. In both institutions there
came to be distinguished;

● (1) the elementary school (​schola minor​) where reading, writing, psalmody, etc.

were taught; and

● (2) the higher school (​schola major)​ in which the curriculum consisted either of

the ​trivium​ alone (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic), or of the full programme,

namely the seven liberal arts, Scripture, and what we now call pastoral theology.

The method employed in the ​cathedral​ schools was identical with that of the ​monastic
schools.

Chantry schools

The ​chantry​ schools were similar in character to the ​cathedral​ and canonicate schools.
Indeed, they may be said to be a specific kind of canonicate schools. The ​chantry​ was a
foundation with endowment, the proceeds of which went to one or more ​priests
carrying the ​obligation​ of singing or saying ​Mass​ at stated times, or daily, for the ​soul​ of
the endower, or for the ​souls​ of ​persons​ named by him. It was part of the ​duty​ of the
incumbents of a ​chantry​ foundation to "teach gratis the poor who asked it humbly for
the ​love​ of ​God​". (See "Catholic University Bulletin," IX, 3 sq.).

Guild schools, hospital schools, and city schools

The last beginning with the thirteenth century, shared the work of ​education​ with the
cloister​, ​cathedral​, and ​chantry​ schools. The guilds and ​hospitals​ were ​ecclesiastical
foundations​, were guided by ​clerics​, and engaged in the work of ​education​ under the
direction of the ​Church​. The city schools at first met with opposition from the teachers
in the monastic and ​cathedral​ foundations, although they also were under the control of
ecclesiastics​. ​Kehrein​ in his "History of Education" (see bibliography) mentions a ​Decree
of ​Alexander III​ which prohibits any ​abbot​ from preventing any ​magister​ or ​scholasticus
from taking charge of a school in the city or suburb "since ​knowledge​ is a ​gift of God
and talent is free". Towards the end of the ​Middle Ages​ the task of the ​ecclesiastical
teacher became so important that communities of ​clerics​ were founded for the express
purpose of devoting their lives to the ​duties​ of elementary ​education​. The best known
of these communities is that of ​"The Brothers of the Common Life"​ founded by ​Gerard
Groot​ (1340-84) at Deventer. It soon extended to Windedheim, Agnetenberg, and other
towns in ​Holland​ and North ​Germany​. To this community belonged ​Thomas à Kempis​,
the author of "The Imitation of Christ". That these various provisions for the ​education
not only of the ​clergy​ but also of the ​laity​--monastic schools, ​cathedral​ schools,
canonicate schools, ​chantry​ schools, guild schools, ​hospital​ schools, city schools, and
special educational institutions--met the ​educational​ needs of the times, and were
adequate as far as the circumstances of the times would allow, is the verdict of all
historians who view without prejudice the ​educational​ career of the ​Catholic​ ​Church​.
Allain (see bibliography) has told the story of primary ​education​ in ​France​; Ravelet (see
bibliography) has gone over the whole question of primary ​education​ in ​medieval times​;
Leach has told part of the story (see bibliography) as far as pre-Reformation ​England​ is
concerned. It is impossible to give more than a summary statement of the facts which
these writers have accumulated. Those facts, however, justify the assertion that, far
from opposing or neglecting the ​education​ of the masses, the ​Catholic​ ​Church​ in
medieval times​ provided generously for their instruction in the elementary branches, as
well as in the department of higher studies, whenever and wherever the political, social,
and ​economic​ conditions were not so adverse as to thwart her ​educational​ efforts.

Both the particular and the ​general councils​ of the ​Church​, imperial capitularies, and
episcopal and ​papal​ decrees show that ​bishops​ and ​popes​, while concerned primarily for
the ​education​ of future members of the ​clerical​ body in the ​sacred sciences​, were also
at pains to encourage and promote the ​education​ of the ​laity​. For instance, the Council
of Cloveshoe, held by Cuthbert, ​Archbishop​ of ​Canterbury​ in 749, prescribes that
abbesses as well as ​abbots​ provide for the ​education​ of all their households (​familiœ​). A
Carlovingian​ capitulary of 802 enjoins "that everyone should send his son to study
letters, and that the child should remain at school with all diligence until he became
well instructed in learning". Theodulf of ​Orléans​ in 797 decrees that gratuitous
instruction be given by the ​priests​ in every town and village of his ​diocese​, and there
cannot be the least ​doubt​ that ​education​ of the ​laity​ is meant. The Council of
Châlon-sur-Saône in 813 legislates in a similar spirit that not only "schools of ​Sacred
Scripture​" but also "schools of letters" be established. The Council of ​Rome​, held in
853, directs the ​bishops​ of the Universal Church to establish "in every episcopal
residence [​in universis episcopiis]​ among the populations subject to them, and in all
places where there is such need" masters and teachers to teach "literary studies and
the seven liberal arts". These and similar documents lay stress on the obligatian which
rests on the ​parents​ and godparents to see to the ​education​of children committed to
their care. By the middle of the ninth century the distinction between external and
internal monastic schools being clearly recognized, and ​parish​ schools having become a
regular ​diocesan​ institution, the testimonies in favour of popular ​education​under the
auspices of the ​Church​ become clearer. In the tenth century, in spite of the disturbed
conditions in the political world, learning flourished in the great ​monasteries​, such as
that of St. Gall (Switzerland). St. Maximin (Trier), and in the ​cathedral​ schools, such as
those of ​Reims​ and ​Lyons​. The greatest teachers of that time, Bruno of Cologne and
Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Sylvester II), taught not only the sacred but also the profane
sciences​. In the eleventh century the school of ​Chartres​, that of Ste-Geneviève at ​Paris​,
and the numerous schools of rhetoric and dialectic show that even in the higher
branches of learning, in spite of the fact that the teachers were invariably ​clerics​, the
laymen​ were welcomed and were not denied ​education​ of the secondary kind. That, as
historians have pointed out, the references to popular and elementary ​education​ in the
local councils of the ​Church​ have not always been preserved, is explained by the fact
that elementary Church schools were now an established fact. Ecclesiastical authority
intervened only whenever some abuse called for remedial legislation. Thus, the ​decree
of the Third Council of Lateran already referred to (n. III) aimed at abolishing the
custom of exacting fees for instruction in the ​cathedral​ schools. There were, naturally,
details of arrangement to be determined, such as salary of teachers and supervision or
personal instruction on the part of the ​pastor​. These were provided in decrees, such as
that of the Diocesan Synod of ​St. Omer​ in 1183 and that of Engelbert II, ​Archbishop​ of
Cologne​, in 1270.
The history of ​education​ in ​England​ before the ​Reformation​ is the story of the efforts
made in monastic, ​cathedral​, ​chantry​, and ​parish​schools for the ​education​ of the ​laity
as well as of the ​clergy​. In the narrative of the suppression and confiscation of these
foundations Leach (see bibliography) gives abundant documentary evidence to justify
his assertion that "Grammar schools, instead of being comparatively modern,
post-Reformation inventions, are among our most ancient institutions, some of them far
older than the Lord Mayor of London or the House of Commons" (p. 5). He estimates
the number of grammar schools before the reign of Edward VI to have been "close on
two hundred", and these he considers to be merely "the survivors of a much larger host
which have been lost in the storms of the past, and drowned in the seas of destruction"
(ibid.). There were, he maintains, not only schools connected with the ​cathedral
churches​, ​monasteries​, collegiate churches, ​hospitals​, guilds, and chantries, but also
independent schools, in one of which "an old man was paid thirteen shillings and
fourpence by the Mayor, to teach young children their A B C" (p. 7). Lincoln,
Chichester​, and Wells were the principal ​cathedral​ schools. Beverley, ​Chester​, Crediton,
Ripon, ​Wimborne​, Warwick, Stafford, and Tamworth had important collegiate schools.
At ​Evesham​, Cirencester, and Lewes were the principal ​monastery​ schools at the eve of
the ​Reformation​, while at ​Oxford​, Cambridge, Eton, and elsewhere were thirty-one
college schools of grammar before the reign of Edward VI, The number of schools in
proportion to the population of the country was relatively very great, and as far as it is
possible for us now to judge the attendance, that, too, must have been relatively large.
The history of ​education​ in ​Scotland​ before the reformation is told in the first part of
Grant's "History of the Burgh Schools of ​Scotland​". "Our earliest records", says that
writer, "prove not only that schools existed, but that they were then invariably found in
connection with the ​Church​" (p. 2). He quotes documents for the foundation of schools
in 1100, 1120, 1180, 1195, and cites in many instances ​papal​ approval and
confirmation of educational establishments in the twelfth century. He is convinced that
these institutions were intended not merely for ​clerics​ but also for young ​laymen​ (ibid.,
p. 12), and he concludes his summary by admitting that "The scattered jottings
collected in this chapter show our ​obligation​ to the ancient Church for having so
diligently promoted our national ​education​--an ​education​ placed within the reach of ​all
classes" (ibid., p. 72).

The educational institutions founded and supported by the ​Church​ in ​France​, ​Germany​,
Italy​, and other parts of ​Europe​ before the ​Reformation​ have, in part, been mentioned
in the general account of monastic and ​cathedral​ schools. Specht (see bibliography) has
produced documentary evidence to show the extent to which laywomen were ​educated
in the ​convent​ schools of the ninth and the following centuries; he has also shown that
daughters of noble ​families​ were, as a rule, ​educated​ by private teachers who, for the
most part, were ​clergymen​. The assertion so frequently made that, during the ​Middle
Ages​, learning was considered out of place in a ​layman​, that even elementary
knowledge​ of letters was a prerogative of the ​clergy​, is not sustained by a careful
examination of historical records. It is ​true​ that there are passages in the popular
literature of the ​Middle Ages​ in which the ​ignorant​ ​layman​, who is well versed in the art
of ​warfare​ and in the usages of polite ​society​, affects to despise learning and to regard
it as a monkish or ​ecclesiastical​ accomplishment. But, as Léon Maitre (see bibliography)
asserts, "such ​ignorance​ was by no means systematic; it arose from the conditions of
the times". "Knowledge", says a twelfth-century writer, "is not an exclusive privilege of
the ​clergy​, for many ​laymen​ are instructed in literature. A prince, whenever he can
succeed in escaping from the tumult of public affairs and from [the confusion of]
constant ​warfare​, ought to devote himself to the study of books" (P.L., CCIII, col. 149).
The number of distinguished ​laymen​ and laywomen, emperors, kings, nobles, queens
and princesses who, during the ​medieval era​, attained prominence as scholars shows
that the advice was not disregarded. The ​calumny​ recently reaffirmed that "the Church
was not the mother, but rather the stepmother, of learning" is easily asserted, but is
not so easily ​proved​.

The destruction of this vast and varied system of ​ecclesiastical​ legislation is a fact of
general history. The schools, as a rule, disappeared with the institutions to which they
were attached. The confiscation of the ​monasteries​, the suppression of the ​benefices​ on
which the chantries were founded, the removal of the guilds from the control of
ecclesiastical​ authority, the suppression of ​cathedral​ and canonical chapters and the
sequestration of their possessions by the State, were the immediate cause of the
cessation of this kind of ​educational​activity on the part of the ​Church​ at the time of the
Reformation​ and afterwards. In ​Protestant​ countries these events took place in the
course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In ​Germany​, a compromise was reached
in some States by the recognition of both ​Protestant​ and ​Catholic​ "confessional" schools
and the division of school funds, an arrangement which lasted until the beginning of the
nineteenth century; in ​France​ the work of confiscation began with the ​French
Revolution​; in ​Italy​, ​Spain​, and ​Portugal​ the suppression and spoliation have taken
place within the last half-century and are still going on. Apart from the question of
elementary ​justice​--the question of violation of a strict right to their own lands and
funds, which the ​ecclesiastical​ corporations possessed at the time their ​property​ was
seized and their schools suppressed--there arises now the question of the ​right​ to
teach, the right of the ​Church​ to found and maintain private schools, and the alleged
exclusive right of the State to ​educate​.

The fundamental principles of canon law

Those principles bearing on these questions may be stated as follows:

● (1) The ​Church​, being a perfect ​society​, has the ​right​ to establish schools, which,

although they may be permitted by the ​civil law​merely as private institutions,

are, of their nature, public;

● (2) By ​natural law​, the ​obligation​ lies primarily with the ​parents​ of a child to

provide for his ​education​, as well as for his physical support. This is part of the

purpose and aim of the ​family​ as an institution. If no provision is made by any

other institution, the ​parents​ must provide ​education​ either by their own effort or

that of others whom they employ;

● (3) When the ​parents​ neglect their ​duty​ in the matter of ​education​, the State, in

the interests of public welfare, takes up the ​obligation​ of teaching. It has,

therefore, the ​right​ to establish schools, and, consequently, the ​right​ to compel
 attendance, in so far as the principle holds good that public welfare demands a

knowledge​, at least, of the elementary branches of ​education​.

From the interaction and conflict of these fundamental ​rights​ arise the following more
particular principles:

● (1) The ​Church​ has the exclusive right to teach religion to ​Catholic​ children.

Neither the ​parents​ nor the State can exercise this right except they do so with

the consent (as ​parents​ do) and under the supervision and control of the

ecclesiastical authorities​.

● (2) The ​Church​ cannot approve schools which exclude religion from the

curriculum, both because religion is the most important subject in ​education​, and

because she contends that even secular ​education​ is not possible in its best form

unless religion be made the central, vitalizing, and co-ordinating factor in the life

of the child. The ​Church​, sometimes, tolerates schools in which religion is not

taught, and permits ​Catholic​ children to attend them, when the circumstances

are such as to leave no alternative, and when due precautions are taken to

supply by other means the religious training which such schools do not give. She

reserves the ​right​ to judge whether this be the case, and, if her judgment is

unfavourable, claims the ​right​ to forbid attendance (see Letter of ​Gregory XVI​ to

Irish​ Bishops, 16 Jan., 1831).

● (3) In all schools, whether established by the ​Church​ or the State, or even by a

group of ​families​ (so long as there are pupils received from different ​families​) the

State has the ​right​ to see that the ​laws​ of public health, public order, and public

morality are observed, and if in any school doctrines were taught subversive of

public peace or otherwise opposed to the interests of the general public, the

State would have the ​right​ to intervene "in the name of the good of the general

public".

● (4) State monopoly of ​education​ has been considered by the ​Church​ to be

nothing short of a tyrannical usurpation. In principle it overrides the fundamental

 right of the ​parents​, denies the right of the ​Church​ even to open and maintain

schools for the teaching of religion alone, and in its natural effect on public

opinion tends to place religion below considerations of mere worldly welfare.

● (5) The ​Church​ does not deny the right of the State to levy taxes for the support

of the State schools, although, as we shall see, this leads to ​injustice​ in the

manner of its application in some countries. The principle is distinct always from

the abuse of the principle. Similarly, the ​Church​ does not deny the right of the

State to ​decree​ compulsory ​education​ so long as such decrees do not abrogate

other and more fundamental ​rights​. It should always be remembered, however,

that compulsion on the part of the State is not the exercise of a primary and

predominant right, but must be justified by considerations of public good.

● (6) Finally, the ​rights​ of the ​Church​ in the matter of religious teaching extend not

only to the subject of religion itself but to such matters as the character of the

teacher, the spirit and tone of the teaching in such subjects as history and

science​, and the contents of the textbooks used. She recognizes that

de-Christianized teaching and de-Christianized textbooks have inevitably the

effect of lessening in the minds of pupils the esteem which she teaches them to

have for religion. In a word her ​rights​ are bounded, not by the subject of

religion, but by the spiritual interests of the children committed to her care.

The present status of the Church and state in regard to

education

In Germany

After the ​Reformation​ in ​Germany​ the primary schools in ​Protestant​ provinces passed
over to the control of the local ​civil authorities​. In ​Catholic​ communities the
ecclesiastical authorities​ did not yield so readily to the aggression of the State. All
through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries councils (Cologne, 1536 and 1560;
Salzburg, 1569; Breslau, 1592; Augsburg, 1610) withstood the encroachments of ​civil
authority​ on the ​parochial​ schools and, as a rule, a ​modus vivendi​ was reached
satisfactory to the ​bishops​. By the end of the eighteenth century however, the notion of
State ​jurisdiction​ in ​educational​ matters was firmly established. For the most part the
foundation of private schools was the solution. These were recognized by German law
as belonging to the ​jurisdiction​ of the ​Church​. Early in the nineteenth century the
so-called "simultaneous schools" began to be the ordinary solution of the problem. In
these there were children of various ​denominations​, each denomination having, in
theory, the ​right​ to care for the religious instruction of its members. On several
occasions the ​bishops​ of ​Germany​ or of some German state protested (e.g. at
Würzburg​, 1848; the ​Bavarian​ ​bishops​, 1850) against the restrictions of the ​rights​ of
the ​Church​. At the present time the simultaneous schools are ​obligatory​ in a few
provinces and optional (​facultativ​) in others, while in ​Bavaria​, the Rhine Provinces and
elsewhere, "confessional", i.e. denominational, schools are the rule, and simultaneous,
or mixed, schools, the exception. Throughout the empire the supreme control of all
elementary schools is vested in the government, the local ​ecclesiastical authorities
being granted a greater or less amount of supervision and control according to the
different circumstances in different localities. The teacher of religion for ​Catholics​ is of
course always a ​Catholic​, almost always a ​priest​, and is a regularly qualified and
salaried teacher, like the instructor in other branches. The attitude of the ​bishops
towards the contemporary ​educational​ system in ​Germany​ is set forth in the decrees of
the Council of Cologne (1860).

In Austria

Until the beginning of the nineteenth century the conditions were similar to those
existing in ​Germany​. The legislation of ​Joseph II​ had been distinctly hostile to religious
influence in the schools. However, the enactments of 1808, 1868, 1885, etc. give a
measure of authority and control to the local ​clergy​ which make the conditions in
Austria​ to be as a rule more favourable than in the ​German Empire​. The question of
language has of course complicated matters in many provinces of ​Austria​, and local
conditions, the ​personality​ of the government official, etc. have much to do with the
actual status of religious teaching in the public schools. The decrees of the Council of
Vienna​ (1858) contain the views of the ​hierarchy​ of ​Austria​ in regard to the present
condition of religious ​education​ in that country. The Letter of the ​Archbishop​ of ​Vienna
to the ​Papal Nuncio​ (22 Oct., 1868) is also an important declaration. See also articles
5-8 of the Concordat of 1855 (​AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY​).

In France

The ​Napoleonic​ ​decree​ of 1808 established in principle and in fact the most rigorous
State monopoly in ​education​. It met at once with a vigorous protest on the part of the
Catholic​ ​bishops​, who demanded freedom of instruction in the name of the ​parents​ in
whom, they contended, the ​right​ to ​educate​ is primarily vested. In 1833 and 1850 (​La
loi Falloux​) "free schools" were recognized. No special concession was made to the
Church​ but permission was granted to ​individuals​ to open schools. From 1833 to 1850
members of ​religious​orders or ​priests​ could teach only in the State schools. After 1850
they were free, as citizens, to open schools of their own, both primary and secondary.
In 1886 a blow was struck at free primary ​education​ by authorization given to mayors
and school inspectors to oppose the opening of any private school on hygienic or moral
grounds. In 1888 came another attack in the form of an order of the Council of State,
depriving communes and departments of the ​right​ to grant appropriations for private
schools. Finally in 1904 it was declared that "teaching of every grade and every kind" is
forbidden in ​France​ to the members of the congregations. This resulted in the closing of
14,404 out of 16,904 "Congregational" schools. Since that time the ​bishops​ have tried
to reorganize ​Catholic​ ​education​ by establishing private schools in which the teachers
are either ​laymen​ and laywomen or secularized members of the congregations.
Instruction in religion in the State schools was optional with the ​parents​ of the children
by a ​decree​ of 1881. In 1882 religious instruction in the primary schools of the State
was absolutely forbidden, and in 1886 religious and ​clerics​ were forbidden to teach in
those schools. In place of denominational religion there was introduced first a species of
"denominational neutrality" and later, a "scientific religion" (​enseignement critique​).
Within the present decade the tendency of this teaching has been plainly seen in the
introduction of textbooks which are both anti-clerical and anti-religious, with the result
that ​bishops​ are at present under indictment in ​France​ for daring to warn the people of
their ​dioceses​ against the use of such books in the schools supported by the people.

In Belgium

See ​BELGIUM​; also pamphlet by Cardinal Dechamps, "Le Nouveau projet de loi sur
l'enseignement primaire" (Mechlin, 1879).

In England

Until the beginning of the nineteenth century there was no government system of
primary schools in ​England​, nor were any primary schools in receipt of State aid. It was
not until 1833 that government grants were made, and then the schools that benefited
by the grants were either schools of the National and British Foreign Society, or, in any
case, schools in which the ​Bible​ was to be read as part of the regular instruction. The
civil disabilities under which ​Catholics​ suffered, and the restriction of grants in practice
to Bible-reading schools excluded ​Catholic​ private schools from State aid until 1848. In
1856 and 1858 the conditions under which grants were given were made more
favourable to ​Catholics​. From 1871 to 1903 the basic law of primary ​education​ in
England​ was Forster's Elementary Education Act of 1870. This Act, while it did not
abolish the ​voluntary​ or denominational schools, established the Board-schools. These
were to be supported from the rates or taxes, and governed by school boards elected
by the people. The Government helped to build the school and, in places where the
boards were judged culpably negligent, compelled them to build. In 1876 and 1880
supplementary enactments were passed, called School Attendance Acts, which compel
the attendance at either ​voluntary​ or Board-schools of all children under ten. The
religious difficulty was met at first by leaving the matter of religious instruction to the
discretion of the local board. Later the "Conscience" clause and the "Cowper-Temple"
clause were added, in order to satisfy the ​Anglicans​ and the ​Nonconformists​. These
clauses set aside a special hour for religious instruction, attendance at which was to be
entirely ​voluntary​, and forbade the use of "any ​catechism​ or religious formulary
distinctive of any particular denomination". ​Catholics​ were able to accept these
conditions in some localities. Meantime various enactments, for example in 1891 and
1897, were passed, which lessened the burden of the ​voluntary​ schools. The Bill of
1902, which became law in 1903, took the power out of the hands of the school boards,
vested it in the town and county councils, and compelled these to take over and
maintain the ​voluntary​ schools. This brought ​England​ in line with ​Scotland​, where a
similar law was in force since 1872. The ​Nonconformists​, however, objected because in
localities where they were in the minority the religious instruction given in the schools
would be denominational, that is ​Anglican​. To meet this objection Mr. Birrell's Bill of
1906 was framed. But, after various vicissitudes, the Bill was finally defeated, and
never became law. It would have had the effect of wiping the ​voluntary​ schools out of
existence and abolishing all denominational instruction, a result which, apparently,
would be acceptable to the ​Nonconformists​, but is bitterly opposed by both ​Catholics
and ​Anglicans​. In 1870 the number of ​Catholic​ schools in ​England​ and ​Wales​ was 354,
providing for the ​education​ of 101,933 children; while in 1906 the number of schools
had increased to 1062 and the attendance had reached 284,746. This increase is
largely due to the ​zeal​ of the ​Catholic​ School Committee, now known as the ​Catholic
Education Council.

In Ireland

The primary ​education​ of ​Catholics​ in ​Ireland​ is provided for by;

● (1) Schools under the management of the ​Irish Christian Brothers​ and other

religious​ communities, which receive no part of the annual grant for primary

education​, and are free from government supervision and inspection. In 1901

there were 97 of these schools.

● (2) Private schools, which are also free, and do not share the annual grant. In

1901 there were 85 of these, but the report does not state how many of these

are ​Catholic​.

● (3) National Schools, endowed by the State, of which in 1901 there were 8569,

with an attendance of 602,209. These were established by the Act of 1831 and
 are governed by that Act and subsequent ​statutes​, authority being vested in the

National Commissioners of Education.

The majority of the National Schools are taught by lay teachers. Many of the girls'
schools are, however, taught by ​nuns​, and boys' schools by ​Christian Brothers​ (of the
Congregation of St. John Baptist de La Salle), Presentation, ​Marist​, Patrician, and
Franciscan​Brothers, The Act of 1831 aimed at separate instruction in religion. In places
where it is at all practicable there is a National School for ​Catholics​ and one for
Protestants​ in the same locality. Where the attendance is "mixed" there is a separate
hour for religious instruction, attendance at which is ​voluntary​. In ​Catholic​ sections, or
when the majority of children are ​Catholic​, the manager is almost invariably the ​parish
priest​. The manager is the local school authority: he appoints the teachers (subject to
the approval of the commissioners), removes them, and conducts all the ​necessary
correspondence with the commissioners. His powers and his ​duties​ are those of a
school board. He is, if a ​priest​, responsible to his ​bishop​. By enactment of the Maynooth
Synod of 1900 he may not dismiss a teacher without submitting the case to the ​bishop
of the ​diocese​ in which the school is situated. Of the seven training colleges for primary
teachers, five are under the management of the ​Catholic​ ​bishops​. The number of
teachers trained in these colleges is now more than double the number of untrained
teachers. Religious instruction in the primary schools is given at a stated hour by the
regular teachers of the school: this is supplemented by the local ​clergy​, who have
access, within reasonable limits, to the classroom for the purpose of religious
instruction. That these conditions are, on the whole, acceptable to the ​bishops​ is clear
from the pastoral address issued in 1900 from the ​National Synod​ of Maynooth. It
should be added, however, that it is due to the vigilance and devotedness of the ​Irish
clergy​ that they have gradually evolved from the original National system which was
"thoroughly dangerous", a system which at the present time is "a help rather than a
hindrance to the ​Church​".

In the United States

"The greatest religious fact in the United States today", writes Archbishop Spalding, "is
the ​Catholic​ School system, maintained without any aid by the people who ​love​ it". The
vastness of the system may be gauged by the fact that it comprises over 20,000
teachers, over 1,000,000 pupils, represents $100,000,000 worth of ​property​; and costs
over $15,000,000 annually. This system grew up from ​humble​beginnings. Its growth
has kept pace with the growth of the ​Church​. The oldest schools in the present territory
of the ​United States​ are the ​Catholic​ schools founded about 1600 in the Spanish
colonies. The French colonies, too, had their schools as a regular part of the civil and
religious scheme of colonization and civilization. ​Catholic​ ​educational​ work in the
Thirteen Colonies dates from the arrival of the ​Catholic​ colony in ​Maryland​. The first
regularly established school in ​Maryland​ dates from 1640. As the condition changed
from that of a missionary country to that of a country regularly provided with a fixed
ecclesiastical​ organization, the schools came to be recognized as a function of organized
parish​ work. In the Spanish and French colonies the school, like the ​Church​, looked to
the State for support. In the English colonies there was also State support of
denominational ​education​, but whether the ​Catholics​ could or could not secure a share
of the public funds depended on local conditions. When the States adopted their
constitutions, they did not introduce any change in this respect. It was "the gradual rise
of dissentient religious bodies in the colonies and States due to the influx of emigrants
and other causes, that brought about important changes which led to the establishment
of a 'non-sectarian' system of schools" (Burns, "The Catholic School System in the
United States", p. 359). We ​know​ that in many instances ​Catholics​ in the West and
even in ​Massachusetts​ and New York obtained funds from the State for the support of
their schools, as the ​Episcopalians​ and ​Presbyterians​ did for theirs.

The unsuccessful attempt of Father Richard of ​Detroit​ in 1808 to obtain for the ​Catholic
schools of that city a share of the public funds, was followed in 1830 by a more
successful plan at Lowell, Mass. At that time the population of Lowell included many
Irish​ ​Catholic​immigrants. In 1830 at the annual town meeting a committee was
appointed to consider the expediency of "establishing a separate school for the benefit
of the Irish population", and the following year the sum of fifty dollars annually was
appropriate for that purpose. In 1855 there were two ​Catholic​ schools at Lowell; both
were recognized as part of the school system of the town, and both were supported out
of the public funds. After sixteen years of successful trial the arrangement was
discontinued in 1852, owing to the wave of bigotry known as the ​Knownothing
Movement that swept over New England. In New York, as early as 1806, St. Peter's
School applied for and received State aid. A similar arrangement was made for St.
Patrick's School in 1816. In 1824 this support was withdrawn by the State, owing to the
activity of the Public School Society. To this ​society​ was committed the entire school
fund for distribution, and, as we learn from the protests of New York ​Catholics​, the
activity of the ​society​ was directed towards making the public schools not strictly
non-sectarian but offensively ​Protestant​. In 1840 the School Controversy in New York
was precipitated by the petition of the ​Catholics​ to be allowed a share of the public
funds for their schools. The petition was rejected by the Common Council; but the fight
was not, on that account, discontinued. With remarkable ​zeal​, eloquence, and erudition,
Bishop Hughes, supported not only by all his ​Catholic​ people, but also by some of the
non-Catholic congregations of the city, urged the claims of religious ​education​. He laid
stress on the contention that ​Catholics​ have a ​right​ to "a fair and just proportion of the
funds appropriated for the common schools, provided the ​Catholics​ will do with it the
same thing that is done in the common schools". He claimed no special privilege, but
contended for the "constitutional ​rights​" of his people. He was opposed, not only by the
Public School Society, but also by representatives of the ​Methodist​, Episcopal, and
Presbyterian​Churches. The claims of the ​Catholics​ went before the legislature; but there
also sectarian ​hatred​ was injected into the discussion and bigotry gained the day. The
controversy, however, had one good result. It showed the imminent danger to ​faith​ and
morals​ existing in the public school system as influenced by the so-called
non-sectarians of that day, and as a consequence ​Catholics​ set to work to build up, at a
tremendous cost, a system of ​parochial​ schools unsupported by the State.

In theory it is still maintained that ​injustice​ is being done to ​Catholics​. If the "secular
branches" are taught in the ​parochial​ schools to the satisfaction of the State authorities,
the schools should be compensated for doing that portion of the task which the State
has assumed. On the other hand, there are many ​Catholics​ who are convinced that if
State aid were accepted it could be done only at the cost of independence, that State
aid would be the price of admitting State supervision to the extent of partial
de-Catholicization. There have, nevertheless, been individual instances in which a
compromise has been reached, e.g. Savannah, Georgia; St. Augustine, Florida;
Poughkeepsie, New York; and Faribault and Stillwater, Minnesota. The last-mentioned
instance gave rise to the celebrated School Controversy of 1891-92. The Faribault plan
consisted in setting aside a certain time for religious instruction, to be given gratis by
the ​Catholic​ teachers, and a time for secular instruction, to be given also by ​Catholic
teachers. The secular instruction was to be paid for by the State, and in respect to that
portion of its work the school was to be under State supervision; it was, in fact, to be
recognized as a "public school". The question was finally carried to the ​Congregation of
the Propaganda​, which rendered its decision on 21 April, 1892, to the effect that
"considering the peculiar circumstances and character of the arrangement, and the
agreement by which the plan was inaugurated, it may be tolerated". In the discussion
of the Faribault plan certain fundamental questions were touched, as for instance in ​Dr.
Bouquillon's​ "Education, to whom does it belong?" (Baltimore, 1891), "A Rejoinder to
the Civiltà Cattolica" (Baltimore, 1892)," A Rejoinder to Critics" (Baltimore, 1892),
Hollaind, S.J., "The Parents First" (New York, 1891), Conway, S.J., "The State Last"
(New York, 1892), Brandi, S.J., in "Civiltà Cattolica", 2 Jan., 1892, tr. as a pamphlet
(New York, 1892). It should be added that, owing to some local difficulty the agreement
at Faribault and Stillwater was later discontinued, but a similar agreement is in force
today in not a few places in Minnesota.

The attitude of the ​hierarchy​ of the ​United States​ towards the problem of elementary
education​ has been consistent from the beginning. At first Bishop Carroll, in the days
immediately following the Revolution, entertained the hope that ​Catholics​ might unite
with their non-Catholic fellow-citizens in building up a system of ​education​ that would
be mutually satisfactory from the religious point of view. Soon, however, he realized
that that hope was futile. After the First ​Catholic​ Synod he addressed (1792) a pastoral
letter to the ​Catholics​ of the country, in which he emphasized the necessity of a "pious
and ​Catholic​ education of the young to insure their growing up in the faith", and
expressed the hope that the graduates of the newly-founded College of Georgetown
would, on returning to their homes, be able "to instruct and guide others in local
schools". Thus the plan of organizing separate ​Catholic​ schools was inaugurated. The
First ​Plenary Council of Baltimore​ (1829) declares: "We judge it absolutely ​necessary
that schools should be established, in which the young may be taught the principles of
faith​ and morality, while being instructed in letters" ("Decreta", n. 33). The Second
Council (1832) renewed this enactment and entered into the details of organization
(see "Decreta", n. 38). The Third ​Plenary Council of Baltimore​ (1884) devoted very
careful consideration to the subject of elementary schools and decreed in explicit terms
the ​obligation​ of establishing a ​parochial​ school in every ​parish​ within two years of the
promulgation​ of the ​decree​, except where the ​bishop​, on account of serious difficulties
in the way (​ob graviores difficultates​) judges that a delay may be granted ("Acta et
Decreta", 199, no. 1).

Parochial schools and public schools

The establishment and maintenance of ​parochial​ schools does not imply the
condemnation of public schools, or opposition of any kind to the purpose for which
these are established. At a meeting of the National Educational Association at ​Nashville​,
Tennessee​ in July, 1889, both Cardinal Gibbons, ​Archbishop​ of ​Baltimore​, and
Archbishop Keane, then ​rector​ of the ​Catholic University of America​, stated the case in
favour of denominational schools, and made it clear that, so far as citizenship and
patriotism are concerned, the ​Catholic​ schools are aiming successfully at the same
ideals as the public schools. Since that time the ​calumny​ has been repeated that
parochial​ schools lead to sectionalism, and are opposed to national patriotism. ​Catholics
can only answer that this is not ​true​, and point to facts to justify their reply. Our
schools teach everything that is taught in the public schools, and, in addition, teach
religion and religious morality. The exclusion of religion from the public schools is, we
think, historically, the result of sectarian division and sectarian prejudice. In recent
times theorists have sought to justify the omission on pedagogical grounds, and have
suggested various substitutes for religion as a basis of morality. We criticize the
theories, and point to the ​educational​ results in justification of our contention. If the
exclusion of religion and the substitution for it of inadequate and futile moral ​education
lead to disastrous results, the ​Catholics​ who call attention to those conditions, far from
opposing the public school system, are really doing it a service. Meantime they feel that
the tendency in the ​educational​ policy of the public school system is more and more
towards secularization. In the matter of morality they feel that experiments more and
more dangerous are being tried in the public schools, and if they protest, they are doing
what, after all, they have a right, as taxpayers, to do. Meantime also they are
developing their own system of ​education​ without giving up the contention that, in
justice​, they have a ​right​ to compensation for the secular ​education​ and the ​education
in citizenship which they give in their schools.

Conflicts between the ​educational​ authority of the State and the ​Catholic​ ​clergy​ have
arisen in a few instances. The ​clergy​ have always recognized the right of officials of the
Department of Health, etc., to interfere in the matters in which they have competence.
Where they have retained full autonomy, and have not yielded for the sake of affiliation
or some other form of recognition, they have naturally avoided all friction with State
educational​ authority. By way of exception, we have the celebrated Ohio Compulsory
Education case, in which Father Patrick F. Quigley, of ​Toledo, Ohio​, resisted
unsuccessfully the enactment of the ​State of Ohio​ (1890) compelling all principals and
teachers in all schools to make quarterly reports to State officers. The still more famous
Wisconsin​ Bible Case involved the question of the right of the District Board of
Edgerton, ​Wisconsin​, to have the ​King James Version​ of the ​Bible​ read in the public
schools which were attended by ​Catholic​ pupils. The Supreme Court of ​Wisconsin
decided in favour of the ​Catholics​.

Principles embodied in the parochial schools

The sacrifice which ​Catholics​ are making in maintaining their system of primary schools
is justified, in their estimation, by the following principles:

● (1) The spiritual interests of the child, while not exclusive of others, such as

learning, health, skill, ability to make a living, etc., are supreme. Where there is
 danger of wrecking the ​soul​ of a ​Catholic​ child no consideration of economy has

weight.

● (2) Next to religion, morality is the most important matter in the life of a child.

Catholics​ maintain that morality is best taught when based on religion. ​Catholic

educational​ theorists, especially, are convinced that the immature mind of the

child cannot grasp principles of morality except they be presented by way of

religious authority and religious feeling.

● (3) Considering the nature of the child-mind, the whole curriculum of the school

is best presented when it is organized and unified, not fragmented and

disconnected. Religion, appealing as it does to the heart as well as to the head,

offers the best principle of ​mental​ and spiritual unification and organization. The

exclusion of religion from the schools is a pedagogical mistake.

● (4) Although condemned by secularizing educationalists and sectarian

enthusiasts as un-American and opposed to our national institutions, our schools

seem to us to be second to none in national usefulness and effectiveness. They

teach patriotism, and the results show that they teach it successfully. They teach

morality, and the lives of the ​Catholic​ people of the country show the result.

They teach religion, thus constituting, in an age that questions everything, a

great institutional force on the side of ​belief​ in ​God​, in religious ​obligation​, and in

definite moral responsibility.

Besides, they strive, with great personal sacrifice on the part of people, teachers, and
pupils, to keep up with the public school system in teaching the secular branches. They
are as a rule the equals, and often the superiors, of the public schools in the quality of
the secular instruction which they give. They have the advantage of discipline,
uniformity of ideals, harmony of methods, and, above all, of disinterested devotedness
on the part of their teachers. Finally, the fact should not be overlooked that the
parochial​ schools save many millions of dollars annually to the non-Catholic public,
who, if the ​Catholic​ children were not provided for in ​parochial​ schools, would be
obliged​ to increase very considerably the annual cost of ​education​.
Organization and statistics

The ​parochial​ school system is ​diocesan​ in its organization. The supreme ​educational
authority is the ​bishop​, who governs and administers the schools of his ​diocese​ through
the assistance of a school board and, very often, a ​diocesan​ (clerical) inspector of
schools. The immediate authority is vested in the ​pastor​, whose task it is to provide
building, salaries, etc. The teachers are almost universally religious. The principal of the
school is appointed usually by the ​religious​ community to which he or she belongs. The
great majority of the schools are mixed, that is, schools for boys and girls. The only
exceptions, apparently, are those in which the boys are taught by brothers and the girls
by sisters. There is no recognized national central authority in ​Catholic​ ​educational
matters. However, the ​parochial​school section of the ​Catholic Educational Association
has already done much towards unifying and systematizing our ​parochial​ schools. The
training of teachers is, as a rule, provided for by the different ​religious​ communities
engaged in the work of teaching. There are no ​diocesan​ institutions for the training of
the teachers for the whole diocese. During the summer of 1911 a regular session of the
Catholic University of America​ was held for the benefit of the teaching sisterhoods. Of
the three hundred who attended, a large percentage took up professional pedagogical
subjects. Similar institutes were held at ​Chicago​, ​Milwaukee​, and elsewhere. In the
autumn of the same year the Sisters' College was formally opened at Brookland, D. C.,
under the auspices of the ​Catholic University of America​, and of the twenty-nine
students who attended the first session all took professional courses in ​education​. The
number of ​parochial​ schools in the ​United States​ in 1911 was, according to the
"Catholic Directory", 4972, and the number of pupils 1,270,131. These figures do not
include ​orphan asylums​, which numbered 285 and took care of 51,938 ​orphans​. Neither
do they include the non-parochial academies, ​convent​ boarding schools, and day
schools, nor the colleges for boys, many of which have a number of primary pupils in
attendance.
Australia 

In Australia as in the other parts of the British Empire, the struggle in defence of
Catholic​ ​education​ has been a hard, uphill fight. Even in the present age the ​Catholics
of Australia, who have by the most generous and devoted ​sacrifices​ created a fine
system of ​education​, both primary and secondary, have not the right, which the
Catholics​ of ​England​, ​Ireland​, and ​Scotland​ enjoy, to have any share whatever in the
large sums of public money expended on the schools, whilst they are compelled to
contribute this money in the form of taxes and rates.

History

From 1788, when Governor Philip first established a colonial settlement at Port Jackson,
until 1826, the only schools available for ​Catholic​children in the colony were the
officially controlled ​Anglican​ schools, on which large grants of money and land were
lavished. The devoted ​Catholic​ ​chaplain​ Father Therry started a small school in 1826,
for which he managed to obtain a little Government aid. By 1836 there were thirteen
Catholic​ schools. Through the influence of Governor Bourke, a liberal ​Irish​ ​Protestant​, a
system of State aid recognizing the various ​denominations​ was developed, a
Denominational Board for distributing the funds was set up, and a modest allowance
was secured by ​Catholics​. But in 1848 a National Secular System was introduced with a
Central Board of Education somewhat similar to that existing in ​Ireland​, yet running
concomitantly with the existing Denominational Board. Hostility between the two was
inevitable, and there were many inconveniences. By the Public School Act of 1866 a
Central Council of Education was established and sundry changes were introduced,
some being to the detriment of the denominational schools; for the defence of ​Catholic
rights​ a Catholic Association was formed. But the secular movement supported by
anti-Catholic prejudice grew in strength and, by the Public Instruction Act of 1880, a
centralized secular system, withdrawing all State aid from the denominational schools,
was completely established in New South Wales; this had been done already in some of
the other States, and as time went on was done also in the remaining. The effect of the
measure was the speedy extinction of the great majority of the other denominational
schools, whilst the ​Catholics​, thrown again entirely on their own resources, started to
build and support their schools (both primary and secondary), the numbers of which
they have since then largely increased. The secular system has thus been in force in
the State schools for thirty years, but the situation's not acquiesced in by the ​Catholics​;
they continue to demand the right as free citizens to have the money which they pay in
taxes for the support of ​education​expended on the only ​education​ which they can
conscientiously accept.

Present status of Catholic education

The ​Catholic​ primary schools are under the authority of the ​bishop​ of the ​diocese​. There
are no school boards; inspectors appointed by ​diocesan​ authority examine and report
on the schools. Competitive yearly interprimary school examinations for ​Catholic
secondary school scholarships give an extra stimulus to individual work. In some states
Government inspectors are invited to visit the schools, but only in three states does the
law​ enforce Government inspection. These schools are taxed like ordinary institutions;
where they come into competition with the State schools, e.g. for civil service
appointments, they win more than their share of successes. The ​Catholic​secondary
schools and high schools for boys and girls are numerous, and are in charge of the
religious congregations. The ​Jesuit Fathers​have four colleges, and the ​Vincentian​ and
Marist Fathers​ (N. Z.) one each. The remainder are divided among the ​Christian​, ​Marist​,
Patrician, and ​De La Salle​ Brothers. Secondary ​education​ is largely guided by the
university​ examinations, and here again the ​Catholic​schools amply prove their
efficiency. Victoria (Tasmania lately passed a similar law) by Act of Parliament (1906)
exacts the registration of all private schools both primary and secondary, and of all
teachers. An Educational Council, on which ​Catholics​ are represented, has charge of the
register, determines the conditions of registration, and adjudicates on individual claims.
Vested interests are respected, but evidence of competency is to be required of all
future teachers. ​Catholics​ are endeavouring to meet the new conditions by the
establishment of training colleges, especially for ​women​. In New South Wales, where
similar legislation is probable, ​Cardinal Moran​ (d. 6 Aug., 1911) in 1911 established a
Catholic​ Council of Education to safeguard ​Catholic​ interests.

In Australasia, including ​New Guinea​, there are: ​Catholic​ primary schools, 1004;
superior day schools, 196; boarding schools for girls, 194; colleges for boys, 27;
ecclesiastical seminaries​, 5; and one college for foreign missions. The estimated total
Catholic​ population is 982,578; scholars, 123,905. The great majority of the ​Catholic
teachers are from among the 6000 ​nuns​ and 549 brothers who devote their lives to the
service of the ​Church​ in the country. Lay teachers are chiefly employed in the country
districts. The ​per capita​ cost of ​education​ in the ​Catholic​ primary schools averages
between £3 and £4; in the State schools, between £5 and £6. The amount saved to the
State by the self-sacrifice of the ​Catholic​ body totals annually about three-quarters of a
million pounds. The ​Catholic​ schools are maintained by the ​voluntary​ contributions of
the ​faithful​--​church collections​, concerts, bazaars etc.--and the gratuitous labours of
the religious. The classes in the ​Catholic​ primary schools are graded in a system
somewhat similar to that in the Government schools. In some of the states, notably in
New South Wales, the ​Catholic​ school authorities have been able to issue special
Catholic​ school readers and periodical school papers. As an offset to the Government
scholarships, which unlike those in ​England​ are tenable only at the Government high
schools, the ​Catholics​ have founded scholarships in ​Catholic​ secondary schools for their
primary school children. Technical instruction is usually included in the curriculum of the
larger schools, but is more systematically organized in ​Catholic​institutions for ​orphans
and industrial work.

Canada 

Canada is a self-governing dominion of the British Empire consisting of nine provinces

and some territories not yet erected in provinces. Its population is partly French in
origin and language, partly British. It will be ​necessary​, in order to be accurate, to
speak of each province separately.

Ontario

The beginnings of ​Catholic​ ​education​ in ​Ontario​ may be said to date back to the year
1615, in which the Recollect ​Joseph Le Caron​, making a journey of exploration in the
countries of the ​Algonquin​ and ​Huron​ tribes, decided on the foundation of missions in
their midst. Writing to the Court of ​France​, he said: "We must first make men of these
Indians, then ​Christians​." During the years 1622-26, his first efforts were assisted by
the arrival of Fathers Guillaume Poulin, ​Nicholas Viel​, and de La Roche d'Aillon, of his
order, and the ​Jesuit Fathers​ Brébeuf and de La Noue. Their work was facilitated by the
aid of interpreters who were good ​Christians​ and valiant auxiliaries. By 1638 the ​Jesuit
Fathers​, now ten in number, had established two residences on the banks of Georgian
Bay. These outposts speedily became centres of ​Christian​ and ​Catholic​ civilization. Until
1650 the missionaries, with their devoted ​lay brothers​ and coadjutors from ​France​,
were the only ​Catholic​ teachers of ​Ontario​. Their first lessons of ​catechism​, of
book-knowledge, and of agriculture, given amidst the greatest privations, and often at
the peril of their lives, owed much more to their unlimited ​zeal​ than to any generosity
on the part of their pupils. In 1649 the ​Huron​ and ​Algonquin​ ​neophytes​ were
exterminated by the ferocious ​Iroquois​, who burnt or destroyed seven flourishing
missions, which had been directed by no fewer than sixty missionaries and helpers,
many of whom perished with their flocks. The surviving heroes of the Gospel found a
new field of action among the Outaouais, who inhabited the present County of Bruce,
the islands of Georgian Bay, and Great Manitoulin Island. The work that had been done
for the ​Hurons​ and ​Algonquins​ of Eastern ​Ontario​ was now renewed on behalf of the
Western tribes. Nothing that human ​zeal​ could accomplish was spared to make of them
civilized people and fervent ​Catholics​. When Antoine* de La Mothe Cadillac founded the
important post of ​Detroit​ (1701), he was accompanied by missionaries, among whom
was the Rev. Father Lhalle, who became ​rector​ of the pioneers of Essex. The Iroquet
tribe, belonging to the large ​family​ of the ​Algonquins​, settled in the farthest eastern
end of the province in the present Counties of Stormont, Glengarry, and Prescott,
received at an early ​date​ the joyful tidings of ​Catholic doctrine​ and the benefit of
Catholic​ ​education​.

After the War of American Independence, a great number of settlers, faithful to the
British flag, took refuge in the ​Province of Ontario​. The first immigrants established
themselves at Indian Point, in the vicinity of ​Kingston​, in 1784. Later on, other loyalists
took up homesteads at ​Toronto​ and Niagara. The few ​French​ ​families​ who had followed
de La Mothe Cadillac to Detroit survived to constitute the colony of Essex, and their
descendants rapidly invaded both the Counties of Essex and Kent, where the French
population now almost forms a majority. In 1786 and 1802 Scotch emigrants settled in
large numbers in the Counties of Glengarry and Prescott. From 1816 to 1825 British
officers and furloughed soldiers, mostly ​Irish​, colonized the districts of Carleton, Lanark,
and ​Peterborough​. The construction of the Rideau Canal caused a large number of
workmen to take up their residence in ​Ontario​. An entire colony of ​Scotch​ ​Catholics​,
expelled from the ​United States​ after the War of Independence on account of their
attachment to the British Crown, settled in ​Canada​near Niagara, in the Counties of
Lincoln and Welland. A vigorous stream of immigration from ​Germany​ in 1835
overflowed the western end of the province, in the present Counties of Bruce, Huron,
and Perth. Meanwhile ​French​ ​Canadians​ poured into the Counties of Russell, Prescott,
and Glengarry. Raftsmen and ​French​ ​Canadians​ of various occupations ascended the
Ottawa River, exploring the regions now known as New Ontario, Algoma, Nipissing, and
Thunder Bay. They are now in a majority in these three counties, and have churches,
priests​, and schools of their own.

This ​Catholic​ immigration, so abundant and sudden, incited the ardent ​zeal​ of Mgr
Plessis, ​Bishop​ of Quebec, to send missionaries to Upper ​Canada​. Priests from the
seminary​ of Quebec, others from the foreign missionary organization of ​Paris​, and a
small number of ​priests​ who had immigrated with their Scotch or ​Irish​ countrymen
ministered to the spiritual wants of these ​courageous​ colonists. They joyfully accepted
their share of the great poverty of these pioneers. They thought more of preserving the
Faith, of administering the ​sacraments​, and of reforming abuses than of founding
schools. Not that they considered schools as of little importance, but because, from lack
of resources and teachers, the establishment of schools was an impossibility. From
1830, however, Toronto had its ​Catholic​school; then ​Kingston​, in 1837 and Picton, in
1840, were likewise provided for. The ​hierarchy​ of the ​Catholic​ ​Church​, ever anxious to
foster the ​education​ of the people confided to its care, was soon established in the
province. This was the signal for the opening of educational establishments at divers
points. Ottawa had its ​Catholic​ schools in 1844; Brantford in 1850; Goderich and
Peterborough in 1852; Hamilton, Oshawa, and Barrie in 1855; Perth and Alexandria in
1856; Orillia in 1857; Berlin, Dundas, and St. Thomas in 1858; Belleville in 1860, and
so on. The venerable Bishops A. McDonell, R. Gaulin, Power, Guiges, O.M.I., de
Charbonel, Pinsonnault, Jamot, Farrell, and Phelan; Fathers J. Ryan, Proulx, Grand,
Maloney, Carayon, Grattan, Bissey, Jeffrey, Bilroy, Lawler, Faure, the ​Jesuit Fathers​ du
Ranquet, Hanipaux, Chôné, Frémiol, the Oblate Fathers Tilmon, Dandurand, Tabaret,
Soulerin, Manroit, and the ​Basilian​ Fathers--these were the pioneers and defenders of
Catholic​ ​education​ in ​Ontario​. They found very able helpers in the various ​religious
communities of ​women​, and in the ​Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools​.
Many sincerely ​Christian​ ​persons​ among the ​laity​ also devoted themselves to the cause
of ​Catholic​ ​education​ in the province. Among the earliest and most remarkable may be
mentioned, at ​Toronto​, J. Harvey and J. Seyers; at ​Ottawa​, Dr. Riel, Friolle, and Goode;
at Dundas, Miss Sweeney; at Brantford, J. d'Astroph; at Oakland, Capt. Fitzgerald.

The ​Catholic​ schools have become numerous and powerful. Their organization, from the
points of view of studies, discipline, and regular attendance of pupils, is better than that
of all other institutions of the same class in the province. Many years have already
elapsed since in the cities, villages, and other parts of the country, long opened up to
colonization, the old square-timber school-houses were replaced by splendid buildings
of brick or stone. The architecture of these schools is simple and beautiful; the systems
of ventilation, lighting, and heating are excellent; the installation of suitable school
furniture and accessories is almost complete. This progress is very evident, even in
centres of colonization. The school trustees make it a point of ​honour​ to put up school
buildings which are beautiful and spacious, and which leave nothing to be desired in
ventilation, lighting, and heating. The ​Catholic​ schools of ​Ontario​ are called separate
schools. They do separate, in fact, for school purposes, the ​Catholic​ minority from the
Protestant​ majority. They make it possible for ​Catholics​ to withdraw their children from
the public or common schools, which are by law ​Protestant​. Nevertheless, there are
some public schools which are really ​Catholic​; these exist in localities exclusively or
almost exclusively ​Catholic​. Such schools are found especially in the Counties of
Russell, Prescott, Algoma, Nipissing, Kent, and Essex. Separate schools were granted in
1841, when the Provinces of Upper and Lower ​Canada​ were united. Wishing to secure
for their co-religionists in Lower ​Canada​ exemption from the ​obligation​ of sending their
children to the ​Catholic​ schools (common schools in that province), and of paying taxes
for the support of said schools, the ​Protestants​ of ​Ontario​ and Quebec proposed to
establish a system of dissident or separate schools. What they claimed for the
Protestants​ of Lower ​Canada​ they had to bind themselves in strict ​justice​ to grant to
the ​Catholics​ of Upper ​Canada​.

The principle of separate schools, ​Catholic​ in ​Ontario​ and ​Protestant​ in Quebec,

received the royal sanction on 18 September, 1841. This fundamental law had been
discussed by a committee of the Legislative Assembly in which Lower ​Canada​ was
represented by fifteen members and Upper ​Canada​ by eight. This law authorized
dissidents from the common schools, on giving notice to the clerk of the district council,
to pay their school taxes for the support of separate schools, and to receive a share of
the government grants for ​education​ in proportion to their number. The same law
authorized the election by the people of trustees for the administration of separate
schools. The governor was authorized to nominate in each city a board of examiners
composed of an equal number of ​Catholics​ and ​Protestants​. The ​Catholics​ of ​Ontario
obtained the privilege of establishing a separate board for the examination of
candidates wishing to teach in their schools; a clause in this fundamental law exempted
the ​Brothers of the Christian Schools​ from submitting to examination by this board.
From 1841 to 1863, at almost every session of the Legislature, the ​Ontario​ ​Protestants
proposed amendments to the act establishing separate schools. These amendments
tended, for the most part, to render the existence of separate schools in ​Ontario​ so
precarious that they would die out of themselves. The desired privileges for the
Protestants​ of Lower ​Canada​ had been obtained; it was well known that these privileges
would always be respected by the ​Catholic​ majority of Quebec; now, they thought, it
would be safe to deliver the attacks of unenlightened fanaticism against the separate
schools of Upper ​Canada​. Cost what it might, the cry was raised for a single school
system for the whole of Upper ​Canada​--a common, public, or national school system.
While constantly professing motives of the purest ​justice​ and common interest, the
Protestant​ Province of Upper ​Canada​ has continually sullied its reputation for fairness
by setting an example of fanaticism, narrow-mindedness, and intolerance towards
Catholic​ schools, whilst Lower ​Canada​, a ​Catholic​province, has been a model of perfect
justice​ and toleration.

On 27 February, 1863, a ​Catholic​ deputy, R. W. Scott, presented for the fourth time a
new law to govern the separate schools. This law was adopted, thanks to the generous
aid given by the ​French Canadian​ deputies, mostly from Lower ​Canada​. The Upper
Canadian​majority voted against the bill, but all the members from Quebec and
twenty-one members from Upper ​Canada​, among them several ​Protestants​, were in its
favour and carried the measure.

1f ​Ontario​ now possesses a system of ​Catholic​ separate schools, it is largely due to the
French​ ​Canadians​ of Lower ​Canada​, whose wishes in the matter were enforced by their
representatives, ​Catholic​ and ​Protestant​. This law, enacted in 1863, was maintained at
the time of the confederation of the provinces in 1867; it still governs today the
Catholic​ separate schools of ​Ontario​. Yet it is far from giving to the ​Catholics​ of that
province liberties equal to those enjoyed by the ​Protestant​ minority of Quebec. It
recognizes the ​Catholic​ separate schools for primary ​education​ only. Secondary or
superior ​education​ in ​Ontario​ is ​Protestant​. The ​Catholics​ have their academies,
convents​, colleges, and ​universities​, but these are independent schools, supported by
the ​voluntary​ contributions of ​Catholics​ who have also to contribute, on the same
footing as ​Protestants​, to the support of the government high schools, collegiate
institutes, and ​universities​. It refuses to separate schools the ​right​ to a share of the
taxes paid by public-utility companies, such as railway, tramway and telephone
companies, banks, etc. It withholds from the trustees of separate schools the right of
expropriation in order to secure more fitting localities for their schools. It refuses to the
Protestant​ father of a ​Catholic​ ​family​ the ​right​ to pay his taxes towards the support of
Catholic​ schools. It allows ​Catholics​ the option of paying their taxes to support the
public schools. As the rate of taxation for separate schools is generally higher than that
for public schools, owing to the large number of children in ​families​ of the ​Catholic
minority, and to the abstention of large business concerns from contributing the least
support to the separate schools, it follows that many ​Catholics​, more or less sincere,
avoid the higher rate and pay their taxes towards the support of the public, or
Protestant​, schools. The separate schools are administered, as by a court of final
jurisdiction​, by the Education Department at ​Toronto​, in which ​Catholics​ are not
represented.

The law governing the separate schools nevertheless gives to ​Catholics​ the following
rights​:

● (1) To pay their taxes for primary schools in which religious instruction is given,

and of which the teachers, inspectors and textbooks are ​Catholic​;

● (2) To administer these schools by a board of trustees elected by the ​Catholic

proprietors and residents of the different school sections;

● (3) To fix the rate of school-taxation;

● (4) To have these school-taxes collected by the tax-collector of the city or

township;

● (5) To negotiate loans for the election of school buildings;

● (6) To engage teachers.

The board of trustees has likewise the ​right​ to impose the teaching in French or German
of reading, spelling and literature, as provided for by the regulations of the Education
Department, page 9, article 15, year 1907. The ​French​ ​Canadians​, availing themselves
of this right, have the ​French language​ taught in 250 schools, frequented almost
entirely by their children. The Government has named three ​French Canadian
inspectors for these schools, called bilingual. The teachers of these schools are trained
in two public bilingual training-schools, one at Sturgeon Falls and the other at ​Ottawa​,
founded and supported by the Government, and directed by ​Catholic​ principals. The
certificates issued by these schools give the ​right​ to teach in the bilingual schools for
five years only. The Government makes a yearly grant to both ​Catholic​ and public
schools, the amount being calculated upon the value of the schoolhouse, the excellence
of its furnishings, the certificates and salaries of the teachers, and the attendance of
the children. The statistics for 1909, taken from the Report of the Minister of Education,
are as follows:

Number of ​Catholic​ separate schools 467

Number of pupils in attendance 55,034

Average daily attendance 34, 553

Percentage of attendance 62.78

Percentage of attendance in the public schools 59.81

Number of teachers 1,089

Amount spent for schoolhouses $161,317

Amount spent for teachers' salaries $404,890

Average cost per pupil $14.90

Total expenditures for 1909 for elementary public and separate $8,141,423
schools

The ​Catholic​ colleges for boys are: in the ​Diocese of Toronto​, that of the ​Basilian
Fathers, founded in 1852, 15 professors, 280 students; in the Diocese of ​London​,
Basilian​ Fathers, founded 1857, 37 professors, 149 students; ​Diocese of Hamilton​,
Fathers of the Resurrection, founded 1857, 11 professors, 100 students; ​Diocese of
Kingston​, ​secular clergy​, founded 1837, 4 professors, 85 students. The ​Brothers of the
Christian Schools​ conduct an academy with 14 teachers and 297 pupils. The ​Ursuline
Sisters​, 1 college for girls, 202 pupils; Sisters of Mary, 1 academy for girls; ​Sisters of
St. Joseph​, 1, 140 pupils; Sisters of Loretto, 4, 78 teachers, 490 pupils; ​Grey Nuns of
the Cross​, 2, 35 teachers, 555 pupils; ​Christian Brothers​, 1, 14 teachers, 297 pupils.
Other ​convent​ schools are those of the ​Sisters of St. Joseph​(seven schools, 74
teachers, 975 pupils); Sisters of Loretto (two schools, 30 teachers, 280 pupils); ​Grey
Nuns of the Cross​ (one school, 6 teachers, 239 pupils); ​Sisters of the Holy Names of
Jesus and Mary​ (one school, founded in 1864); Sisters of the Congregation of Notre
Dame (one school, 29 teachers, 380 pupils). There are three industrial schools under
the care of religious institutes: the ​Brothers of the Christian Schools​ (8 teachers, 95
pupils); Daughters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (10 teachers, 110 pupils); ​Sisters
of St. Joseph​ (10 teachers, 65 pupils). The nine ​orphanages​ under the care of religious
are: 2 under the ​Grey Nuns of the Cross​, with 385 ​orphans​; 5 under the ​Sisters of St.
Joseph​, with 582 ​orphans​; 1 under the School Sisters of Notre Dame, with 54 ​orphans​;
1 under the Sisters of Providence, with 85 ​orphans​.

The appended table of religious institutes engaged in teaching in ​Ontario​ at the present
time (1911) is necessarily incomplete, reliable figures being unobtainable in many
cases. In such cases the figures have been omitted altogether, as approximate figures
are liable to be misleading.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTES ENGAGED IN TEACHING IN ONTARIO (1911)

Mother-Hou Diocese Foun- Schools Teach- Pupils

se dation ers
Brothers of the Paris Ottawa 1864 3 31 950
Christian Schools Paris Toronto 1851 6 28 1001
Brothers of the Le Puy Ottawa 1911 1 4 139
Christian Schools Montreal Kingston 1841 4 15 511
Brothers of the Montreal Alexandria 1883 3 21 1266
Sacred Heart Montreal Ottawa 1868
Sisters of the Nicolet Temiskaming 1910 2 8 280
Congregation of Montreal London 1864 4 24 987
Notre Dame St. St. Boniface 1903 1 6 150
Sisters of the Hyacinthe Ottawa 1845 27 124 6410
Congregation of Ottawa Pembroke 1863 2 12 522
Notre Dame Ottawa Sault Ste. 1896 2 12 550
Sisters of the Ottawa Marie 1862 5
Congregation of Buffalo Sault Ste. 1856 1 15 490
Notre Dame St. Laurent, Marie 1886 1 9 260
Sisters of the P.Q. Alexandria 1857 6 36 1649
Assumption Pembroke 3 450
Sisters of the Holy Toronto Toronto
Names of Jesus Toronto Hamilton 1851 11 3374
and Mary Toronto London 10 1380
Sisters of the Toronto Toronto 12 50 2391
Presentation Toronto (City) 12 44 2035
Grey Nuns of the Hamilton Toronto 1874 3 21 725
Cross London Hamilton 3 32 1160
Grey Nuns of the Peterboro London 1871 8 65 1506
Cross Peterboro Peterboro 3 16 675
Grey Nuns of the Milwaukee Sault Ste. 1904 2 21 600
Cross Milwaukee Marie 1891 3 10 505
Daughters of the St. Hamilton 1887 2
Immaculate Heart Laurent-sur Alexandria 1860 6 38 1686
of Mary -Sèvre Sault Ste. 1860 8 44 1455
Sisters of the Holy St. Marie 1910 1 10
Cross​ and Seven Laurent-sur Ottawa
Dolours -Sèvre Ottawa
Sisters of the Holy Lockport, London
Cross​ and Seven N.Y. Kingston
Dolours Chatham Ottawa
Sisters of Loretto Kingston
Sisters of Loretto Ottawa
Sisters of Loretto
Sisters of St.
Joseph
Sisters of St.
Joseph
 Sisters of St.
Joseph
Sisters of St.
Joseph
Sisters of St.
Joseph
Sisters of St.
Joseph
School Sisters of
Notre Dame
School Sisters of
Notre Dame
Sisters of La
Sagesse
Sisters of La
Sagesse
Sisters of St. Mary
Ursuline Sisters
Sisters of
Providence
Sisters of the
Sacred Heart

Quebec

French rule (1635-1763)

Primary schools
With the introduction of ​Christianity​, schools sprang up in the French colony even
among the remotest tribes. The Recollects were the first schoolmasters of ​Canada​. In
1616, one of them, Brother Pacifique Duplessis, opened, at ​Three Rivers​, the first
school of ​New France​. Shortly afterwards the ​Jesuit Fathers​ followed them, teaching the
children reading, writing, arithmetic, and ​catechism​. In 1634, a year after the arrival of
the pioneer ​families​ in ​Canada​, an elementary school was founded in Quebec. As
colonists increased, primary schools sprang up. The boys' schools were at St. Foy, the
Island of Orléans, Point Levis, Château-Richer, Quebec, ​Montreal​, ​Three Rivers​. Proofs
exist that there were in the city and district of Quebec 15 primary schools for boys; in
the city and district of ​Montreal​, 10; in the city and district of ​Three Rivers​, 7. Among
the organizers were Mgr Laval and his ​seminary​. Mgr de St-Vallier, his successor,
encouraged elementary, secondary, and technical schools by every means in his power.
In the district of ​Montreal​ the Sulpician Fathers founded several schools. M. Souart,
superior of ​Montreal​ from 1661 to 1668, took ​pride​ in styling himself the first
schoolmaster of ​New France​; all his brethren shared his ​zeal​. In 1715 Brother Charon
opened a school for boys at Pointe-aux Trembles, near ​Montreal​, and took upon himself
the charge of recruiting teachers for the country districts. In investigating the history of
the schools in pioneer days we invariably find as their founder or benefactor a ​bishop​, a
priest​, a religious congregation, or a ​layman​, himself a school-teacher or assisted by a
teacher who travelled from one district to another.

The ​education​ of the girls was as carefully attended to as that of the boys. The
Ursulines​ built schools at Quebec and ​Three Rivers​. The ​religious​ of the Hôpital Général
de Québec erected a boarding school, while the Sisters of the Congregation de Notre
Dame, founded by the Venerable Marguerite Bourgeoys, multiplied ​convents​ at
Montreal​, Quebec, ​Three Rivers​, and in the country districts, where the children of the
colonists came to be trained in all things essential to the development of a strong
Christian​ character. Charlevoix says: "If to this day, there prevail in ​Canada​ so great a
gentleness in the manners of all classes of ​society​ and so much charm in the
intercourse of life, it is owing in great measure to the ​zeal​ of Marguerite Bourgeoys".
Twelve houses were opened by the Congregation of Notre Dame during the period of
French rule.

Special schools
Specializing in teaching was not unknown at this epoch when existence itself was a
struggle. There were schools of mathematics and hydrography at ​Montreal​ at the
Jesuits​ and the Charon Brothers', art and trade schools at the ​seminary​ at Quebec, art
and trade schools at St. Joachim, art and trade schools at the Charon Brothers.

Secondary schools
While defending the colony from the incursions of the Indians and fighting to retain
their prior right of possession, the French not only established primary and special
schools but founded and endowed secondary schools. The classical college of the ​Jesuits
was established at a time when the population of the entire country was but a few
hundred ​souls​, and the ​Petit Séminaire​ of Quebec opened its doors on October, 1688.

British rule (1763-1910)

In 1763 60,000 French ​Catholic​ colonists passed by right of conquest under British
Protestant​ rule. The progress of the ​Catholic​ schools was greatly impeded. The ​Church​,
through her teaching communities and ​secular clergy​, organized schools in the most
important villages; but, unfortunately, a great number of ​parishes​ were without
pastors​. In 1801 the Legislature passed a law entitled "An Act to establish Free
Schools", which provided for the establishment of a permanent corporation known as
the Royal Institute. Thus the monopoly was given to the ​Church of England​ to establish
and support ​English Protestant​ schools for a population almost entirely made up of
French​ ​Catholics​, Scattered over the country districts, in the midst of a mistrustful
people, the schools of the Royal Institute were patronized by the English colonists only.
Twenty-four years after its foundation the Royal Institute had only 37 schools with
1048 pupils. On the other hand, ​parochial​ schools increased. At ​Montreal​, the ​Sulpicians
and the Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame opened free schools. A ​Catholic
educational​ ​society​ was founded at Quebec to teach poor children and train teachers for
country districts. Many other ​societies​ were formed in different parts of ​Canada​ for a
similar purpose. The ​parishes​ were few that could not boast of fairly good schools.
Private or independent schools increased more rapidly than the ​parish​ schools. In 1824
the Legislature passed the Parochial School Act authorizing the ​pastors​ and
church-wardens to appropriate a fourth part of the revenue of the ​parochial​ corporation
for the support of the schools under their exclusive control. In 1829 there were no less
than 14,700 children in these schools which were supported at the cost of much
sacrifice by a poor and scattered population. Many other attempts were made to
organize ​Catholic​ schools until, finally, in 1841, a law was passed wherein were
contained the principal provisions of the Educational Act as it exists in the ​Province of
Quebec​ today. This law, considerably augmented by that of 1846, gave a great impetus
to public instruction. In 1849 there were 1817 schools and 68,904 pupils. Owing to the
influence of ​Dr. Meilleur​, Superintendent of ​Catholic​ Schools of Quebec, ​education​ made
rapid progress. Chaveau, his successor, continued to work with the same ​zeal​. He
established three primary denominational normal schools in Lower ​Canada​, two for
Catholics​, who were in a great majority, the third for ​Protestants​. In ​Ontario​, there was
but one normal school, for the ​Protestant​ majority, who neglected to do ​justice​ to the
Catholic​ minority, while Quebec gave to ​Protestants​, who were in the minority, a
separate normal school.

The school organization of the ​Province of Quebec​ is now under the control of the
Department of Public Instruction. The president, who is elected for life, is non-partisan
in politics and bears the title of Superintendent of Education. He is assisted by a French
and an English secretary, who are charged with the administration of the affairs of their
respective nationalities and co-religionists. The Council of Public Instruction is
composed of highly esteemed members, chosen from the two ​religious denominations​;
they frame ​laws​ and rules relating to public instruction which are afterwards submitted
to the sanction of the government. The Council of Public Instruction is divided into
Catholic​ and ​Protestant​ sections. The ​Catholic​ committee includes as ex-officio
members the ​archbishops​, ​bishops​ or administrators of ​dioceses​ and Apostolic
vicariates of the ​Province of Quebec​, and a number of ​Catholic​ ​laymen​. The ​Protestant
committee is composed of ​Protestant​ members equal in number to the ​laymen​ of the
Catholic​ committee. Apart from these two committees, there are other members who
do not form part of the Council of Public Instruction, but who have, in their respective
committees, the same power as the members of the committees. These two
committees, which sit independently, unite, under the presidency of the superintendent
of ​education​, when there are matters to discuss that interest both ​religious
denominations​. All questions relating exclusively to ​Catholics​ or to ​Protestants​ are
decided by their respective religious committees.

The ​Province of Quebec​ is divided into school municipalities for the support of one or
more schools. These municipalities are subdivided into school districts, and are
entrusted to the commissioners or trustees elected by the taxpayers. In large cities,
like Quebec and ​Montreal​, the commissioners are named by the Government on the
suggestion of the superintendent of ​education​, the ​bishop​ of the ​diocese​, and the city
itself. The commissioners are the local directors and real supervisors of the school; they
have charge of the administration; they name the teachers; dispose of school ​property​,
purchase ground and build schoolhouses, impose and collect the school taxes and fees.
Taxpayers who do not profess the same religious ​belief​ as the majority of the
inhabitants in the municipality where they reside, have a ​right​ to a school commission
of their own, composed of three members chosen from among their co-religionists.
These members, called school trustees, represent the dissenting minority; they have
the same privileges as the commissioners.

The administration of public schools is controlled by ​Catholic​ school inspectors for

Catholic​ schools, and ​Protestant​ for non-Catholic schools. These functionaries are
subject to the superintendent of ​education​. There are also two general inspectors
charged respectively with ​Catholic​ and ​Protestant​ normal schools. The first inspectors
were named, in 1852. At present (1911) thirty-nine ​Catholic​ inspectors, under the
supervision of a general inspector, visit the 6000 ​Catholic​ schools of the province. The
school revenues are obtained from government grants and local taxation, The operation
of this ​law​ exhibits striking ​proof​ of the ​good faith​ and fairness of the ​Catholics​, who
constitute the great majority: they organize their schools, but never take advantage of
their numbers to force ​Protestants​ to send their children to ​Catholic​ schools. All ​persons
wishing to teach in public schools under the administration of school commissioners and
trustees must obtain diplomas from a normal school or from the Central Board of
Examiners. Nevertheless, ​ministers​ of religion and members of ​religious​ communities of
both sexes are exempt from these examinations. Members of teaching orders, after
completing their course of studies, make a ​novitiate​ of two, three, or four years before
receiving their "obedience". This period of normal training exempts them from the
examinations imposed on lay teachers by the Central Board of Examiners. Primary
teaching comprises three degrees: the elementary course (4 years), the intermediate
course (2 years), and the superior course (2 years). Schools of the first degree are
called primary elementary; those of the second, model, or primary intermediate; those
of the third, academic, or primary superior. In the following table of statistics of
elementary ​education​ in the ​Province of Quebec​ for the year 1909-10, those schools
which are subject to the provincial or the municipal Government are classed as "State";
the others, as "Independent".

COURSE SCHOOLS TEACHERS PUPILS

State Independent Lay Religious

Elementary 4825 57 5054 631 187,120

Primary Intermediate 462 149 326 2178 95,259
Primary Superior 74 128 157 1440 47,259

Totals 5361 334 5537 4249 329,638

The teaching congregations direct a large number of schools, independent or under the
control of different school commissions. The ​Christian Brothers​ have 63 houses in
Canada​, 51 in the ​Province of Quebec​, 750 brothers and about 23,000 pupils. The
following are the other teaching congregations of men: Clerks of St. Viateur, Brothers
of Charity, Marist Brothers, ​Brothers of the Sacred Heart​, ​Brothers of Christian
Instruction​, ​Brothers of St. Gabriel​, ​Brothers of the Cross of Jesus​ (​Diocese of
Rimouski​). Among the teaching congregations of ​women​ are: the ​Ursulines​, with
houses in the Dioceses of Quebec, ​Chicoutimi​, ​Sherbrooke​, and ​Rimouski​. There are
also ​Ursulines​ in the ​Diocese of Three Rivers​; this house was founded by Mgr J.-C. de
St-Vallier, second ​Bishop​ of Quebec. The Congregation of Notre Dame, founded at
Montreal​, 30 April, 1657, by Venerable Marguerite Bourgeoys (1620-1700), possesses
131 houses in ​Canada​ and the ​United States​. It numbers 1510 professed sisters, 240
novices​, 45 ​postulants​. The Sisters teach 34,000 pupils in 21 ​dioceses​. The ​Grey Nuns
of ​Montreal​, ​Ottawa​, Quebec, and St. Hyacinthe teach a great number of children. The
Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary​ have their mother-house at ​Montreal​ and
houses both in ​Canada​ and in the ​United States​; professed religious, 1257; ​novices​,
110; ​postulants​, 81; establishments, 74; ​parochial​ schools, 32; pupils, 24,208. Other
congregations are: the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of Providence, Sisters of
the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, ​Sisters of the Holy Cross
and Seven Dolors (544 religious, 14,577 pupils in ​Canada​ and the ​United States​),
Sisters of St. Anne (63 establishments in the ​United States​ and ​Canada​, 19,190 pupils),
Sisters of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin​, Nicolet (414 religious, 49
establishments), Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, Religious of Jesus
and Mary, ​Sisters of St. Joseph​ (St. Hyacinthe), ​Daughters of Wisdom​, Sisters of St.
Mary, ​Franciscans​ of Mary (Quebec), ​Sisters of Our Lady of Perpetual Help​, Sisters of
the Holy Heart of Mary, Sisters of Our Lady of Good Counsel (Chicoutimi), ​Daughters of
Jesus​, Sisters of Charity of St. Louis, Religious of ​St. Francis of Assisi​. Many of these
congregations have mother-houses in the ​Province of Quebec​; they direct a great
number of establishments and send missionaries to the other provinces of the Dominion
and to the ​United States​.

There are thirteen art and trade schools in the principal centres of the ​Province of
Quebec​. During the school year 1909-10 there were 56 professors, 2632 boys. Besides
the Agricultural Institute at Oka, affiliated to ​Laval University​, and which is included in
the scheme of superior ​education​, there is an agricultural school in connexion with the
College of St. Anne de La Pocatière, in the district of Quebec. There is a manual training
and agricultural school for girls, under the direction of the ​Ursulines​, at Roberval, Lake
St. John district; another at St. Pascal, under the direction of the Sisters of the
Congregation of Notre Dame. Normal schools were founded in 1856. There are now
ten; two for boys and eight for girls. Three normal schools for girls are soon to be
opened, so that each ​diocese​ of the ​Province of Quebec​ will have its own normal school.
The pupils number 660; the professors, 110. There is one ​Catholic​ school for the blind
(boys and girls), the Nazareth Institute, directed by the ​Grey Nuns​; fifty-five pupils
follow the regular course, under the direction of five professors; many excel in music
and in other subjects. The ​Catholic​ Deaf and Dumb Institute, for boys, is directed by
the Clerks of St. Viateur. The total number of pupils is 135, of whom 89 are instructed
by the oral method, 46 by the written and manual alphabet. The work of teaching is
carried on by 31 professors. The ​Catholic​ Deaf and Dumb Institute for girls is directed
by the Sisters of Providence; 71 sisters teach 142 pupils. The two methods are in use,
but the oral method is employed in instructing almost all the pupils. Former pupils,
numbering 115, are engaged in manual labour in these asylums, receiving
physical,intellectual, and moral care.
The night-schools, numbering 129, have taught 2546 ​Catholic​ pupils. There are a
certain number of industrial schools. The Brothers of Charity direct a reform school (30
religious, 118 boarders). The Sisters of the Good Shepherd also have two houses, one
at ​Montreal​, the other at Park Laval. A great number of congregations are charged with
the instruction of ​orphans​; among the institutions may be mentioned the ​Orphan
Asylum​ of Montfort, 305 children, Huberdeau, 220. The Fathers of the ​Society of Mary
and the ​Daughters of Wisdom​ have charge of these ​orphans​. All the principal cities
have their kindergarten schools, which are not mentioned in the official reports. They
are due to private initiative and are organized by ​religious​ communities. There are 21
classical colleges at Quebec, 18 of which are affiliated with ​Laval University​. They were
founded by ​bishops​, ​priests​, or ​zealous​ ​laymen​ who understood the needs of the
different phases of the national and religious existence. Therein were fostered vocations
to the ​priesthood​ and the liberal professions. These classical colleges have given
Canada​ eminent men, both in ​Church and State​, who, in the dark hours of its history,
have preserved its ​faith​ and nationality; they have flourished and are still flourishing,
thanks to the generosity of their founders and former pupils. They receive but $12,643
from the Provincial Legislature. The accompanying table of the ​Catholic​ colleges of the
Province of Quebec​ exhibits the dates of their respective foundations as well as the
number of pupils and professors in each.

INSTITUTION Date PUPILS PROFESSORS

of
Foundation Classical Commercial Priests Laymen
 Petit Séminaire de 1665 629 .... 47 4
Québec 1767 465 .... 32 1
Montreal 1803 316 .... 23 2
Nicolet 1809 353 .... 32 2
St. Hyacinthe 1825 250 50 38 2
Ste. Thérèse 1829 128 247 39 ....
Ste. Anne de La 1832 227 55 30 1
Pocatière 1846 209 113 37 ....
L'Assomption 1847 195 180 42 ....
Joliette 1848 375 .... 25 3
St. Laurent 1850 108 182 32 1
Ste. Marie, ​Montreal 1853 115 490 40 2
Rigaud 1853 39 98 18 1
Lévis 1860 144 161 32 1
Ste. Marie de 1867 101 106 27 ....
Monnoir 1873 70 159 41 1
Three Rivers 1875 125 274 34 2
Rimouski 1893 96 161 31 2
Chicoutimi 1897 190 68 11 7
Sherbrooke 1910 60 .... .... ....
Valleyfield 1911 40 76 11 ....
Loyola
Nominigue
St. Jean

Totals for twenty-one institutions 4235 2420 622 32

English is the mother tongue of only a little more than 9 per cent of all the pupils
attending these twenty-one institutions, the language of the remainder being French.
The Classical course, including two years of ​philosophy​, covers a period of eight years.
It includes the study of Greek and Latin, to which educators, in certain countries, are
coming back after having tried to abolish it. The study of the dead languages does not
diminish the student's ardour for the two official languages of the country, French and
English. Mount St. Louis, directed by the ​Christian Brothers​, has a modern secondary
course without Greek or Latin. They prepare young men principally for the polytechnical
schools. The classical colleges affiliated with ​Laval University​ have the ​university​ course
of studies and examinations. In 1910 a new school was opened for the ​hautes études
commerciales,​ and about twenty-six pupils have followed the courses. In 1911 the
Legislature organized two technical schools: one at ​Montreal​, the other at Quebec.
In 1908 the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre Dame opened a ​college​ for young
women​. It is affiliated with ​Laval University​, and embraces English, French, and
commercial sections. The regular course, leading to the degrees of B.L., B.S., ​B.A.​,
includes two, three, or four years' study according to the anterior preparation of the
student. About seventy-five follow the regular course. A large number attend the public
lectures. The final examinations of the year are submitted to ​university​ professors. The
staff of sixteen religious is assisted by professors.

Nova Scotia

Catholicism​ was introduced in the Province of Nova Scotia by the French with the first
settlement of the country; but the first mention which we have of ​Catholic​ school
education​ dates only from thirty years later, when the Recollects opened at ​Port-Royal
a ​seminary​ for the instruction of French and Indian children. This ​Catholic teaching​ was
evidently continued, since we find a ​Capuchin​ Father writing, in 1652: "Emmanuel Le
Borgne, governor of ​Acadia​, has expelled from Port-Royal Madame de Brice d'Auxerre,
superioress of the School for the Abenaquis". About 1680 the ​vicar-general​, Petit, says
in a letter to his superior, Mgr Vallier, that he has with him a man who teaches the boys
of Port-Royal. Mgr Vallier himself first sends a Sister of the Congregation of Notre Dame
to teach the Indian and French girls of Port-Royal, and a few years after, in 1686, he
sends for Geoffrey, a Sulpician, "to continue the instruction of youth which so far has
been so well looked after". In fact Geoffroy improved the school teaching and
supervising. He also laid the foundation for the future coming of the Sisters of the
Cross, who came in 1701, after the capture of Port-Royal by Phipps and the cession of
Acadia​ to ​France​ in 1697. After the final taking of ​Acadia​ by the English it seems that
Catholic​ schools were abolished, as we find Father Burke writing: "There is a great
desire to establish a ​Catholic​ School [in Halifax]. The need is pressing. We would
succeed if we could have repealed an ​infamous​ law forbidding ​Catholic​ Schools".
Through the ​zeal​ of the ​Catholic​ missionaries, however, ​Catholic​ ​education​ was not
altogether neglected. In the western part of ​Nova Scotia​, for example, we find a ​French
priest​, the Abbé Sigogne, urging his flock to send their children to school, organizing
Sunday schools; thanks to his labours for the cause of ​education​, there were in 1851, in
the district of Clare alone, 17 schools attended by 422 pupils.

In 1864 the Law of Common Schools was passed in the Provincial Legislature of Nova
Scotia. Since then there have been very few separate schools properly so called. Under
this ​law​ the province is divided into districts called schools sections, which are
administered by a board of three trustees elected by the ratepayers of the section. It is
the ​duty​ of the trustees to engage teachers and to pay them out of the funds derived
partly from taxes directly imposed upon the inhabitants of the section and partly from
government grants. According to law, the teaching of the Catechism is prohibited
during regular school hours; but the trustees may instruct teachers to give lessons in
Catholic doctrine​ during one half-hour after class every day. Inspectors are appointed
by the Council of Public Instruction to visit the schools and report upon them to the
superintendent of ​education​. Some of these schools are under the direction of religious
teaching communities as follows: In the ​Diocese of Halifax​ the Sisters of Charity have
charge of nine such schools, four in the city of ​Halifax​ and five in the Acadian ​parishes
of Meteghan, Church Point, Eal Brook, and West Pubnico, and the English-speaking
parish​ of Prospect. In the ​Diocese of Antigonish​ the Sisters of the Congregation of Notre
Dame conduct seven of these schools, with 37 religious and 2281 pupils; the Sisters of
Charity, 5 schools; the ​Daughters of Jesus​, 2.

Besides these schools organized under the ​law​, the Ladies of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
have a ​convent​ school at ​Halifax​ with 48 religious and 500 pupils; the Sisters of
Charity, a separate school at Amherst and ​convents​ at Rockingham Meteghan, and
Church Point; the Sisters of the Congregation, at New Glasgow and Pictou; and the
Filles de Jésus at Arichat and Cheticamp. These separate schools are supported by the
Catholics​ of their respective towns. There are also three ​Catholic​ colleges for boys in
the Province: ​St. Francis Xavier​(English), at ​Antigonish​, with 15 professors and 200
pupils; St. Anne, at Church Point, with 18 professors and 180 pupils (French and
English), and St. Mary, at ​Halifax​, with 7 professors and 80 pupils.
New Brunswick

As had been the case in ​Nova Scotia​, the first ​Catholic​ schools in New Brunswick were
opened by ​Catholic​ missionaries; and when the regrettable deportation took place, it
could be said that a great number of ​Acadians​ were able at least to read their ​prayers
and also the exercises relating to the ​Holy Sacrifice of the Mass​. One can easily
understand how these poor exiles returned to their country and more particularly to
New Brunswick. Their first care was undoubtedly to assure their very existence, as a
great number of those who escaped deportation died of hunger and cold in the forest
and on the ​desert​ banks of the gulf. Next, they asked for missionaries and for
persons​capable of teaching reading and writing to their children. For lack of ​priests​ they
had to be content on Sunday with reading the ​prayers​for Mass, and it was imperative to
teach their children the ​truths​ of religion as contained in the short ​catechism​. Fifty
years and more passed before it became possible for them--such was their extreme
poverty, and so precarious the conditions of their existence--to procure the service of
any school-teacher. However, at the close of the Napoleonic Wars, adventurers, sailors,
deserters, or tourists came from ​France​, who ​knew​ how to read and write, and their
services were eagerly accepted. The old residents still remember M. Grenet, who taught
at Barachois, M. Gabriel Albert, who taught at Grande Digue, M. Jean Leménager, who
taught at Memramcook, M. Alexandre Théodore, who taught at Petit-Codiac (Ruisseau
du Renard) and in neighbouring ​parishes​.

Then came the Abbé Antoine* Gagnon, ​parish​ ​priest​ of Barachois, of Grande Digue, of
Shédiac (Gédaique), etc., who founded a ​college​ at Grande Digue. This school remained
open for two years (1833 to 1835), with three teachers, Messrs. Des Varennes, Braidly,
and Gosselin. When the lands and properties of this institution were afterwards sold,
the proceeds were placed in the hands of Mgr Sweeney, in trust for the ​education​ of
young Acadians, in the event of another college being built in the diocese for any other
similar purpose. During the first years that followed the return of the Acadians, after
their dispersion, teachers boarded with the scholars' ​parents​ in turn, and received from
$3 to $5 per scholar, which means that only the prosperous centres could procure their
services. In those days the Acadians received from the British ​Protestant​ authorities the
fulness of their political and civil ​rights​ without molestation or annoyance in things
religious or relating to the ​French language​. The thinly populated country did not as yet
complain of the burden of its school ​laws​.

The first act to be found in the Statutes of New Brunswick concerning ​education​ is
dated​ 1805 and relates to the founding of a public grammar school for the City of ​Saint
John​. It is therein enacted that the ​rector​ of Trinity Church shall be one of the directors
of this school, and at the same time president of the Board of Administration. A
somewhat paltry grant was awarded to this establishment. In the same manner, other
grammar schools were authorized for different localities in New Brunswick. The first law
establishing public ​parish​schools dates from 1833. These schools are placed under the
control of three school trustees for each ​parish​. These trustees possess great executive
authority. They subdivide the ​parishes​ into school districts, engage and dismiss
teachers, and give them such certificates as entitle them to their grants from the
Government, the maximum of which is $160 for each ​parish​. The justices of the peace
are entrusted with the ​duty​ of making school reports to the Government. No certificate
of competence was exacted beyond the ​approbation​of the ​parochial​ syndics, and no
examination as to aptitude was held. It was not until many years afterwards (towards
1853) that the Board of Education, with its ​hierarchy​ and inspectors, was definitely
organized. These latter, until the events of 1871, always showed kindness and liberality
towards ​Catholic teaching​ and the French tongue. The ​Catholic​ teachers received from
the board their grant, as did also the ​Protestant​ teachers, French and English alike. In
1871 a law was passed by the Provincial Legislature establishing "Neutral Schools", in
which the ​French language​ was ignored; but it was taught in the French schools and
was afterwards recognized officially. The French and the ​English​ ​Catholics​ protested
energetically against this ​unjust​ measure. Petitions were signed and sent to Ottawa
requesting the repeal of this ​law​, which was injurious to the ​Catholics​ who constituted
one-third of the population of the Province. Some turbulent and stormy years passed
over; certain defenders of the minority were ​imprisoned​, and finally a ​modus vivendi
was adopted to the effect that the school remain neutral from 9 A. M. till 3.30 ​P. M.​ The
books shall be approved by the Government. The use of the ​French language​was
recognized, and a set of books was chosen to that end.

After the regular school hours the Catechism was permitted to be taught. Nowadays all
the schools of New Brunswick are under the control of the ​law​, even those exclusively
attended by ​Catholic​ children. The number of ​Catholic​ children frequenting the schools
is about 23,000; the teachers, male and ​female​, number about 600. About eighteen
convents​ under the direction of various religious congregations are scattered through
the principal centres of the province. There are three colleges: one at ​Chatham
(English) founded in 1910, directed by the ​Basilian​ Fathers, and containing 90 pupils;
one at Caraquet, French and English, founded in 1899 by the ​Eudist​Fathers, and
containing 150 pupils; one at Memramcook (l'Université du Collège Saint-Joseph),
French and English, founded in 1864, directed by the Fathers of the Holy Cross, and
containing 250 pupils. With the exception of a few ​convents​ these institutions are not
under state control.

Prince Edward Island

The system of public schools in this province is not denominational. There are therefore
no primary ​Catholic​ schools, except seven ​convents​ under the direction of the Sisters of
the Congregation of Notre Dame, All the schools have been under the immediate
control of the State since 1877 and are strictly neutral, or non-sectarian. Besides the
convents​, which teach about one thousand girls, there is a ​Catholic​ college for boys,
which accommodates about one hundred and fifty. Nearly all the pupils of this college
are boarders, and their ​education​ costs them about $150 each, while, of the thousand
girls in the ​convents​, there are barely one hundred boarders, whose ​education​ costs
each about $60. The Government pays $720 to the Sisters who teach the provincial
normal school conformably to the programme of studies prescribed by the Department
of Education. The other 900 girls who attend the ​convent​ schools receive their
education​ for a nominal payment. The majority pay nothing. Generally speaking, the
expense of heating the schools is borne by the respective ​parishes​ in which the
convents​ are situated, and, in return the day-scholars living in the vicinity of the
convent​ are ​educated​gratuitously. Until 1850 there were very few schools among the
Acadians. In each ​parish​ there were two men who taught reading, writing, and
arithmetic.

Manitoba

The first French schools in this province were established in 1818 on the arrival of the
Rev. Norbert Provencher, afterwards Bishop Provencher, and the Rev. Nicholas
Dumoulin. Bishop Provencher opened his first school at St. Boniface, and Father
Dumoulin opened his at Pembina. As the population increased, the schools multiplied.
In 1835, notwithstanding that the population was very limited, there were already five
schools. After many efforts Bishop Provencher succeeded in founding a school at Red
River for young girls, and the first teacher was Angélique Nolin (Metis). In 1844 the
Gray Nuns of ​Montreal​, at the earnest request of Bishop Provencher, came to the West.
Those who arrived first were Sisters Lagrave, Lafrance, Valade, Coutlée. The first
convent​ founded by them was at St. Boniface, and the second at St. François-Xavier. In
1835 Bishop Provencher got an English teacher for his boys' school. This school in time
became St. Boniface's College. At Pembina Father Dumoulin was occupied in preparing
young men for the ​priesthood​, and in 1821 he had six students in Latin. The primary
schools increased rapidly. Every place where a spire indicated a house of worship a
school sprang up. Soon, unfortunately, a crisis came, and the ​Catholics​ were severely
tried.

At the present time (1912), in virtue of the British North American Act, each province
has the ​right​ to adopt the system of ​education​ that best suits its particular needs. It
must, however, respect the privileges or ​rights​ already guaranteed to the divers groups
or sections having separate schools. Accordingly, when ​Manitoba​ asked, in 1870, to
become a unit of the confederation, the ​Catholic​ deputies, under the clear-sighted
direction of ​Bishop Taché​, demanded a formal law covering the ​rights​ already acquired.
In 1890, the ​Catholics​ were, unfortunately, the victims of a legal ​persecution​ which
embittered the last years of ​Bishop Taché​. The ​Protestant​ majority of that province
should have treated the ​Catholic​ minority with as much generosity as the ​Catholic
majority, in the ​Province of Quebec​, treated the ​Protestant​ minority. Such, however,
was not the case. The schools were secularized, and the teaching of French was
discontinued. Protestations were made, and the grievances were laid before the British
Throne, which recognized the ​rights​ of the ​Catholics​. Archbishop Langevin, of St.
Boniface, vigorously defended the ​rights​ of the ​Catholics​, but no ​justice​ was done him.
The compromise of 1896 was voted: this act embodied the principle of the "neutral
schools" system, and, although diminishing the bad effects of the ​law​, it deserved to be
styled, by ​Leo XIII​, a law "defective, imperfect, insufficient" (manca est, non idonea,
non apta). It is thus that the ​Catholics​ of Winnipeg and of Brandon are ​obliged​ to pay
double school tax. The public school is a school to which ​Catholic​ ​parents​ cannot send
their children. They are ​obliged​ to open ​Catholic​ schools at their own expense, while
paying their share of taxes to the ​Protestant​ schools. Nevertheless, in those places
where ​Catholics​ are grouped in ​parishes​, in the country or at St. Boniface, in the
municipalities having a ​Catholic​ majority, they can elect ​Catholic​ trustees who protect
their co-religionists. In this way they can secure the government grant for the schools
attended by ​Catholic​ children. Thanks to the vigilance of the valiant Archbishop
Langevin of St. Boniface, two ​Catholic​inspectors have been appointed for the ​Catholic
schools. These schools are 190 in number, with an attendance of over 7000 pupils. It is
to be remarked, however, that it is with much difficulty that religious teaching is
tolerated during class hours. Besides, the schoolbooks are not ​Catholic​, and ​Catholic
interests are not sufficiently safeguarded. There is one ​Catholic​ normal (French and
English) school at St. Boniface, and another (English and Polish) at Winnipeg.

The teaching congregations are numerous. The ​Institute of Mary​, from ​Paris​, has
schools at Winnipeg and St. Boniface. The Clerics of St. Viateur have an ​orphanage​ for
boys at Makinac. The ​Brothers of the Cross of Jesus​, from ​France​, have two schools in
the ​French​ ​parishes​at St. John Baptist and at St. Pierre Jolys. The ​Sisters of the Holy
Names of Jesus and Mary​, of ​Montreal​, have six ​convents​ or schools in the ​French
parishes​, St. John Baptist, St. Agathe, St. Pierre, St. Boniface. St. Mary's Academy,
Winnipeg is for English-speaking girls. The Sisters of the Five Wounds have four
convents​ in the ​French​ ​parishes​ of Notre Dame de Lourdes, St. Claude, St. Leo, and St.
Alphonse. The ​Benedictine​ Sisters, from ​Duluth ​, ​Minnesota​, have two schools at
Winnipeg, one English and German, the other English and Polish. The ​Franciscan
Missionary Sisters of Mary from ​Rome​ have two schools among French and
English-speaking whites at St. Lawrence and a school for the Indians at Pine Creek. We
must not forget to mention the Little ​Servants of Mary​ Immaculate of the ​Ruthenian
Rite, the ​Daughters of the Cross​, and the Oblate Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of
Mary Immaculate who are entirely ​consecrated​ to the ​education​ of youth. The Classical
College of St. Boniface, founded by Bishop Provencher, was at first directed by ​secular
priests​, then by the ​Brothers of the Christian Schools​, afterwards by the Oblate Fathers.
In 1885 it was confided to the ​Jesuit Fathers​, who have organized a course of studies to
the satisfaction of the two principal nationalities whose children, to the number of 300,
attend the college. There are a French section and an English section, with a regular
Classical course having Latin and Greek for its basis. Each year its students succeed
admirably in competition with those of other colleges in the ​university​ examinations.
The non-Catholic colleges are St. John's (​Anglican​), Manitoba College (Presbyterian),
and the Wesley College (Methodist). There are 300 pupils attending St. Boniface
College.

In 1909 Archbishop Langevin founded a ​petit séminaire​ which he confided to ​secular

priests​. The Rev. Father Joubert was the first director. There are at present 54
candidates preparing for the ​priesthood​. A glance at the numerous nationalities
represented at the preparatory ​seminary​ suggests some ​idea​ of the cosmopolitan
character of the vast regions of the great West. At the same time it gives a faint ​idea​ of
the episcopal solicitude in providing for each nationality missionaries of their own blood
and language. In this ​seminary​ there are 30 French-speaking, 10 ​Ruthenians​, 6 ​Irish​,
and 8 Germans. In 1905 the Holy Family Juniorate was founded by the Oblate Fathers
at St. Boniface.

Saskatchewan and Alberta

The work begun by Bishop Provencher has kept pace with the increase of the
population. The Gray Nuns became missionaries among the Indians. They founded a
convent​ at ​Alberta​ and a school at Crosse Island. Their first attempt in establishing a
school was at St. Ann, but in this they were unsuccessful.

In 1870 the Federal Parliament voted a law of administration for the Territories.
However, it was only in 1875 that they received a rudimentary form of government
under the North-west Territories Act. According to that Act the people could establish
"such schools as they think fit". The principle of separate schools was therein
recognized. It would be too long to give the history of the school legislation of these
territories up to the constitution of the two new provinces of ​Saskatchewan and Alberta
in 1905. At all events the new constitution should have safeguarded one essential,
giving to ​Catholics​ the ​right​ to organize everywhere separate schools truly ​Catholic​and
the ​right​ to their share of the government grant. Unfortunately such was not the case.
Notwithstanding the agreement of 1870, and notwithstanding even the British North
America Act, which the Parliament of ​Canada​ cannot modify, the system of neutral
schools was imposed on the ​Catholics​. It is not the half-hour of religious teaching that
makes a school really ​Catholic​: it is essential that there should be ​Catholic​ books,
explained by ​Catholic​ teachers, in a ​Catholic​ atmosphere. But nothing of all this was
granted. However, the government is equitably administered in those districts where
the ​Catholics​ are in a majority. Thirty-one such districts appear in the last Report of the
Minister of Education for the Province of Saskatchewan (page 14). These schools are
public schools in which religion may be taught at stated hours. The right, therefore, to
organize separate schools for ​Catholics​ is limited to the districts where they are in the
minority (there are twelve ​Catholic​ separate-school districts in the same Province of
Saskatchewan).

It would be somewhat difficult to determine the number of pupils attending the schools
in the ​Catholic​ public-school districts or in the ​Catholic​ separate-school districts. The
Diocese of Prince Albert​, which comprises all that part of the Province of Saskatchewan,
has 54 academies and schools attended by ​Catholic​ children. (These schools are not
really ​Catholic​. They are neutral schools attended by ​Catholic​ children and endowed
with a government grant.) These children number in all about 3000. The southern part
of the province is in the new ​Diocese of Regina​. The first ​Bishop​ of ​Regina​ was
consecrated​ on 5 November, 1911. There are a great number of ​Catholic​schools in that
flourishing part which is found in the Archdiocese of St. Boniface. The Sisters of Notre
Dame of the Cross of Maurianais, ​France​, have here two schools, one at Forget, and the
other at ​St. Hubert​, The ​Sisters of St. Joseph​ of St. Hyacinthe have a school for Indians
at Lake Croche. The Sisters of Notre Dame of the Missions, from ​Lyons​, direct three
convents​: a boarding-school for English-speaking girls, at ​Regina​, and two others in the
French-speaking centres at Lebret and at Wolseley. The Oblate Missionaries of the
Sacred Heart and of Mary Immaculate direct a school for Indians at Fort Pelley. The
industrial school at Qu' Appelle has 242 Indians, under the Sisters of Charity.

The Diocese of ​St. Albert​ comprises all the southern part of the Province of Alberta and
a part of the Province of Saskatchewan. It has an industrial school, 14 ​convents​, 8
boarding-schools for Indians. The pupils in the schools of the ​Catholic​ school districts
number about 3700. We find here again the Sisters whose mother-house is in Quebec:
Sisters of the Assumption​, Gray Nuns of ​Montreal​, Sisters of ​Nicolet​, Gray Sisters of
Nicolet​, etc. There are also the Polish Sisters of the ​Ruthenian​ Rite. The ​petit séminaire
of ​St. Albert​ was founded by Bishop Grandin in 1900. Father Cullerier O.M.I., was its
first director, but the Oblate Fathers have now given up the institution and the
Missionaries of Chavagnes, or Sons of Mary Immaculate, direct it at present (1911).
There are 33 pupils in attendance. The Oblate Fathers have opened a juniorate at
Strathcona, where they have 14 pupils.

British Columbia

This province entered the Confederation in 1871. In it there is not one ​Catholic​ school
in receipt of a government grant. The different ​dioceses​ bear the expense of ​Catholic
education​. The ​Archdiocese of Vancouver​ has eight industrial schools for Indians, with
an attendance of 513 pupils; four academies for young girls; seven ​parochial​ schools,
with a total attendance of 729 girls. New Westminster possesses an excellent institution
of learning, Saint Louis College, under the direction of the Oblate Fathers. In the
Diocese of Victoria​, which comprises Vancouver and the adjacent island, there are two
academies for young girls, with an attendance of 342; nine ​parochial​schools, with 450
pupils; two industrial schools, 110 pupils (boarders). The ​secular priests​ direct a ​college
of 50 pupils. Among the ​Catholic​ educational institutions there are nine directed by the
Sisters of St. Anne, whose mother-house is at Lachine, near ​Montreal​, viz.:

Institute Religious Pupils

1. New Westminster 6 162

2. Ste. Marie Matsqui 7 76

3. Kamloops 4 85

4. Industrial School 3 63

5. Victoria 27 323

6. Cowichan 5 43

7. Vancouver City 14 390

8. Kuper Island 7 100

9. Lady Smith

Territories

In the vast regions of the West outside of the provinces regularly constituted, there are
large territories where missionaries are engaged in ​God's​ work, under the guidance of
vicars-Apostolic; and wherever a church is built, a school adjoins it. There are six
convents​ in the Vicariate of Athabaska.

The Gray Nuns have a boarding-school for ​Indians​ at Lake Laplonge in the ​Vicariate of
Keewatin​. At Cross Lake, 4 Oblate Sisters of Mary Immaculate carry on a
boarding-school for Indians, in which there are 20 pupils. In the ​Vicariate of Mackenzie
there are, at Great Slave Lake, 7 Gray Nuns at the head of a school of 45 pupils. At
Providence 13 sisters give instruction to 75 pupils. At Yukon there are 9 schools, and at
Dawson 3 Sisters of St. Anne from Lachine, near ​Montreal​, teaching 65 pupils.

Newfoundland

Although the Province of Newfoundland does not form a part of the ​Canadian
Confederation, it should be mentioned here. In each ​parish​there is a school under the
care of the ​parochial​ ​clergy​ and supported by a government grant. The principal
teaching congregations are ​Irish Christian Brothers​, ​Sisters of Mercy​, and Presentation
Nuns.

England 

It was the common ​belief​ until quite recently that the grammar schools of ​England​, that
is the main part of the machinery of English middle-class ​education​, were the offspring
of the ​Reformation​, and owed their origin to the reign of Edward VI. This legend is now
exploded. A.F. Leach begins his masterly work, "English Schools at the Reformation"
(London, 1896), with the sentence: "Never was a great reputation more easily gained
and less deserved than that of King Edward VI as a Founder of Schools", The ​truth​ is
that the few ​educational​ foundations made by the Government either of ​Henry VIII​ or
Edward VI were but re-foundations forming a small salvage from the wreck of
educational​ endowments confiscated with the ​monasteries​ and chantries. In fact
England​ was singularly well provided with schools previous to ​Henry VIII​. Among them
were the ​cathedral​ schools, collegiate grammar schools, ​monastery​ schools, guild
schools, and perhaps most numerous of all, ​chantry​ schools. For the ​duty​ of teaching a
school was frequently combined with the ​obligation​ of singing Mass for the ​soul​ of the
pious​ founder. The great majority of these were termed "grammar schools". They
usually taught reading, writing, and Latin. Many reached a good standard and included
rhetoric and dialectic in their curriculum. There were also song schools of more
elementary character. As most of the grammar schools taught gratuitously, a very
liberal provision of ​education​ was open even to the poorer classes. Indeed ​education​ as
a whole was on a more democratic basis, and good secondary instruction more widely
diffused in ​England​ in ​Catholic​ times than in the first half the nineteenth century. "The
proportion of the population which had access to Grammar Schools, and used them was
much larger than now" (Leach, p. 97). Rashdall similarly concludes that "at least in the
later ​Middle Age​ the smallest towns and even the larger villages possessed Schools
where a boy might learn to read and acquire the first rudiments of ​ecclesiastical​ Latin:
while, except in very remote and thinly populated regions, he would never have had to
go very far from home to find a regular Grammar School ("The Universities of Europe in
the Middle Ages", II, 602). The ​Reformation​, with the confiscation and plunder of the
monasteries​ and chantries, involved the destruction of much of the ​educational
machinery of the nation. The ​evil​consequences are testified by Ascham, Latimer,
Cranmer, and Harrison Watson.

However, the old appreciation of the value of ​education​ in a short time reasserted itself.
The ​ecclesiastical​ control of all schools, now in the hands of the ​Reformers​, was
strengthened by new legislation. The religious instruction given in the schools was that
of the Established Church, and the scholars were required to participate in the ​prayers
and church services. The steady pressure of this machinery on the minds of the young
was bound to be fatal to the old religion. During Elizabeth's long reign the great
majority of ​Catholics​ were practically compelled to send their children to the nearest
grammar school, if the children were to receive any ​education​ at all. For the better-off
families​ the ​chaplain​ or ​priest​ maintained in hiding commonly also acted as tutor. But
as time went on the situation grew worse. Then, in order in some degree to provide
priests​ and also to furnish some means of ​Catholic​ ​education​ for at least the children of
the nobility and gentry who clung to the old Faith, there were founded the ​English
seminaries​ and colleges on the Continent. First among these was the English College at
Douai​, started in 1568 by Allen, afterwards ​cardinal​. Its primary object was the training
of ​priests​ for the English mission, but it also accepted lay students. Within a few years
it contained over 150 pupils. Before the year 1700 it had sent back to ​England​ over 300
priests​, more than a third of whom suffered death for the ​Catholic​ ​Faith​ (see ​DOUAI​). It
endured till the ​French Revolution​, when, as we shall see, it gave birth to the two
Colleges of ​Ushaw​ and Old Hall. ​Irish​ and Scotch colleges were also established at
Douai​ for a similar purpose. In 1578 was founded the English College at ​Rome​. It was
designed to provide places for sixty ​ecclesiastical​ students. After a very short time it
was entrusted to the ​Jesuits​, who managed it till the suppression of the Society in
1773. There were also founded English colleges at Valladolid in 1589, and at Seville in
1592, by Father Parsons, and at ​Madrid​ in 1612 by ​Father Creswell​. The English College
at ​Lisbon​ was started in 1622 by William Newman, a ​secular priest​. All these latter
colleges sent many ​priests​ to ​England​ especially during their first decades, but as time
went on, perhaps through their remoteness and the Anglo-Spanish Wars, they failed to
keep up the intimate connexion with ​England​ which was always retained between the
mother-country and ​Douai​ and ​St. Omer​. The three Spanish colleges were merged into
the single foundation at Valladolid in 1767.

The most important college founded beyond the sea of which the primary object was
the ​education​ of lay students, was the ​Jesuit​ school begun at ​St. Omer​ by Father
Parsons in 1592. It had an eventful career of 200 years on the continent of ​Europe​, and
then coming back to ​England​ settled at ​Stonyhurst​, whence it became the progenitor of
the great majority of the ​Jesuit​ schools scattered throughout the British Empire today.
Starting with twenty-three boys, it had by 1603, according to the spies of the English
Government, "a hundred and forty gentlemen's sons of great worship". In 1632 there
were over 200 pupils, the Sons of the chief noblemen and gentry who remained loyal to
the old Faith. Boys going to and returning from the college were more than once
captured and ​imprisoned​, and bills of high treason were returned, against the ​parents
of pupils there. It turned out many ​martyrs​ and confessors of the Faith, and indeed,
during the latter part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, past ​St. Omer's
boys scattered up and down the country formed the main part of the "old guard" of the
dwindling body of the lay ​Catholics​ in ​England​.

Meantime the cruellest part of the penal code was the ​statutes​ directed against ​Catholic
education​. Thus in the twenty-third year of Elizabeth's reign an Act was passed
forbidding the keeping or maintaining of any schoolmaster who had not a licence from
the ​Protestant​bishop​. The penalty was £10 per month, with a year's ​imprisonment​ for
the schoolmaster. This statute was strengthened by another in the first year of James I,
imposing a fine of forty shillings a day. Later this was made even more stringent by the
Act of Uniformity in 13 Charles II, requiring all tutors and schoolmasters, besides
obtaining the ​bishop's​ licence, to conform to the Established Church, under penalty of
three months' ​imprisonment​ for each offence. Concomitantly it was forbidden to
educate​ ​Catholic​ children abroad. Thus in 27 Elizabeth it was made punishable as a
prœmunire​ to send aid to any foreign ​seminary​ or ​Jesuit​ ​college​, or to any ​person​ in
the same. Further in 1 James I it was enacted that the sending of a child or other
person​ to a foreign college should entail a fine of £100 and render the child incapable of
inheriting real or personal ​property​. The severity of this ​law​ was again increased in 3
Charles I. Finally, in 1699 a clause of a cruel Act under William and Mary offered £100
reward to every informer who would effect the conviction of any Popish ​priest​for
keeping a school or ​educating​ or boarding a ​Catholic​ youth for that purpose, the
penalty being made ​imprisonment​ for life. Relentless ​persecution​ of this kind, carried
out with such rigour that the colleges of ​Douai​, ​St. Omer​, and Valladolid, between
them, within a century and a half had mustered a grand roll of 250 ​martyrs​, besides
numberless confessors, triumphed; and by 1770 the ​Catholic​ ​Church​ in ​England​ was
reduced to a scattered remnant of some 60,000 ​souls​ (Amherst).

Occasionally, during these dark days, in lulls of the storm, or in quiet places, a small
Catholic​ school was started and struggled on with varying fortunes for a shorter or
longer time. Thus, under James II (1685-8) two schools were started in the
neighbourhood of ​London​, but perished soon afterwards. Another, begun at Twyford,
near ​Winchester​, about the same time, had a somewhat better fate and survived till the
Stuart rising in 1745. The poet, Alexander Pope, was a pupil at this school, and the
distinguished biologist, Father Turberville Needham, was an assistant master here. It
had less than thirty pupils when Bishop Challoner visited it in 1741. There was also for
a time about this period a small school managed by the ​Franciscan​ Fathers at
Edgbaston, near Birmingham. Another, known as Dame Alice School, existed for a
number of years in Lancashire. But the history of each was usually much the same--a
short, timid, and precarious life, some untoward accident, and the feeble institution
came to an untimely end.

Just, however, when the complete extinction of ​Catholicism​ seemed at hand, the revival
began. By the middle of the eighteenth century the ​persecution​ commenced to abate.
The old fear of the ​Church​ had waned. Toleration for other forms of dissent had been
growing. About 1750 ​Catholics​ began to breathe a little more freely. One evidence of
this was the starting of a school at Sedgley Park, near Wolverhampton, by ​Bishop
Challoner​ in 1762. Yet so great was the timidity of the ​Catholic​ gentry at the time that
a deputation of them waited on the ​bishop​ to dissuade him from so daring a
measure--fortunately in vain. Within six years the numbers of the school rose to a
hundred boarders, and for a century it was the chief centre where the Midland ​clergy
received their early ​education​. Previously to this, another school for small boys had
been begun at Standon Lordship.

The real revival of ​Catholic​ ​education​ in ​England​, however, only commenced when the
Catholic​ colleges beyond the seas, broken up by the ​French Revolution​, ventured to
return. In 1777 the ​British​ Government sorely needed ​Irish​ soldiers for the American
war​, and in 1778 the first English ​Catholic​ Relief Bill repealing the most galling of the
penal laws​ was passed. In 1793 the College of ​Douai​ was seized by the agents of the
French Republic. After temporary ​imprisonment​ the professors and students came to
England​ and were allocated at first to Old Hall, Ware, and then in part to Crook Hall, the
future ​Ushaw​, near Durham. There were differences of opinion among the English
ecclesiastical authorities​, some urging the continuance of the ​Douai​ community as a
single college in the South of ​England​, others advocating the claims of the North.
However unpleasant at the time was the disagreement, it ​proved​ a solid gain to the
Catholic​ ​Church​in ​England​. For the outcome was the starting of the two large colleges,
St. Cuthbert's at Ushaw​ and St. Edmund's at Ware, both destined to have honourable
and fruitful careers and to be sources of much strength to the Faith. Each of them
provides today for a community of over 300 students complete courses of humanities,
philosophy​, and ​theology​, and ​educates​ lay as well as ​ecclesiastical​ pupils. About the
same ​date​ ​English​ ​Benedictine​ communities, compelled to return from ​Lorraine​ and
from ​Douai​, for a time resided at Acton Burnell, but separated later to found Ampleforth
College in Yorkshire in 1803, and Downside in 1815, two schools which continue to do
increasingly valuable work for English ​Catholic​ ​education​. At the same time was begun,
largely through the influence of certain ​laymen​ of the Cisalpine Club, but acting in
co-operation with ​Bishop Talbot​, Oscott College, in the Midlands. After a successful
history of three-quarters of a century as a mixed school, it was converted into a purely
ecclesiastical​ college, with courses of ​philosophy​ and ​theology​. It trains the Midland
clergy​ as well as a considerable number from other ​dioceses​ today.

In 1794 the ​Jesuit​ ​College​, formerly at ​St. Omer​, but subsequently transferred to
Bruges​ in 1762, and thence to ​Liège​ in 1773, migrated to Stonyhurst, in Lancashire. In
addition to the large educational institution into which it developed at ​Stonyhurst​ this
college became the parent stock of a prolific ​family​. Starting with twelve boys, its
numbers by 1813 had risen to over two hundred and twenty. The first offshoot was
Clongowes Wood College, ​Ireland​, in 1814, which speedily rivalled the parent school in
point of numbers, and was itself the mother-house from which successful colleges were
started at ​Dublin​, ​Limerick​, ​Galway​, and Tullabeg. Later on from this ​Irish​ centre were
founded several flourishing ​Jesuit​ schools in ​Australia​. In Great Britain itself from the
Stonyhurst root there originated during the nineteenth century, eight other secondary
schools, all designed for the ​education​ of ​Catholic​ ​laymen​: in 1841 Mount St. Mary's
College, a boarding-school in Derbyshire, now numbering over 200 pupils; in the same
year ​St. Francis Xavier's​ College, a day-school at ​Liverpool​, which has reached a roll of
400; in 1862, Beaumont College, near ​Windsor​, also exceeding 230 pupils;
subsequently large day-colleges, at Preston, 1864, at Wimbledon and at Stamford Hill,
North ​London​, in the last decade of the nineteenth century. St. Aloysius's day-college,
Glasgow​, which has exceeded 300 pupils, was founded in 1859; and a ​Jesuit
day-college has been opened at ​Leeds​ early in the present century. Meantime at
Stonyhurst​ itself in addition to the school, which now numbers some 350 lay students,
there has been erected St. Mary's Hall, which is a house of ​philosophical​ studies and
training college for the members of the ​society​. It has been approved by the
government as a recognized training college for secondary school teachers, and has
some 60 ​Jesuit​ students. The ​Jesuit​theological​ College of St. Beuno in North ​Wales​ was
founded from Stonyhurst in 1848.

Other secondary schools of note are St. Bede, ​Manchester​ and St. Cuthbert's,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, managed by the ​secular clergy​; the Oratory School, started by
Cardinal Newman​ at Edgbaston; Ratcliffe College, conducted by the ​Rosminian Fathers​;
a ​Benedictine​ College at Ramsgate, and St. George's College, Weybridge, besides
general successful schools managed by the brothers. Exact statistics in regard to
secondary schools are impossible, owing to the indefiniteness of this term, which in
England​ includes a wide variety of types and grades, from something just above the
elementary school to Eton or Harrow. However, if we take the "Report of the 1910
Annual Conference of English Colleges" for our guide, we find this list includes
thirty-three colleges or secondary schools for boys. All these are under the
management of ​priests​ or religious. There are also in the country some ​Catholic
preparatory schools for small boys and some small private institutions conducted by
laymen​, but these above indicated form substantially the present machinery of ​Catholic
secondary ​education​ of boys.

Catholic​ girls' secondary ​education​ is similarly in the hands of religious. Old English
foundations returning from abroad after the ​French Revolution​, like the ​Catholic
colleges, or new teaching congregations, opened ​convent schools​ for primary as well as
for secondary ​education​ and have multiplied rapidly. The total number of ​Catholic​ girls'
schools which may be fairly classed as secondary is, for the same reason, very difficult
to determine. Over one hundred and forty are advertised in the "Catholic Directory",
but many of them are very small institutions.

Relations of Catholic secondary education with the

government

All ​Catholic​ secondary schools in ​England​ are ​voluntary​ institutions. They were founded
independently of the Government. Until recent years none of them received any state
support, and they were subject to no form of state inspection. Indeed secondary
education​, as such, did not receive any systematic support from the state in ​England
prior to 1902; but a large number of non-Catholic schools possessed considerable
endowments, many going back to ​Catholic​ times. During part of the past century,
secondary schools, by fulfilling certain conditions, could earn grants from the
Government Department of Art and Science; and a few ​Catholic​ schools derived some
small funds from this source. But in the Act of 1902, the government adopted a
completely new attitude towards secondary ​education​. It empowered local authorities,
i.e., county councils and urban councils, to build new secondary schools and to take
over by ​voluntary​agreement existing secondary schools and to maintain them out of
local rates assisted by imperial grants. On the other hand, ​voluntary​schools which fulfil
certain regulations are enabled to share in this state aid. This Act is fraught with
important consequences, as it is clear from the history of primary ​education​ that the
state contribution will largely increase, and unless ​Catholic​ day-schools can secure their
fair share of it they will be unable to sustain the competition. Practically the grants are
obtainable only by day-schools. The conditions in regard to efficiency, staff
qualifications, and equipment, with liability to inspection, are stringent, but a
well-managed school can already secure a good subsidy. One of our most successful
Catholic​ schools in 1910 thus earned between £2000 and £3000. But the upkeep
required is correspondingly costly. Eleven ​Catholic​ schools for boys, including four
Jesuit​ day-schools, are at present approved by the Board of Education and recognized
as grant-earning. Another important point is that intending elementary teachers must
in the future spend at least three years in a "recognized" secondary school. The
necessity of a sufficiency of such "recognized" ​Catholic​ schools is therefore obvious.
Unfortunately the government regulations at present seriously hamper the increase of
such secondary denominational schools.

Of ​Catholic​ girls' secondary schools, thirty-four are already "recognized", of which

eleven belong to the Sisters of Notre Dame. In 1911 there were two ​Catholic​ training
colleges for ​female​ secondary teachers, recognized and approved by Government. One
is in ​Liverpool​, conducted by the Sisters of Notre Dame; another in ​London​, under the
Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus. There is so far one ​Catholic​training college for male
secondary teachers--that at ​Stonyhurst​.

Catholic primary education

Whilst a tolerable supply of secondary schools existed in ​England​ during the eighteenth
century, the primary ​education​ of the nation was in a most wretched condition.
Previous to 1830 Government took no interest in the ​education​ of the poor. In addition
to the efforts of some of the ​clergy​ and a few philanthropic ​laymen​, the chief agencies
working for the building and maintenance of schools for the poor in the early part of the
nineteenth century were two ​voluntary​ ​societies​, one an ​Anglican​, the other a
Dissenting organization. The first government help to primary ​education​ was given in
1833, a grant of £20,000. Today it exceeds £16,000,000. As the best available method
of distribution, the grant was handed over to the two ​societies​ to be spent in building
schools and for other ​educational​ purposes. It was then made annual and increased
from time to time. In 1839 a further allowance was given towards the establishment of
training colleges for the preparation of teachers. These colleges soon multiplied.
Government inspectors were appointed, but the power of accepting or approving them
was conceded to the two ​voluntary​ ​societies​. The system was in fact frankly
denominational. But down to 1850, although over £600,000 had been distributed,
Catholics​ had not received a penny of this public money.

However, during the previous sixty years, in spite of their general poverty and of the
penal laws​ before 1829, the handful of ​Catholics​ in the country had striven ​zealously​ for
the ​education​ of their children. As early as 1764 the ​Catholics​ of ​London​ formed a small
"Society for the Instruction of the Children of Catholic indigent Parents", though how
much this was able to accomplish we cannot tell. At least ten ​Catholic​ primary schools
existed in ​England​ prior to 1800; and probably not many more. But with the cessation
of the ​persecution​ and the beginning of the immigration from ​Ireland​, ​Catholic
elementary schools began to multiply. By 1829 these had risen probably to about 60 or
70. Thenceforth progress was more rapid. In 1851, though excluded from the
government grant given since 1833, there were in ​England​ 311 ​Catholic​ schools built
for the poor and mainly by the pennies of the poor. From 1851 the ​Catholic​ schools
received some small share of the public grants, and by 1870 the number had risen to
383.

In that year Forster's Act, the first great ​English​ ​education​ measure, was passed. It was
enacted that henceforth schools should be established in every school district
throughout the country. These might be either ​voluntary​ schools, or Board-schools. The
latter were to be provided and managed by local school boards elected for this object.
They were to be built out of the local rates, and maintained out of the rates and grants
from the imperial exchequer. They were to be undenominational or secular in character
and exempt from all religious instruction of any definitely denominational kind. But they
might retain Bible lessons and give some ​Christian​ religious instruction of an
undogmatic or colourless quality (Cowper Temple Clause). Along with these
Board-schools, or in place of them, were sanctioned the ​voluntary​ schools. These could
be built by private bodies at their own expense. Ordinarily such bodies were religious
organizations. For the maintenance of these schools the proprietors could obtain in aid
of their own contributions the imperial grants, provided they fulfilled certain conditions
of ​educational​ efficiency and admitted government inspection. Each ​voluntary​ school
was controlled by a small committee of managers representing the trust or body who
owned the school. The school was allowed to retain the ​religious​ ​character​ of the
denomination to which it belonged, to appoint teachers of their creed, and to give
religious instruction according to their tenets subject to a "time-table ​conscience
clause" facilitating the absence from the religious lesson of any children whose
parents​objected to their attending it.

As all previous work in elementary ​education​ was due to the ​voluntary​ or

denominational bodies, nearly all existing primary schools were ​voluntary​ schools. But
in response to the now much increased demand the ​Catholics​, like the ​Anglicans​,
disapproving of the secular Board-schools for their children, set themselves to the
building and maintenance of additional ​voluntary​ schools. By the year 1901 the total
number of primary schools had risen to a little over 20,000. Of these, 5878 were
Board-schools, and 14,275 were ​voluntary​ schools, but as the Board-schools were
stronger in the towns and larger in size, of the total attendance of 5,000,000 children
nearly half went to the Board-schools. Of the ​voluntary​ schools the ​Catholics​ now
owned 1056, with an attendance of nearly 400,000 children,--a magnificent increase
from the 383 schools of 1870. The state contribution to ​education​, which had been
£20,000 in 1833, and £914,721 in 1870, had reached £16,000,000 in 1901. But though
the supporters of the ​voluntary​ schools made heroic efforts, the burden of the struggle
was becoming intolerable, especially for a poorer section of the community like the
Catholic​ body. The cost both of building and upkeep kept constantly rising, owing to the
higher standard forced by the competition of the Board-schools, which drew unlimitedly
from the public rates which the supporters of the ​voluntary​ schools were compelled to
pay in addition to their ​voluntary​ contributions to their own schools. Moreover, by
legislation of 1876 and 1880 attendance of children at school was made compulsory.
The important statute was enacted: "It shall be the ​duty​ of the parent of every child to
cause such child to receive efficient elementary instruction". This increased the number
of school children and entailed the further statute that elementary ​education​ should be
provided gratuitously for the indigent, and ultimately resulted in legislation by which
primary ​education​ was made free or gratuitous for all. The annual cost of ​education​ per
child in ​England​ was: in 1860, 21s. 7d.; in 1870, 25s. 4d.; in 1880, for ​voluntary
schools, 34s. 73/34;d., for board schools, 42s.; in 1902, for ​voluntary​ schools, 46s.
4d., for board schools, 60s. 9d.

Such was the state of things which necessitated the Education Act of 1902. This Act
abolished the school boards, transferring their functions to the general local
authority--the County Council or Urban Council. It equalized the condition of
Board-schools and ​voluntary​schools--henceforward termed provided and non-provided
schools--in regard to maintenance by public funds, whether from local rates or imperial
grants, both schools being of equally public character in regard to secular instruction. It
enacted that the local authority must maintain and control all secular instruction in the
public elementary schools of its district; but whereas the local authority must provide
the cost of both building and upkeep of the provided schools, in the case of the
non-provided (i.e. ​voluntary​) schools the building and equipment is to be at the
expense of the denominational body which volunteers to set up the school. The school
thus is, and remains, their ​property​. Each school is managed by a committee of six
managers who have the appointment and dismissal of the teachers. The local authority
has the ​nomination​ of all the six managers of the provided schools, but of only two in
the case of non-provided schools. The trust body which owns the school has the right of
nominating four of the six. It is on this slender clause the main value of the Act from
the ​Catholic​ standpoint hinges, for it is this clause which retains the efficient control of
the school for religious purposes in the hands of the denomination which built it. In the
provided school religious instruction is on much the same footing as in the former
Board-schools; that is, some Bible lessons and religious instruction of a
non-denominational character may be given if the local authority chooses. In the
non-provided school religious instruction may be given in accordance with the
trust-deeds, that is with the tenets of the proprietors of the school. This is to be under
the control of the managers and subject to a time-table ​conscience​ clause, and not at
the charge of public moneys.

For the sake of clearness, then, the present position of the ​Catholic​ elementary school
in ​England​ in 1912 is this: The cost of the school building and its equipment must be
found by the ​Catholic​ congregation, whilst the State through the local authority
provides all working expenses for all secular instruction. Each ​Catholic​ school when first
built is vested in the hands of ​Catholic​ ​ecclesiastical authorities​ by carefully drawn-up
trust-deeds. The committee of managers usually includes the ​priest​ in charge of the
mission with three of the chief ​Catholic​ ​laymen​ of the ​parish​. To these are added the
two members appointed by the local authority. The right of opening new schools where
needed is also secured by the Act of 1902. On the whole, therefore, the condition of
Catholic​ schools under this Act is fairly satisfactory. The Board of Education may,
however, exert unpleasant pressure by exacting regulations under the title of efficiency.
Still, though burdensome, if tolerable, the sacrifice in the long run ought to make for
the good of the children. More objectionable have been attempts of certain bigoted local
authorities to discriminate against the non-provided schools in the scale of salaries and
some other matters. However, judicial decisions tend to prevent this ​injustice​. The chief
anxiety at present is the precariousness of the situation. Three Education Bills in
succession have been before Parliament which sought to transfer the entire control of
the school from the managers appointed by the owners of the non-provided schools to
the local authority, and under the plea of abolishing religious tests for teachers aimed
at rendering all schools liable to accept teachers of any religion or of none. Up to the
present, each of these measures has been defeated, and largely by the resoluteness of
the ​Catholic​ minority.

Provision of Catholic teachers

The method of training teachers in ​England​ for primary schools during the last century
has usually included some years of apprenticeship as monitors or pupil-teachers in the
primary school during which the candidate for the teaching profession continued his or
her studies, receiving at the same time a small stipend from the State. At the end of
this apprenticeship the young man or woman either began with the lowest grade of
assistant-teacher and worked up by concomitant private study to pass examinations
leading up to a first-class certificate; or the more fortunate candidates obtained
scholarships, which secured them two years in a training college approved and assisted
by the Government. In recent years, however, the aim of the Board of Education has
been to secure that all future teachers of primary schools shall have gone through the
last three or four years of their school course in a secondary school, and shall
subsequently have the advantage of a two or three years' course at a training college.
The preparation of ​Catholic​ teachers has followed the same lines as that of other
teachers belonging to the ​voluntary​ division of the system. At present there are in
England​ five recognized ​Catholic​residential training colleges for ​female​ primary
teachers. All are managed by religious. The largest, that conducted by the Sisters of
Notre Dame at ​Liverpool​, was opened in 1856. In 1909 there were in residence at all
the five training colleges 507 ​women​ students. There is one residential ​Catholic​ primary
training college for men under ​diocesan​ authorities in ​London​. There were 114 students
there in 1909. The State contributes scholarships or burses of £38 per annum for each
female​ student and £53 for each male student at these colleges. Though the ordinary
course is two years, it may be prolonged to three or even four years in the case of very
promising students. As at present the total number of ​Catholic​ elementary teachers is
about 8000, to staff near 1100 schools and teach about 400,000 children, and as the
insistence on training constantly increases, there is need of increased provision in this
respect. One source of anxiety lies in the efforts of the Board of Education in recent
years to compel the ​voluntary​ training-colleges, if in receipt of any grant, to admit
students of all ​denominations​. In the case of residential training colleges, this would
obviously be fatal to their ​Catholic​ character. The attempt has been therefore
vigorously resisted and, so far, successfully. A more serious difficulty in regard to the
formation of ​Catholic​ elementary teachers for the future, as before hinted, seems to lie
in the paucity of recognized ​Catholic​ secondary schools which ​Catholic​ boys and girls
looking forward to a teaching career can attend, as such attendance for three or four
years is now to become a permanent regulation of the Board of Education. Moreover
the many valuable scholarships open to these and other pupils from primary schools
can now be held in ​Catholic​ secondary schools, provided these be recognized.

Special classes of schools

The ​Catholic​ ​education​ of certain other classes of children is also provided for by
charitable institutions​, which are primarily due to ​voluntary​ effort, and conducted by
religious congregations or other charitable organizations, but frequently receive
considerable state aid, subject to certain conditions. Thus there are in Great Britain:
Catholic​ certified poor-law schools, for boys, 13; for girls, 28; reformatory schools, for
boys, 5; for girls, 2; industrial schools, for boys, 14; for girls, 12.

The chief organizations for the safeguarding of ​Catholic​ ​educational​ interests are the
diocesan​ school associations and the central ​Catholic​Education Council of Great Britain.
There are sixteen of the former. The ​bishop​ or some ​Catholic​ ​layman​ of position is
usually the chairman, and the committee includes some of the most influential ​Catholic
laymen​ of the ​diocese​. The ​Catholic​ Education Council was founded by the ​bishops​ of
Great Britain in 1905. It took over the functions of the old ​Catholic​ School Committee,
which originated in 1847, and also those of the ​Catholic​ Secondary Education Council,
begun in 1904. The Council consists of ninety-five members nominated in certain
proportions by the ​bishops​, ​diocesan​ school associations, and the Conference of
Catholic​ colleges. The object of this Council is to look after and defend the general
interests of ​Catholic​ ​education​ both primary and secondary, and the Council is
recognized by the Government as representing the ​Catholics​ of ​England​ in matters of
Catholic​ ​education​. In fine, the conclusion presented by the history of ​Catholic
education​ in Great Britain is that, in a country where the conception of ​true​ freedom
and the sense of equity prevails throughout the mass of the nation, even a small
minority with a clearly just claim, however unpopular at the start, will triumph in the
long run, if it insists with resolution and perseverance in its just demands.

Ireland 

The history of ​Catholic​ ​education​ in ​Ireland​ in the period from the ​Reformation​ to
Catholic Emancipation is to be considered rather the story of an heroic struggle than a
record of a school system in any ​true​ sense, and it must be gleaned from all sorts of
out-of-the-way sources, for the historian of the ​Catholic​ schools of that period has not
yet arisen. From the ​Reformation​ to the Treaty of Limerick (1534-1691) records are
very scanty, and though, in spite of the troubled state of the times, many ​Catholic
schools managed to survive and to do good work, there was no such thing as an
organized system of schools, nor would anything of the kind have been possible.
Throughout the eighteenth century ​Catholic​ schools were repressed by the ​penal laws​,
one object of which was, according to Lecky, "to reduce the ​Catholics​ to a condition of
the most extreme and brutal ​ignorance​". The same author says: "The legislation on the
subject of ​Catholic​ ​education​ may be briefly described, for it amounted simply to
universal, unqualified and unlimited proscription". Keeping a school, or teaching in any
capacity, even as usher or private tutor, was a penal offence, and a reward of £10 was
offered for the discovery of a Popish schoolmaster. Notwithstanding the severity of
these ​laws​ the managers of the Charter Schools, when seeking aid from Parliament in
1769, found it ​necessary​ to complain of the great number of schools "under the tuition
of Popish masters" that were to be found in many parts of the country.

Proselytizing schemes

The Government and the ascendancy party, while prohibiting ​Catholic​ ​education​, made
several very ambitious though futile attempts to give a ​Protestant​ ​education​ to the
children of the poor ​Irish​ ​Catholics​ through the agency of proselytizing schools. These
schemes may be mentioned here since they were meant for ​Catholics​, though
fortunately little used by them. An Act of Parliament of the reign of ​Henry VIII​ (1537)
proscribed the erection of schools in every ​parish​, but the Act remained almost a dead
letter. In the reign of Elizabeth an Act was passed (1570) for the establishment of
diocesan​ free schools. Some schools were founded, and in the course of ​time​ the
number was increased, but they never realized the function indicated by their name of
free schools; they became in the main ordinary grammar schools for the children of
well-to-do ​Protestants​. A scheme of Royal free schools was initiated by James I (1608)
in connexion with the plantation of Ulster. Their story differs little from that of the other
proselytizing schools, but their endowments have not altogether disappeared and they
were divided between ​Catholics​ and ​Protestants​ under a scheme made by the
Educational Endowments Commission of 1887. Passing over other more or less partial
schemes, the Charter schools, founded in response to an appeal made by Boulter, the
Protestant​ ​primate​ (1730), demand a brief notice. Under the charter granted in 1733, a
system of schools was begun which, by means of agreements secured by a combination
of ​fraud​ and terror, took ​Catholic​ children from their ​parents​ and homes and deported
them to most distant parts of the country. These schools became hotbeds of shameful
cruelty without a parallel in the history of public, or probably even in that of private,
education​ in any land. Yet they were powerfully supported and received large grants
from the ​Irish​Parliament, but their downfall was brought about by the indignant
exposure of their callous inhumanity by John Howard, the philanthropist, who took
occasion to investigate their condition while he was engaged in an inquiry into the state
of the ​prisons​.

All these classes of schools were avowedly proselytizing, and as they were the only
schools which could be openly established in the country in the eighteenth century, at
any rate till towards its close, the ​education​ of ​Irish​ ​Catholics​ was confined to what
could be done by the efforts of ​priests​ in their own districts, and by those of the
"hedge" school-master, who with great devotion sought to keep alive the lamp of
knowledge​, though he ​knew​ that a price was on his head as on that of the ​priest​. That
these efforts were numerous and active is clear from the complaint of the trustees of
the Charter schools in 1769, to which reference has already been made. Moreover, in
spite of the severe penalties prescribed by law, the practice of sending ​Irish​ youths to
Continental countries to be ​educated​ was very common, and it appears from a return
made to Parliament that, at the time of the outbreak of the ​French Revolution​, there
were no fewer than 478 ​Irish​ ​ecclesiastical​ students making their studies on the
Continent. Towards the close of the eighteenth century the rigour with which the ​penal
laws​ had hitherto been enforced was considerably relaxed, and the immediate result
was an extraordinary growth of ​Catholic​schools all over the country, but without any
organic unity or definite system. By far the most important ​educational​ work of that
period was the foundation of ​Maynooth College​.

Christian Brothers

In 1802 Edmund Ignatius Rice, of Waterford, began a work for ​Catholic​ ​education​ which
has been the source of incalculable good. In that year the ​Irish Christian Brothers​ were
founded, and in 1820 the ​Holy See​ extended to them the ​Brief​ of ​Benedict XIII​ by
which the French Brothers were established in 1725. The ​Christian Schools​ soon found
their way into the chief centres of population in the southern half of the country, and at
the present day they number 100 and have 29,840 pupils. All the Royal Commissions
which have inquired into the condition of ​education​ in ​Ireland​ have reported in terms of
enthusiastic praise on the splendid ​educational​ work done in the schools of the ​Christian
Brothers​, and it is unnecessary to say that they have been a tower of strength to the
cause of religion.

National schools

The National schools, as they are called, were introduced in 1831, by a motion of Mr.
Stanley, chief secretary for ​Ireland​, to place at the disposal of the ​Irish​ Government a
grant for the purpose of providing combined literary and moral and separate religious
instruction for ​Irish​ children of all ​denominations​. The new system was at once attacked
by the ​Presbyterians​ and very soon by the ​Episcopalian Protestants​, but at first it was in
the main supported by the ​Catholics​, though Dr. McHale, ​Archbishop​ of ​Tuam​, was a
notable exception. The concessions made by the Commissioners of National Education
for the purpose of placating the various ​Protestant​ ​sects​ had the effect at last of uniting
Catholics​ in opposition to the system. Apparently it was not enough that in a Board of
seven commissioners only two were ​Catholics​; one rule after another was made of such
a character as to leave no ​doubt​ of the very serious danger that these new government
schools would prove to be simply another proselytizing agency, as was, indeed, the
avowed policy of the ​Protestant​archbishop​, Whately. As the outcome of prolonged and
bitter ​Catholic​ opposition the schools were at length made tolerable, though they retain
their fundamental undenominationalism to the present day.

Outline of system

The National Education system is now governed by a body of twenty commissioners

appointed by the Crown, of whom ten, including the resident commissioner, are
Catholics​. All the other higher offices, even inspectorships, are divided equally between
Catholics​ and ​Protestants​, offices being in some instances duplicated in order to
preserve the balance. The form of local control of the schools that has been adopted
gives to ​Catholics​ such measure of security as they possess. The immediate
management is committed to ​individuals​appointed by the Board, and in the large
majority of cases these are the local ​clergy​, amongst ​Catholics​ usually the ​parish
priests​. Of a total of 8401 National Schools, 5819 are under ​Catholic​ management, and
of these, 5650 are under ​clerical​ and 169 under lay managers. These managers have
the sole right of appointing and dismissing the teachers, but an arrangement made for
Catholic​ schools, and sanctioned by the Synod of Maynooth, provides that in the
exercise of this right the approval of the ​bishop​ shall be sought. This arrangement has
been accepted by the teachers as an ample protection against the danger of arbitrary
dismissal. The managers have, moreover, general authority over the schools and the
teachers, but the commissioners themselves, through their inspectors, control the
standard and the efficiency of the teaching, and enforce the regulations of their code.
The undenominationalism of the system makes itself felt chiefly in two ways: first, in
the prohibition of religious emblems even in purely ​Catholic​ schools, and, secondly, in
the refusal of the commissioners to sanction the use even in ​Catholic​ schools of readers
or other books containing any matter which might be considered open to objection if
the schools had mixed attendance of ​Catholics​ and ​Protestants​.

Provision of schools

School buildings may be vested in the commissioners, or in trustees, or they may be

held by the managers as owners. If a school is vested in the commissioners, a course
considered objectionable by ​Catholics​, that body provide the entire cost of erection,
equipment, and maintenance. If the school is vested in trustees, the commissioners
make a grant of two-thirds of the cost of building and equipment, leaving the remaining
third, and the entire cost of subsequent maintenance, to be met by local contributions,
for the raising of which the manager is responsible. If the unrestricted ownership of the
school is retained by the manager, no contribution is made, but loans may be obtained
in certain circumstances.

Catholic schools

The schools of the ​Irish Christian Brothers​ have refused to enter the National system,
but it has been accepted by those of other brotherhoods, and by ​convent schools
generally. The number of ​convent​ and ​monastery​ National schools is 396, and the
average number of children on the rolls, 111,508. Of the 8401 National schools 4391
are exclusively ​Catholic​ as regards teachers and pupils, 1542 are similarly ​Protestant​,
and the attendance is mixed in 2461 schools, in which the ​Catholic​ pupils are 69.7 per
cent of the whole. The number of pupils in exclusively ​Catholic​ schools is 373,613, and
the ​Catholics​ in the schools in which the attendance is mixed, number 131,657. There
are, therefore, altogether 505,270 ​Catholic​ pupils in the National schools out of a total
roll of 704,528.

Finance

The whole scheme of National ​education​, with the exceptions stated above in regard to
building, equipment and maintenance, is financed by the Government, chiefly by an
annual parliamentary vote, which in 1909-10 amounted to £1,621,921. The ascertained
expenditure from local sources in 1909 was £141,096.

Training of teachers

The supply of trained teachers is maintained by seven training colleges, of which one,
for men and ​women​, directly managed by the commissioners, is forbidden to ​Catholics​,
another, also for men and ​women​, is ​Episcopalian Protestant​, and two for men and
three for ​women​ are ​Catholic​. The ​Catholic​ training colleges are under the immediate
management of the ​bishops​ of the ​dioceses​ in which they are situated, two under the
Archbishop​ of ​Dublin​, and one each under the Bishops of ​Down and Connor​, ​Limerick​,
and Waterford. The students in these colleges, all of which are residential, are known as
King's scholars, and the colleges are supported by capitation maintenance grants paid
by the commissioners.

Technical instruction

Technical instruction is carried on by local committees under the Department of

Agriculture and Technical Instruction for ​Ireland​. The Department was established by
Act of Parliament in 1899, and has, in addition to the sums voted for special institutions
such as the Royal College of Science, an annual income of £197,000, of which £62,000
must be devoted to technical instruction, £10,000 to the development of fisheries, and
the balance to agricultural instruction and development. The technical schools
established under this system are undenominational, but as they are almost exclusively
evening schools and are confined to technical subjects of instruction, or preparatory
work connected therewith, they are freely attended by ​Catholics​.

Secondary schools and colleges

Speaking generally, all schools of secondary standard, and colleges under ​university
rank in ​Ireland​, are purely denominational. In the department of secondary ​education
Catholics​ received no assistance from the State until 1878, when an Act of Parliament
established the Commissioners of Intermediate Education to encourage and promote
secondary ​education​ by distributing grants to schools of all ​denominations​ on the basis
of an annual general examination in the subjects of secular instruction, and giving
exhibitions and prizes to the most successful candidates. A further Act of Parliament, in
1900, widened the powers of the commissioners and enabled them to add inspection to
the examination, which, however, must be retained. The system of inspection
established under this Act has not yet got beyond the tentative stage, and cannot be
really effective as long as the annual examination continues to be the basis of the
distribution of grants.

Outline of system

The commissioners are twelve in number, six ​Catholics​ and six ​Protestants​, and as their
powers are strictly limited to subjects of secular ​education​, the denominationalism of
the schools is in no way impaired. The ​diocesan​ colleges, with few exceptions, accept
the system and compete for their share of the grants. The great colleges and the
smaller schools of the ​religious​ orders are all within the system, as are also nearly all
the ​convent​ secondary schools. The ​Christian Brothers​, though refusing to enter the
National system of primary schools, have freely entered the Intermediate system, and
have added secondary departments to their schools, in which they accept the
programme of the Intermediate Board, and submit to the examinations and inspection.
The official statistics published by the Board take no account of the ​religious
denomination​ of schools or pupils, but they give sufficiently detailed information about
each school to make it possible to arrive at fairly exact figures. Of 344 schools, 218 are
Catholics​: 128 for boys, 84 for girls, and 6 mixed. The school rolls show that ​Catholics
number approximately 8,780 boys out of a total of 12,067 and 4,000 girls out of 6,428.
These rolls contain the names only of those pupils who are within the limits of
secondary school age and the total number of pupils in the schools is probably 25 per
cent greater.

Finance

The Intermediate Education Act (1878) gave the commissioners, from the funds
realized by the disestablishment of the ​Protestant Church​, £1,000,000, the interest of
which was at first their sole income. The Local Taxation Act (1890) increased the
income of the Board by the addition of the residue of specified excise and customs
duties​ after certain fixed charges had been met. The amount received from this source
was subject to fluctuation, but for several years it showed a downward tendency, and in
1911 the Government substituted for it a fixed annual sum of £46,000, which brings
the income of the Commissioners up to £80,000 a year. The Government further
admitted, in 1911, the claim of ​Irish​ Intermediate ​education​ to an annual parliamentary
vote, and if this is made proportional to the corresponding vote in ​England​ it should
more than double the income of the Board.

Prominent schools

The following list gives the names of the larger and more important ​Catholic​ schools in
Ireland​ and of the authorities conducting them.

Boys
Diocesan Colleges​ conducted by the ​secular clergy​, under the immediate control of the
bishops​: St. Finian's College, Mullingar; St. Mel's College, Longford; St. Macarten's
College, Monaghan; St. Columb's College, Derry; ​St. Malachy's​ College, Belfast; St.
Colman's College, Newry; St. Patrick's College, Cavan; St. Eunan's College,
Letterkenny; Holy Cross College, Clonliffe, Dublin; St. Peter's College, Wexford; St.
Patrick's College, and St. Mary's Lay College, Carlow; St. Kieran's College, Kilkenny; St.
Colman's College, Fermoy; ​St. Finbarr's​Seminary, ​Cork​; St. Patrick's College, Thurles;
St. Brendan's​ College, Killarney; St. Flannan's College, Ennis; St. Munchin's College,
Limerick; St. John's College, Waterford; ​St. Jarlath's​ College, Tuam; Diocesan College,
Ballaghadereen; St. Joseph's College, Ballinasloe; Summerhill College, Sligo; St.
Muredach's College, Ballina.

Conducted by religious orders: ​Cistercians,​ Mount Melleray Seminary, attached to the

Abbey, Cappoquin; St. Joseph's College, attached to the Abbey, Roscrea. ​Congregation
of the Holy Ghost:​ ​ Blackrock College, Dublin; Rockwell College, Cashel; St. Mary's
College, Rathmines, Dublin. ​Congregation of the Mission​ (Vincentians):​ St. Vincent's
College, Castleknock, Dublin; St. Patrick's Training College, for National Teachers
(men), Drumcondra, Dublin; ​Dominicans,​ College of St. Thomas, Newbridge; ​Society of
Jesus,​ Clongowes Wood College, Sallins; Belvedere College, Dublin; Sacred Heart
College, and Mungret College, Limerick; College of St. Ignatius, ​Galway​. ​Society of
Mary (Marists),​ St. Mary's College, Dundalk; Catholic University School, Dublin;
Christian Brothers,​ ​ O'Connell Schools, North Richmond Street, and several other large
schools in Dublin; ​Christian Brothers'​ College, and Our Lady's Mount, ​Cork​; ​Christian
Schools​ in Belfast, ​Limerick​, and many other centres. ​Presentation Brothers,
Presentation Monastery, and Mardyke College, ​Cork​, and several other schools; ​De La
Salle Brothers,​ Training College for National Teachers (men), Waterford.

Girls
The ​Dominican​ College, Eccles Street, and the Loreto College, St. Stephen's Green,
Dublin​, besides remarkable success in the examinations of the Intermediate Board, won
for themselves acknowledged eminence, even in competition with men's colleges in the
late Royal University, and have opened halls in connexion with the National University,
St. Mary's, Muckross Park; Sion Hill, Blackrock, Dublin; Training College for National
Teachers (women), Belfast; Training College for Secondary Teachers, ​Dublin​, and many
other schools. ​Loreto Nuns,​ Loreto Abbey, Rathfarnham; schools in Balbriggan, Bray,
Dalkey, Gorey, Clonmel, Navan, Mullingar, Letterkenny, Kilkenny, Fermoy. ​Faithful
Companions of Jesus:​ Laurel Hill Convent, Limerick; St. Mary's Convent,
Newtownbarry; ​Sisters of St. Louis,​ Monaghan, Carrickmacross, and Kiltimagh.
Ursulines​:​ Convents of Blackrock, and St. Angela's, ​Cork​; Sligo, Thurles, and Waterford,
where, in addition to the school, the Sisters conduct a training college for secondary
school teachers. ​Brigidines:​ Convents of Tullow, Mountrath, Abbeyleix, and
Goresbridge. ​Sisters of Mercy​:​ in addition to a large number of elementary schools in
various parts of ​Ireland​, higher schools in Dundalk, Queenstown, Macroom, and St.
Marie's of the Isle, ​Cork​, and in Limerick a Training College for National Teachers
(women). ​Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary:​ Lisburn; ​Sisters of the Sacred Heart:
Mount Anville, Dublin.

Schools of handicrafts have been established in connexion with many of the ​convents​.
Among the more important of these are, for lace and crochet: ​Mercy Convents,
Dundalk, Ardee, Kilbeggan, Longford, Enniskillen, Queenstown, St. Lelia's School,
Limerick​, Newcastle West, Roscarbery, Dungarvan, Stradbally, Claremorris, Westport,
Castlebar, Sligo, Roscommon, and Boyle; ​Poor Clares,​ Ballyjamesduff and Kenmare.
Presentation,​ Thurles, Carrick-on-Suir and Youghal; ​Sisters of Charity of St. Paul,
Kilfinane; ​Sisters of Charity,​ Benada Abbey, Co. Mayo, and Foxford. Many of these
schools, and some others have also hosiery, shirtmaking, and similar industries, and
some, as Foxford, Loughglynn, St. Lelia's, ​Limerick​, Dundrum, and Roscarbery, are
centres of much needed industrial life in their several localities.

Seminaries

The ​education​ of students for the ​secular priesthood​ is carried on chiefly in Maynooth,
which is a national ​seminary​, though many students are sent to the ​Irish​ Colleges in
Rome​ and ​Paris​ and a large proportion of the students of ​Dublin​, ​Cashel​, Kildare,
Ossory​, and Waterford receive their whole ​education​ in the local ​seminaries​. With these
exceptions, however, the local ​seminaries​ confine themselves to the secondary school
programme, and send their students to Maynooth or the Continent for their studies in
philosophy​ and ​theology​. Each ​religious​ order makes its own provision for the training
of its subjects, and candidates for the foreign missions are ​educated​ in All Hallows
College, and in the ​seminaries​ situated in Carlow, Kilkenny, Thurles, and Waterford.
(See also ​IRELAND​; ​CHRISTIAN BROTHERS OF IRELAND​; ​ALL HALLOWS COLLEGE​;
MAYNOOTH COLLEGE​.)

Scotland 

Catholic​ ​education​ in ​Scotland​ during penal times fared much as in ​England​. By 1670
the ​Catholic​ population had dwindled to some 14,000 communicants, of whom about
2000 survived in the Lowlands (Leslie's report to ​Propaganda​). Scotch colleges which
sent many missionaries back to suffer for their ​faith​ had been founded at ​Rome​, ​Douai​,
Paris, and Valladolid. However, in the crushed condition of the country candidates for
the ​priesthood​ became scarce. Small ​Catholic​ schools were occasionally started in
remote districts during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and struggled on for a
while. Thus in 1675 two small schools existed at Glengarry and in the Island of Barra.
Early in the eighteenth century a small ​seminary​ was begun at Scalan in Glenlivat to be
subsequently transferred after sundry vicissitudes to Aquhorties. Others were started at
Samalaman and ​Lismore​. The first really important ​Catholic​ collegiate foundation in
Scotland​ since the ​Reformation​ was that at Blairs, in 1829, when the two surviving
"little ​seminaries​" at Aquhorties and Lismore were united to form the new college,
destined to have an honourable and fruitful career as the future ​Alma Mater​ of a
considerable proportion of the Scottish ​priesthood​. Since Catholic Emancipation there
has been a large immigration from ​Ireland​ and a rapid growth within the Scottish
community, so that the remnant of 1800 has risen to an estimated ​Catholic​ population
of 518,000 in ​Scotland​ in 1910, with 554 ​priests​ and 238 missions. The story of the
progress of ​Catholic​ ​education​ during the past century has been much the same in
Scotland​ as in ​England​. As each little ​Catholic​ congregation formed, it started a school.
In spite of the stronger religious bigotry in the beginning, the increasing demand for
liberty and equality for dissenters after the separation of the Free Church in 1843
helped ​Catholic​ ​educational​claims.

However, it was the Education Act of ​Scotland​ of 1872 that has determined the Scotch
system down to the present time. That Act, following on the line of the English Act of
1870, established, or rather in ​Scotland​ reformed and re-established a dual system of
public schools, i.e. Board-schools, and ​voluntary​ or denominational schools. Both
receive considerable grants from the imperial exchequer, whilst the former enjoy rate
aid. The ​voluntary​ schools, built and partially maintained by private funds, retain the
religious​ ​character​ of the body which owns them. Fortunately in ​Scotland​ the ​voluntary
schools did not meet with the same hostility from the supporters of the public or
Board-schools as they did in ​England​. The religious differences which have set the
English ​Nonconformists​ against the ​Anglican​proprietors of the great mass of the
voluntary​ schools did not exist there. As a consequence, the ​voluntary​ schools
generally, and the ​Catholic​ schools in particular, received more liberal treatment and
less pressure, and the intolerable burden and acute need for reform which brought
about the English Education Act of 1902 did not arise. The present situation of ​Catholic
Education in ​Scotland​, as gathered from the Scotch Education Department Blue Book
for 1910-11, may be thus summarized:

Catholic voluntary day schools

Primary, 207; higher grade, 12. These provide places for 107,740 scholars. The
average number on the registers during the past year was 92,594. The average in
actual attendance, 81,980 (41,363 boys, 40,617 girls). Teaching staff: certificated
teachers, male 167, ​female​ 1306; assistant (provisonally certificated) teachers, 475.
Average annual salary of ​Catholic​ teachers: principal masters, £148; principal
mistresses, £94; assistant masters, £94; assistant mistresses, £73. The average
salaries for the public schools at the same time were: principal masters, £189;
mistresses, £95; assistant masters, £136; mistresses, £81. ​Catholic​ teachers thus work
at a sacrifice. Total annual income of ​Catholic​ primary schools:--voluntary contributions
in various forms, £39,100; state contribution under various heads: annual grant, fee
grant, grant in aid, grants for drawing, etc., about £170,000. The inclusion of rent (on
the basis of assessment) in the approved expenditure is permitted in Scottish ​voluntary
schools. This amounted in 1909 to £36,000, or an average of £164 per school. The total
expenditure on ​Catholic​ primary schools in 1910 was £208,624, which worked out at a
cost per child of £2. 13s. 5d.; while the cost to the State of each child in the public
schools amounted to £3. 14s. 1/12;d. Moreover the public schools drew about
twenty-three shillings per child from rates not available to the ​voluntary​ schools. Still
on the whole, though the ​Catholic​ ​Church​ is subject to certain financial disadvantages,
it has secured freedom, and when worked in a liberal spirit the Scottish system has
proved​ tolerable, indeed with certain further amendments helping to raise ​Catholic
teachers' salaries to those of the public schools it would be even fair.

The working conditions of the ​Catholic​ primary schools in ​Scotland​ are much the same
as in ​England​. The chief manager and correspondent of each ​Catholic​ school is usually
the ​priest​ in charge of the mission, but the manager of groups of ​voluntary​ schools are
united into small Councils or Committees in which they share common control and
responsibility for certain purposes--an arrangement possessing some distinct
advantages. In regard to secondary ​education​, the better higher grade schools help
towards this in ​Scotland​; and there are twelve such ​Catholic​ higher grade schools
recognized and receiving grants. Owing to the difficulty already alluded to of defining
secondary schools, it is not easy to give accurate statistics. One ​Catholic​ school for
boys, the ​Jesuit​ ​College​ in ​Glasgow​, is on the list of secondary schools recognized by
the Government. The Marist Brothers also conduct a boarding college at Dumfries, St.
Mungo's Academy, in ​Glasgow​, and a hostel for the training of male teachers. There are
two ​ecclesiastical​ colleges, Blairs and St. Peter's, New Kilpatrick; and in addition to
those recognized as higher grade schools, there are probably about half a dozen
academies and ​convent​boarding schools giving secondary ​education​. There is one large
training college for ​female​ teachers, managed by the Notre Dame Sisters, in Glasgow.
United States 

Out of a ​Catholic​ population of approximately 14,347,027, nearly one-half of the

Catholic​ children attending elementary schools in the ​United States​ were being
educated​ under the ​parish​ school system in the year 1910. ​Catholic​ schools are
practically impossible in most country districts, and it has been estimated that from
one-fourth to one-third of the number of ​Catholic​ children of school age live in country
districts. In towns and cities, therefore, where alone it is possible, generally speaking,
to build and maintain ​Catholic​ schools, it may be said that all but about one-fourth to
one-sixth of the ​Catholic​ population attending school is being ​educated​ in the ​parish
schools. The number of pupils in the ​parish​ schools is also steadily increasing.

This result has been achieved by a process of gradual growth, the root of it all being the
firm determination of the ​Catholic​ mind to make religion a vital element in the
education​ of the ​Catholic​ child. This determination has characterized the attitude of
American ​Catholics​ in respect to ​education​ from the very beginning, and it has been
shared alike by the ​clergy​ and the ​laity​. The earliest ​Catholic​ colonists implanted the
principle of religious training in the virgin ​Catholic​ soil, and every decade that has
passed since then has added but a new growth or a fresh vigour to the ​educational
mustard seed, A school appears to have been founded by the ​Jesuits​ in ​Maryland​ not
very long after the arrival of the first colonists, though there is some uncertainty as to
the exact ​date​ and its first location. But even before the coming of the Calverts,
Catholic​ schools existed in ​New Mexico​ and Florida. By the year 1629, many schools for
the natives of ​New Mexico​ had been established by the ​Franciscans​, and this was eight
years before the first school in the thirteen eastern colonies. The first schools within the
present limits of the ​United States​ were thus founded by ​Catholic​ missionaries. It is
probable that the earliest of these mission schools in ​New Mexico​ were inaugurated
soon after the effective occupation of the region by Don Juan de Oñate in 1598. In
Florida, school work among the natives appears to have been begun about the same
time. A classical school existed at St. Augustine as early as 1606. The ​Jesuits
established a series of flourishing schools for the natives of Lower California, early in
the eighteenth century; and the ​Franciscans​, during its last quarter, developed the
singularly successful mission schools in Upper ​California​. All of these schools for the
natives had an industrial character. In ​New Orleans​, a ​parish​ school was opened in
1722, four years after the founding of the city; and five years later a band of ​Ursuline
Sisters​ established a ​convent​ and school there for the ​education​ of girls. There is
evidence also of the existence of ​Catholic​ schools at a very early period at St. Louis,
Kaskaskia, Mackinaw, ​Detroit​, and Vincennes. A college was opened by the ​Jesuits​ in
Maryland​ in 1677, and another in the city of New York, about 1684, under the
administration of ​Governor Dongan​; and, when they founded ​Catholic​ missions in
Pennsylvania​, schools were opened in connexion with the more important ​parishes​ as a
matter of course.

The era of religious freedom ushered in by the Revolution resulted in the multiplication
of ​Catholic​ educational institutions of every kind. Colleges were founded at ​Georgetown
and Mount St. Mary's, and plans were framed for the development of ​Catholic​ ​education
on a larger and more systematic scale. Fathers ​Badin​ and Nerinckx in ​Kentucky​, and
Father Richard at ​Detroit​, were energetic and farseeing ​educational​ pioneers. Religious
teachers for the schools also began to appear. Alice Lalor opened a school at
Georgetown​ in 1799, which became the mother-house of the Visitation Sisters in the
United States​. Mother Seton established her community at Emmitsburg in 1809; Father
Nerinckx founded the Sisterhood of Loretto in Kentucky two years later, and about the
same time Father David organized the Sisters of Charity of Kentucky. From this time
until about the year 1840 there was a slow but solid ​Catholic​ ​educational​ growth
throughout the eastern half of the country, with the steady increase of the ​Catholic
population. ​Bishop Kenrick​ at Philadelphia, Bishop Dubois at New York, Bishop Benedict
Fenwick at ​Boston​, ​Bishop England​ at ​Charleston​, Bishop Dubourg in ​Louisiana​, and
Bishops Flaget, Rosetti, Edward Fenwick, Résé, and Bruté in the west, were unremitting
in their labours in behalf of ​Catholic​ ​education​ in their respective ​dioceses​.

About the year 1840 a new period of school growth began, with the inpouring of the
great streams of emigration from ​Germany​ and ​Ireland​. During the years 1840-60
twice as many ​dioceses​ were organized as the number existing at the beginning of this
period, and the heads appointed for these new sees were as profoundly convinced of
the necessity of ​Catholic​ schools as had been the great ​bishops​ of the earlier periods.
"The school alongside the church" was everywhere the accepted ​educational​ maxim.
The ​laity​ were of one mind with the ​clergy​ in the matter, and the building of schools
went everywhere hand in hand with the building of churches. The immigrants were
poor, but they gave unstintedly of their limited means for the erection and equipment
of both. The first school buildings were often of the most makeshift character, but they
were gradually replaced by larger and more commodious structures. The result was
that the two hundred ​parish​ schools existing in the country in the year 1840 were
multiplied several times over before the beginning of the Civil War. The problem of
providing teachers for the new schools was generally solved by an appeal to the
existing ​religious​ communities of ​Europe​. Many of these sent colonies to America, and
so rapid was the growth of these colonies that their members, within a few years,
outnumbered those of the teaching communities previously established in the country.
Most of these new bodies, too, became independent of the parent organizations. The
greater number of the teaching communities now in the ​United States​ trace their
American origin to the little pioneer bands that crossed the ocean to take charge of
schools for the children of the ​Irish​ and German immigrants.

Towards the year 1860 the period of greatest growth in the history of the schools may
be said to have ended, and the period of development begun. All through the eastern
half of the country, the ​Catholic​ school system was by this time solidly established. In
the Far Western and South-western States, the work of ​educational​ growth and
expansion still went on, with the opening of the country there to settlement; and great
bishops​, like a ​Blanchet​ in ​Oregon​, an ​Alemany​ in ​California​, a Lamy in ​New Mexico​,
and a Macheboeuf in ​Colorado​, were called upon to do heroic pioneer labour in the
founding of schools, like that which had been done farther East by the ​bishops​ of an
earlier period. But, by the close of the immigration period, the main lines of the vast
network of schools were clearly laid down. It remained to provide for the internal
development and progress of the system, and to adjust more perfectly the relations of
its component elements. This has been the chief aim since the ​Second Plenary Council
of Baltimore​ in 1866. The specific purpose and results of the work that has been
accomplished in this direction will be dealt with more in detail in the sections that
follow.

Legislation

At the First ​Provincial Council​ of ​Baltimore​ in 1829, it was declared by the assembled
Fathers to be "absolutely ​necessary​ that schools should be established, in which the
young may be taught the principles of ​faith​ and morality, while being instructed in
letters". This was the first authoritative declaration of the ​Church​ in the ​United States
on the subject of ​Catholic​ schools, and the decrees of subsequent councils have but
reiterated, amplified, or given more precise practical effect to, the general law thus laid
down. The First Plenary Council of Baitimore, held in 1852, exhorted the ​bishops​ "to see
that schools be established in connexion with all the churches of their dioceses", and, if
necessary​, to provide for the support of the school from the revenues of the church to
which the school was attached. Several of the ​bishops​ of the West urged even stricter
legislation, and at the Second ​Provincial Council​ of ​Cincinnati​, six years later, these
views were embodied in a formal ​decree​.

The ​Second Plenary Council of Baltimore​ did little more than ratify the decrees of
previous councils. In 1875, however, the ​Congregation of Propaganda​ issued an
"Instruction to the Bishops of the United States concerning the Public Schools", in which
it was pointed out that the public schools as conducted involved grave danger to the
faith​ and ​morals​ of ​Catholic​ children, and that consequently both the natural and the
Divine law​ forbade the attendance of ​Catholic​ children at such schools, unless the
proximate danger could be removed. At the same time, the Sacred Congregation
admitted the possible existence of causes which would excuse ​Catholic​ ​parents​ in the
matter, and it was left to the ​conscience​ and judgement of the ​bishop​ to decide in each
case. This "Instruction" led up to the ​educational​ legislation of the Third ​Plenary Council
of Baltimore​ in 1884. The need was generally felt by ​Catholics​ for more precise and
specific legislation in reference to the schools, both ​parochial​ and public. In some
dioceses​, it meant exclusion from the ​sacraments​ for ​parents​ to send their children to
the public schools; in others, it appeared to be made a matter of little or no account.
The legislation enacted by the Council fully answered the general expectation. It
defined the ​obligations​ imposed by the moral law upon ​parents​ in the matter of the
religious ​education​ of their children. It provided for the case in which children were
practically compelled by circumstances to attend the public schools. At the same time,
it sought to give more specific application to its own legislation as well as that of
previous Councils by the following ​decree​:--

● (1) "Near each church, a ​parochial​ school if it does not yet exist, is to be erected

within two years from the ​promulgation​ of this Council, and is to be maintained

in perpetuum,​ unless the ​bishop​, on account of grave difficulties, judge that a

postponement be allowed."

● (2) "A ​priest​ who, by his grave negligence, prevents the erection of a school

within this time or its maintenance, or who, after repeated admonitions of the

bishop​, does not attend to the matter, deserves removal from that church."

● (3) "A mission or a ​parish​ which so neglects to assist a ​priest​ in erecting or

maintaining a school, that by reason of this supine negligence the school is

rendered impossible, should be reprehended by the ​bishop​ and, by the most

efficacious and prudent means possible, induced to contribute the ​necessary

support."

● (4) "All ​Catholic​ ​parents​ are bound to send their children to the ​parochial

schools, unless either at home or in other ​Catholic​ schools they may sufficiently

and evidently provide for the ​Christian​ ​education​ of their children, or unless it be

lawful to send them to other schools on account of a sufficient cause, approved

by the ​bishop​, and with opportune cautions and remedies. As to what is a

Catholic​ school, it is left to the judgment of the Ordinary to define".

Other decrees of the Council dealt with the question of the improvement of the schools.
The more important of these will be referred to in the course of this article.
Attendance

The total number of ​parish​ schools in the ​United States​ according to the "Catholic
Directory" of 1910, was 4845, with an attendance of 1,237,251. The total number of
pupils in ​Catholic​ educational institutions of all kinds the same year, including colleges,
academies, industrial, reformatory, and eleemosynary schools, was 1,450,488.

Teachers

On the basis of an average of forty pupils to a teacher, the above figures imply that
there are about 31,000 teachers engaged in the ​parish​ schools of the ​United States​.
Fully nine-tenths of these belong to religious institutes. The proportion of lay teachers
to religious varies greatly with locality. In certain districts the lay teachers are very
numerous; in most of the ​dioceses​, however, they constitute but a small fraction of the
whole number. The number of male teachers is also relatively small, amounting to not
more than one-fifteenth of the total. The religious teachers are divided among two
hundred and seventy-five distinct teaching bodies, including independent ​convents​ as
well as congregations or orders. There are eleven teaching brotherhoods. Many of the
religious organizations have less than one hundred members, others have several
thousand. The largest, the School Sisters of Notre Dame, has nearly four thousand
religious. The work of some is limited to a single diocese, while others have schools and
branch establishments scattered through a large number of states. As a rule, the
teaching orders have extended their work wherever opportunity offered, regardless of
state or ​diocesan​ boundaries. The result of this has been to make ​parish​ school
education​ remarkably homogeneous, as compared with the public school system.

Many of these teaching bodies, although at present entirely independent of each other,
have sprung from a common parent organization. Thus, there are twenty-four
independent establishments of the ​Benedictine​ Sisters, twenty of the ​Dominicans​,
twenty-two of the ​Franciscans​, twenty-two of the ​Sisters of St. Joseph​, forty-six of the
Sisters of Mercy​, eighteen of the ​Ursulines​, and twenty of the Visitation Sisters. The
mother-houses or central establishments of these communities are generally located in
the ​United States​. Religious communities in ​Canada​ have responded generously to the
demand for teachers in the States, especially in New England, where the
French-Canadian​ immigration has been so large, and eighteen of the ​Canadian​ teaching
congregations now have branch establishments in this country. Eleven communities
look to mother-houses in ​France​. Besides these, seven communities have their
mother-houses in ​Belgium​, six in ​Germany​, four in ​Italy​, and one each in ​Holland​,
Switzerland​, and ​England​.

Candidates for admission to the ​religious life​ are required to spend at least one year in
the ​novitiate​. In the case of the teaching orders, the ​novitiate​ may be regarded as a
normal school in which pedagogical training goes hand in hand with instruction in the
principles of the ​religious life​. Before entrance into the ​novitiate​, the candidate has to
pass through a preliminary course of instruction in the secular branches, and this
course covers not less than two years. The rules of all the teaching orders thus provide
for a normal training lasting for at least three years. Previous to the Third ​Plenary
Council of Baltimore​, however, owing to the demand for teachers, the pre-novitiate
course was frequently abbreviated, and sometimes even omitted altogether. The
consequence was that teachers were often insufficiently trained for their work, and the
instruction in the schools suffered accordingly. The legislation of the Third Plenary
Council went far towards remedying this ​evil​, by providing that regular normal schools
should be established by the communities where they did not already exist, and that
candidates should be allowed to remain in these schools until they had satisfactorily
completed the prescribed work:--

"In order that there may be always ready a sufficient number of ​Catholic​ teachers, each
thoroughly equipped for the holy and sublime work of ​education​ of youth, we would
have the ​bishops​ concerned confer with the superiors of congregations dedicated to the
work of teaching in the schools, either directly on their own authority or, if need be,
invoking the authority of the Sacred Congregation, for the establishment of normal
schools where they do not yet exist and there is need for them. These are to be in
suitable establishments, in which the young may be trained by skilful and capable
teachers, during a sufficient period of ​time​ and with a truly religious diligence, in the
various studies and ​sciences​, in method and pedagogy, and other branches pertaining
to a sound training for teaching".

In order to give effect to this ​legislation​, the Council decreed the establishment of
school boards in each ​diocese​ for the examination of teachers, and made it unlawful to
engage a teacher for a school who had not obtained a diploma from the ​diocesan
examiners:--

"Within a year from the ​promulgation​ of the Council, the ​bishops​ shall name one or
more ​priests​ who are most conversant with school affairs, to constitute a ​diocesan
board of examination. It shall be the office of this board to examine all teachers,
whether they are religious belonging to a ​diocesan​ congregation or seculars, who wish
to employ themselves in teaching in the ​parochial​ schools in the future, and, if they find
them worthy, to grant a testimonial or diploma of merit. Without this no ​priest​ may
lawfully engage any teacher for his school, unless they have taught before the
celebration of the Council. The diploma will be valid for five years. After this period,
another and final examination will be required of the teachers.

"Besides this board for the examination of teachers for the whole diocese, the ​bishops​,
in accordance with the diversity of place or language, shall appoint several school
boards, composed of one or several ​priests​, to examine the schools in cities or rural
districts. The ​duty​ of these boards shall be to visit and examine each school in their
district once or even twice a year, and to transmit to the president of the ​diocesan
board, for the information and guidance of the ​bishop​, an accurate account of the state
of the schools".

Only lay teachers and religious belonging to a ​diocesan​ community were named as
being bound by this ​legislation​, but indirectly it affected all ​Catholic​ teachers. Owing to
the lack of teachers, it was frequently found difficult to enforce the requirement of a
diocesan​diploma, to be gained by a formal examination. It may be said, however, that
the legislation of the Council had the desired effect. All the ​religious​ communities now
have well-equipped normal schools, and candidates, unless they come with superior
qualifications, are usually required to complete the full curriculum. Summer normal
schools are also conducted at the leading mother-houses, the courses lasting for a
month or six weeks. In many ​dioceses​, too, summer institutes are held, the religious
and lay teachers of the ​diocese​ being assembled for the purpose during a week or two
at some convenient place.

Curriculum

The curriculum of the ​parish​ school comprises eight elementary grades. There is a class
in ​catechism​ daily, and Bible history is also taught several times a week. In the
singing-class, devotional ​hymns​ are used, and the school-sessions are opened and
closed by ​prayers​or brief devotional exercises. Outside of these religious instructions
and practices, it may be said that the curriculum of the ​Catholic​parish​ school does not
differ much from the curriculum of the corresponding public school, except that there is
a stronger tendency in the former to emphasize the importance of those branches that
are commonly designated as "the Three R's". Distinctively ​Catholic​ textbooks are
employed quite generally, especially in the lower grades. Textbooks in common use in
the public schools are, however, frequently used in the teaching of the purely secular
subjects. In the matter of uniformity, some ​dioceses​ have gone much farther than
others. In some, a common curriculum, with fixed recitation-periods, is prescribed for
the schools, together with an authorized series of textbooks; in others, a common
curriculum is prescribed, but the selection of textbooks and the fixing of
recitation-periods is left to the ​pastors​ and principals; in many others, again, the
diocesan​ authorities have not imposed any official standards of uniformity in these
respects, except in the matter of religious instruction.

Organization and administration

Three elements of authority are concerned in the conduct of the ​parish​ school, the
pastor​, the superiors of the teachers, and the ​bishop​. The ​pastor​ has, besides the
financial responsibility, immediate supervision over the school with respect to the
faithful and efficient fulfilment of its work, and occupies by right the position of the
school principal. Practically, however, he shares the responsibility of this position with
the religious superior in charge of the school. The supervision of the work of the school,
in most instances, is really left largely to the immediate religious superior. The higher
religious superiors, having control of the supply of teachers and of the teachers' training
as well as a supervision of the teaching in a large number of schools, enjoy a practical
power over their schools that is comparable in some respects with that of the ​bishop​.
The ​bishop​, nevertheless, possesses the supreme control over all the schools of his
diocese​, subject only to the regulations of the Councils and of higher authority. It is
chiefly from the ​bishops​ that movements looking towards the betterment of the schools
have come. And the trend of ​Catholic​ school development is strongly towards an
increase of the exercise of the episcopal authority over the schools.

Bishop Neumann of Philadelphia in 1852 attempted a ​diocesan​ organization of ​Catholic

schools, by instituting a "Central Board of Education", to be composed of the ​pastor​ and
two lay delegates from each of the ​parishes​ in Philadelphia, and to be presided over by
the ​bishop​. But the project appears to have been in advance of the times. In 1879
Bishop Joseph Dwenger of ​Fort Wayne​, ​Indiana​, organized a school board, consisting of
eleven members and a secretary, all being ​priests​. The board was to have control of
studies and textbooks in the schools of the ​diocese​, to examine teachers, and to gather
statistical information about the schools. The effect was seen to be so wholesome that
the Fort Wayne plan was adopted by the Fourth ​Provincial Council​ of ​Cincinnati​ in 1882,
with an additional provision for dependent local school boards in the larger places.
When the Third ​Plenary Council of Baltimore​ met, two years later, it practically adopted
the Cincinnati plan for all the ​dioceses​. Although the Council speaks only of a central
"board of examination", and would appear, therefore, to limit the functions of this board
to the examination and approval of teachers, it was expected, nevertheless, that more
ample powers would be conferred on these boards by the ​bishops​, and this in fact was
done. Bishop Gilmour's "Constitution and By-Laws for the Government of the Parochial
Schools" of ​Cleveland​, issued in 1887, may be taken as typical of ​diocesan​ legislation
generally in this regard. According to this "Constitution" the central board was to be
made up of seven members, who were to be examiners of teachers as well as
inspectors of schools in their respective districts. The board was vested with full control
over the ​parish​ schools, under the ​bishop​. Local boards were also instituted, to consist
of three, five, or seven members, who were to visit and examine each school within
their respective localities at least once a year.

The board system represented an important advance in the work of ​Catholic​ school
organization, and had everywhere a quickening effect. It soon became evident,
however, that the system was still far from perfect. The men selected to serve on the
boards, while devoted to the interests of the schools, were too busily engaged with
other ​duties​ to give more than a small share of their time to the work. Besides this, few
if any of them had had any formal pedagogical training. There was need, it was seen, of
an executive officer of the central Board who should be specially qualified for the work
of inspection and supervision, and who should devoted his entire time to this task. The
New York school board took the lead in the matter, and in the year 1888 appointed the
Rev. William J. Degnan as inspector of schools. He was succeeded in the office the
following year by the Rev. Michael J. Considine, who served in this capacity until the
year 1900. The title of inspector was changed to that of superintendent. The ​Diocese of
Omaha​ adopted the plan in 1891. The Rev. John W. Shanahan, later ​Bishop​ of
Harrisburg​, was appointed superintendent of schools for the ​Archdiocese of Philadelphia
in 1894. Soon he added a new and important feature to the system; this was the
appointment, for each teaching order in the ​diocese​, of a community inspector of
schools, the ​idea​ being that the recommendations of the superintendent in regard to
the teachers and teaching would be more easily made as well as more effectively
carried out through the co-operation of competent authorized representatives of the
respective teaching bodies. The system of ​diocesan​ organization, as thus developed,
consisted of a central board, with a superintendent of schools, and a board of
community inspectors acting in conjunction with the superintendent in the inspection of
schools and in the carrying out of the regulations of the board. In this form, the system
has heen adopted by other ​dioceses​, and is gradually replacing the older or simple
"board" system. Sixteen ​dioceses​ have at present introduced the "superintendent"
system, while thirty-seven still adhere to the original "board" plan.

Financial support

Catholic​ ​parish​ schools are either "free" or "pay" schools. The latter are supported by
the tuition fees of the pupils, paid to the head of the school. Free schools are usually
supported by the ​parish​ treasury, although here and there schools are found whose
expenses have been provided for, in whole or in part, by the endowment of some
generous individual. The general tendency is towards free schools, and even where
tuition fees are relied on, it is usually ​necessary​ for the ​parish​ to provide for part of the
school's expense. Teachers generally receive from $200 to $300 per year if members of
a sisterhood, and from $300 to $400 per year if members of a brotherhood. In several
dioceses​ the salaries are higher than this, and within recent years a movement for the
increase of teachers' salaries has been gaining ground. Lay teachers employed in the
parish​ schools receive but little more than religious. Generally speaking, ​Catholic
teachers' salaries are less than one-half as much as the salaries of corresponding
teachers in the public schools, and the actual cost of schooling under the ​Catholic
system is only about one-third of what it is under the public school system. It has been
estimated that the average annual per capita cost of ​parish​ school ​education​ in the
United States​ is $8. This would mean that the ​education​ of the 1,237,251 pupils in the
parish​schools during the year 1909-10 cost approximately, for that year, $9,898,008.
The ​education​ of the same pupils in the public schools the same year would, according
to the estimate referred to, cost approximately $30,511,010; and if the annual interest
on the ​necessary​property​ investment were added, the total would be upwards of
34,000,000 (American Eccles. Review, XLIV, 530). This is, therefore, about the amount
of money that the ​Catholic​ school system saves annually to the States.

Catholic schools and the State

Catholic​ schools are thus, in general, entirely supported by the ​voluntary​ contributions
of ​Catholics​. For a considerable period after the Revolution, however, ​Catholic​ schools
in many places were, along with the schools of other ​denominations​, supported from
the public funds. This was the case in Lowell, ​Massachusetts​, from 1835 to 1852. In the
City of New York, it was also the case until the year 1824. The efforts of Bishop
Hughes, in 1840 and subsequently, to restore this condition, were without the
hoped-for success. Gradually, State after State framed ​laws​ forbidding the payment of
public funds to denominational schools and many States even embodied such provisions
in their constitutions. Several plans for avoiding the legal barriers that were thus raised
against the attainment of their ​rights​in the matter of the ​education​ of their children
have been proposed and put to trial by ​Catholics​, with the co-operation of their
fair-minded non-Catholic fellow-citizens. One of the most celebrated of these was the
"Poughkeepsie Plan", which was accepted by the public school board of Poughkeepsie,
New York, in 1873. Under this plan, the school board rented the ​Catholic​ school
buildings for a nominal sum, and accepted the two ​Catholic​ schools of the place as
public schools under the common regulations framed for the public schools, the ​Catholic
teachers, who were ​nuns​, continuing as before and receiving their salaries from the
board. The board agreed likewise to keep the school buildings in repair. The plan
proved to be mutually satisfactory, and was continued for many years. Substantially the
same arrangement was made in several other places in the ​State of New York​. The
arrangement was discontinued at Poughkeepsie in 1899, only when the superintendent
of public instruction intervened, and rendered a decision adverse to its constitutionality.
At ​Lima​, in the same state, a similar decision was rendered by the superintendent in
1902, and the appeal against this to the courts resulted finally in a judgment of the
supreme court of the State, which sustained the action of the superintendent.

The famous "Faribault Plan" was an arrangement substantially the same as that at
Poughkeepsie which Archbishop Ireland effected with the school boards of Faribault and
Stillwater, in ​Minnesota​, in 1891. There was considerable opposition on the part of
Catholics​, however, to such arrangements, one of the chief reasons being that religious
instructions, under the agreement, had to be given outside of the regular school hours.
An appeal to ​Rome​ in the Faribault case resulted in the decision "Tolerari potest", 21
April, 1892, which authorized the continuance of the arrangement under the specific
circumstances. The controversy among ​Catholics​ had the effect of concentrating public
attention upon the matter, and of arousing slumbering anti-Catholic prejudice. The
Paribault Plan is still in operation in some places; and in various parts of the country,
especially in the west, where ​Catholic​ settlements are numerous, there are ​Catholic
schools which derive their support from the public school boards. But such
arrangements are purely local. In certain states, recent legal decisions authorize the
attendance of pupils from the ​parish​ schools at the manual training classes in the public
schools.

In connexion with these practical plans for the settlement of the "school question" there
has been frequent discussion among ​Catholic​educators and apologists as to the ​rights
of the State in respect to ​education​. ​Dr. Brownson​ would deny to the State the ​right​ to
educate​, in the strict and proper sense of the term, although he conceded to it the ​right
to establish and maintain public schools. This was the view more generally held by
American ​Catholic​ educators. In the year 1891 the ​Rev. Thomas Bouquillon, D.D.​,
professor of ​moral theology​ at the Catholic University, Washington, issued a pamphlet
in which he maintained that the State has the ​right​ to ​educate​, in the sense that it has
the right of "establishing schools, appointing teachers, prescribing methods and
programmes of study"; and that "​education​ belongs to men taken individually and
collectively in legitimate association, to the ​family​, to the state, to the church, to all
four together, and not to any one of these four factors separately". These views
aroused a storm of controversy which lasted for several years, and engaged the
attention not only of ​Catholics​ in the ​United States​ but of the whole ​Catholic​ world. The
efforts of ​Cardinal Satolli​ to settle the question by means of a series of fourteen
propositions which he submitted to the board of ​archbishops​ at their meeting in New
York, in the autumn of 1892, were futile; and the agitation subsided only when ​Pope
Leo XIII​ addressed a letter to the American ​hierarchy​ through Cardinal Gibbons in May,
1893, in which, while appealing for the cessation of the controversy, he declared that
the decrees of the Baltimore Councils were to be steadfastly observed in determining
the attitude to be maintained by ​Catholics​ in respect both to ​parish​ and to public
schools.

Schools of foreign nationalities

One of the most difficult problems that has confronted the ​Church​ in the ​United States
has been the ​education​ of the children of the immigrants arriving from foreign shores
and speaking a foreign language. These immigrants were poor, and yet, if their
descendants were to be saved to the Faith, it was imperative that ​Catholic​ schools and
teachers should be provided for them, as well as churches. The missionary ​priests​ who
came to minister to the immigrants were, as a rule, keenly alive to the importance of
the ​Catholic​ school, and, acting in conjunction with the American ​bishops​, they have, to
a great extent, overcome the difficulties that stood in the way and built up flourishing
systems of schools. The chief difficulty, besides poverty of material resources, was that
of the securing of competent teachers. Lay teachers were commonly employed at first.
Little by little, however, religious were introduced, colonies of religious teachers being
brought from abroad for this purpose, and even new ​religious​ communities founded
here. Some of these communities rew rapidly, and they have furnished a constantly
increasing supply of teachers for these schools.

The Polish schools have the largest aggregate attendance. They are scattered all over
the country, but are especially numerous in the large industrial centres. There were, in
1910, 293 Polish ​parishes​ with schools, having an attendance of 98,126 and with 1767
teachers, the great majority of these being religious. Next in number come the French
schools, most of which belong to the ​French-Canadians​, and are located in New
England. These schools in 1910 numbered 161, with 1480 teachers, and a total
attendance of 63,048. The ​Italians​, although they compare in numerical strength with
the Poles and French, are far behind them in the matter of provision for
Catholic​education​. There were but 48 Italian schools in 1910, with 271 teachers, and an
attendance of 13,838. ​Bohemian​ schools, the same year, had an attendance of 8978;
Slovak schools, 7419; and Lithuanian schools, 2104, with a corresponding number of
teachers of these nationalities. There were formerly many German schools in the ​United
States​ but schools in German ​parishes​ now generally employ English as the medium of
instruction, although German is taught also as one of the regular classes. In the case of
the nationalities mentioned above, English is always a part of the curriculum of the
schools, and often it is the chief medium of instruction. In Italian schools, very little
time is given to the study of Italian, and the same is ​true​ in many of the
French-Canadian​ schools. In schools of the ​Slavic​ peoples, more time is given, as a
rule, to the ​parental​ mother-tongue, and it is used conjointly with English as a medium
of instruction. In Polish schools, from one-third to one-half of the time is most
commonly devoted to the study or the use of the Polish language. Many of the States
have attached to their child-labour ​laws​ the condition that a child, even though of
employment-age, shall have acquired the ability to read and write English. Legislation
has had an influence in the steadily growing predominance of the English language in
the schools of the foreign nationalities, but the effect is due in the main to the American
life and atmosphere.

Industrial schools

Catholic​ industrial schools in the ​United States​ number 117, with an attendance of
probably 15,000. Many of these schools are reformatory in character, but a large
number are high-grade industrial schools in charge of the teaching orders. There are
also manual training classes in many schools, especially in schools for girls.

Schools for negroes and Indians

There are probably near 150,000 ​Catholic​ ​negroes​ in the ​United States​ and for these
there exist 119 ​Catholic​ schools, with an attendance of about 8000. Various ​religious
communities are in charge, conspicuous among which are two congregations of
coloured Sisters, the Oblate Sisters of Providence, founded at ​Baltimore​ in 1829, and
which now has a membership of 146, and the Sisters of the Holy Family, of ​New
Orleans​, which was founded in 1842, and has a membership of 112. A collection is
taken up annually in all the churches of the ​United States​ for the mission work among
the ​Negroes​ and Indians, and many of the schools derive their support from this
source.

The number of ​Catholic​ Indians is approximately 100,000. There are 63 ​Catholic​ Indian
schools, with nearly 5000 pupils. About 6000 ​Catholic​ Indian pupils are being ​educated
in the government schools. 55 of the ​Catholic​ schools are boarding institutions. Many of
these are of an industrial character, the policy of ​Catholics​ in respect to the ​education
of the Indians having always been to give prominence to training in the manual and
industrial arts. The success of this policy has been often testified to by government
inspectors of Indian schools as well as by distinguished American statesmen. A limited
support is accorded to these schools by the Federal Government. Under the so-called
"Peace Policy" inaugurated by President Grant in 1870, about 80,000 ​Catholic​ Indians
passed from ​Catholic​ to ​Protestant​control. Through the efforts of the Bureau of ​Catholic
Indian Missions, established some years later, together with the active efforts of
members of the ​hierarchy​, a new policy was inaugurated by the Government, under
which it entered into contracts with the ​Catholic​authorities concerned to provide for the
support of ​Catholic​ Indian schools. ​Catholic​ schools multiplied rapidly in consequence
until, in 1896, a policy was entered upon which involved the entire discontinuance of
appropriations for denominational schools. In the year 1900 appropriations ceased. To
keep up the schools, an organization known as the Society for the Preservation of the
Faith among Indian Children was founded, and with the contributions from this ​society​,
together with the annual collection taken up for the purpose, and the donations of
generous benefactors, many of the ​Catholic​ schools were kept alive. In 1904, under the
administration of President Roosevelt, through the work of the ​Catholic​ Indian Bureau,
a considerable allowance was made to certain ​Catholic​ schools by the Government from
the Indian tribal funds, in answer to the petitions made by ​Catholic​ Indians. This policy
has been continued up to the present, and in 1908 the appropriations made to ​Catholic
schools in this way reached the sum of $111,586.90. Prominent among the agencies
which have successfully laboured in behalf of ​Catholic​ Indian ​education​ has been the
community of ​Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament​ for Indians and Coloured People, which
was founded by Mother Katherine Drexel in 1889. These ​nuns​ now number 143.

Orphanages

The number of ​Catholic​ ​orphanages​. in the ​United States​ in 1910 was 258: 45,343
children are cared for and ​educated​ in these institutions, which are found in every
diocese​, and which are in charge of ​religious​ communities, generally of Sisters. They
are usually supported by the ​parishes​ or by the ​voluntary​ contributions of the ​faithful​. A
limited number are endowed. (See also ​EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB​;
EDUCATION OF THE BLIND​.)

Secondary schools

There are two classes of ​Catholic​ secondary schools in the ​United States​ those which
are intended to prepare pupils for a higher ​education​, and those which are closely
connected with the ​parish​ schools and aim to fit at least the greater number of their
pupils for active life. The former are found both in colleges for boys and in academies
for girls. The latter are sometimes an integral part of the ​parish​ school system, or,
again, they may be without direct connexion with the ​parish​ schools, although intended
to complete and round out their work. A report made to the ​Catholic Educational
Association​ in 1908 showed the existence of 85 ​Catholic​ colleges for boys, having pupils
in collegiate as well as secondary courses. The number of students pursuing collegiate
courses was 4232, the number in the secondary or high school departments was
10,137, There is a growing sentiment among ​Catholic​ college men in favour of at least
a wider separation of the high school department from the college proper.

In the "Catholic Directory" for 1910, 709 institutions are classed as academies for girls,
with an attendance approximating 90,000. The larger number of these institutions have
no collegiate departments, and are to be regarded as secondary schools. All the
academies have, in fact, high school departments which are generally denominated the
"academic course", with the exception of Trinity College, Washington; and nearly all
have also elementary schools, divided into the "primary" and "preparatory"
departments. Probably over one-half of the above total attendance is in these
elementary departments. The greater part of the remaining half is in the academic or
high school departments. Many of the larger institutions have developed collegiate
departments that compare favourably with those of the best-equipped colleges for
boys. The number of these colleges for girls as well as the number of their collegiate
students is at present growing rapidly. The curriculum in the larger institutions thus
consists of three main divisions, the elementary department, the academic or high
school department, and the collegiate department, the latter two covering each four
years. The smaller institutions have, as a rule, only the elementary and high school
courses, although their high school or "academic" department is sometimes made to
include a year or two of collegiate work. Besides these departments, the academies
generally have well-graded and thorough courses in art and music, both vocal and
instrumental, leading to corresponding honours or diplomas. The ideals of culture
represented by these latter features are, in fact, a distinguishing feature of the work of
the ​Catholic​ academy, and constitute one of its strongest appeals for popular favour
and support.

Within the past quarter of a century, many ​Catholic​ secondary schools or high schools
have been developed in close connexion with the ​parish​ schools. Most often these high
schools are directly attached to single ​parish​ schools. In some cases, however, they are
"central" high schools, affiliated with a number of inferior schools. Sometimes, too, they
stand alone, although receiving their pupils from the upper grades of the ​parish
schools. Some of those which are attached to single ​parish​ schools have only one high
school grade, but most of them have from two to four grades. The number of schools
with four full grades is rapidly increasing, and there is also a notable tendency towards
the establishment of central high schools. A committee of the ​Catholic Educational
Association​ reported, in the year 1911, the existence of 304 ​Catholic​ high schools for
boys only or for both boys and girls, apart from the academies for girls and the
preparatory departments of colleges for boys, with a total attendance of 7902 boys of
high school standing and 6160 girls. About one-half of these schools have four full high
school grades, and 215 of them have courses in Latin. The total number of high school
teachers was 1006: 157 of the schools derive their support from tuition-fees, 164 from
parish​ revenues, and 5 are endowed. The investigations of the committee revealed the
existence of a widespread movement for the development of facilities for secondary
education​ in connexion with the ​parish​ school system. The movement springs from a
popular demand, and is based on the fundamental ​idea​ of ​Catholic​ ​education​. It is
evident that the further progress of this movement is destined to have a highly
important influence upon the ​parish​ schools as well as the academies and colleges.
(See also ​CATHOLIC EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION​.)

CANADA.--MEILLEUR, ​Mémorial de l'Education au Bas-Canada​ (Quebec, 1876);

CHAUVEAU, ​Instruction publique au Canada​ (Quebec, 1876); DESROSIERS, ​Ecoles
Normales primares de la Province de Québec et leurs œuvres complémentaires
(Montreal, 1909); GOSSELIN, ​L'Instruction au Canada sous le Régime Français
(Quebec, 1911); DE CAZES, ​Instruction Publique dans la Province de Québec​(Quebec,
1905); BOUCHER DE LA BRUÈRE, ​Education et Constitution​ (Montreal, 1904); PÂQUET,
L'Église et l'Education au Canada​(Quebec, 1909); DESROSIERS AND FOURNET, ​La race
française en Amérique​ (Montreal, 1911); BOURASSA, ​Les Ecoles du
Nord-Ouest(​ Montreal, 1905); DEROME, ​Le Canada Ecclésiastique​ (1911); CHAPAIS,
Congrégations enseignantes et Brevet de Capacité​ (Quebec, 1893); ​Congrès
d'Education des Canadiens-Français​ (Ottawa, 1910); PIERLOT, ​Législation scolaire de la
Province de Québec​ (Brussels, 1911); ​Rapports annuels des Surintendants ou des
Ministres de l'Education​ (1909-10); DIONNE, ​Vie de C. F. Painchaud, fondateur du
Collège de Sainte-Anne de la Pocatière​ (Quebec, 1894); CHOQUETTE, ​Histoire du
Séminaire de Saint-Hyacinthe​ (1911); DOUVILLE, ​Histoire du Séminaire de Nicolet
(1903); RICHARD, ​Histoire du Séminaire des Trois-Rivières​ (Three Rivers, 1885);
DUGAS, ​Noces de diamant du Séminaire de Joliette​ (1911); ​Souvenir des fêtes
jubilaires du Collège Sainte-Marie​ (Montreal, 1898); ROY, ​L'Université Laval et les fêtes
du Cinquantenaire​ (Quebec, 1903); ​Les Ursulines des Trois-Rivières​ (Three Rivers,
1888); ​Les Ursulines de Québec​ (Quebec, 1863); FAILLON, ​Vie de la Mère Bourgeois
(Paris, 1853); ALEXIS, ​La Province ecclésiastique d'Ottawa​ (1897); SISTERS OF THE
CONGREGATION OF NOTRE DAME, ​Histoire de l'Église du Canada​ (1908); ​Documentary
History of Education in Upper Canada​ (Toronto); ​Schools and Colleges of Ontario
(1792-1910)​ (Toronto, 1910); HODGINS, ​The Legislation and History of Separate
Schools in Upper Canada​ (Toronto, 1897); IDEM, ​Historical Educational Papers and
Documents of Ontario (1792-1853)​ (Toronto, 1911); BURWASH, ​Egerton Ryerson
(Toronto, 1906); LEX in ​La Nouvelle-France,​ (Quebec, Jan., March, April, 1910);
LINDSAY, ​La Nouvelle-France​ (1903); ​L'Enseignement Primaire​ (Quebec); ​Le Collégien
de Saint-Hyacinthe.

Education

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In general 

In the broadest sense, education includes all those experiences by which intelligence is
developed, ​knowledge​ acquired, and character formed. In a narrower sense, it is the
work done by certain agencies and institutions, the home and the ​school​, for the
express purpose of training immature ​minds​. The child is born with latent capacities
which must be developed so as to fit him for the activities and ​duties​of life. The
meaning of life, therefore, of its purposes and values as understood by the educator,
primarily determines the nature of his work. Education aims at an ​ideal​, and this in turn
depends on the view that is taken of man and his destiny, of his relations to ​God​, to his
fellowmen, and to the physical world. The ​content​ of education is furnished by the
previous acquisition of ​mankind​ in literature, art, and ​science​, in moral, social, and
religious principles. The inheritance, however, contains elements that differ greatly in
value, both as ​mental​possessions and as means of culture; hence a selection is
necessary​, and this must be guided largely by the educational ideal. It will also be
influenced by the consideration of the educative process. Teaching must be adapted to
the needs of the developing mind, and the endeavour to make the adaption more
thorough results in theories and methods which are, or should be, based on the findings
of biology, physiology, and ​psychology​.

The work of education begins normally in the home; but it is, for obvious reasons,
continued in institutions where other teachers stand in place of the ​parents​. To secure
efficiency it is ​necessary​ that each ​school​ be properly organized, that the teachers be
qualified and that the subjects of instruction be wisely chosen. Since the ​school​,
moreover, is so largely responsible for the ​intellectual​ and moral formation of those
who will later, as members of ​society​, be useful or harmful, there is evidently needed
some higher direction than that of the individual teacher, in order that the purpose of
education may be realized. Both ​the Church and the State​, therefore, have interests to
safeguard; education is to strive for the ​true​ ideal through the obvious that education
at any given time expresses while, in its practical control, the existing relations between
the temporal power and the spiritual assume concrete form. As, moreover, these ​ideas
and relations have varied considerably in the course of ​time​, it is quite intelligible that a
solution of the central educational problems should be sought in history; and it is
further beyond question that historical study, in this as in other departments, has a
manifold utility. But a mere recital of facts is of little avail unless certain fact of
Christian​ revelation be given its due importance. It is needful, then, to distinguish the
constant elements in education from those that are variable; the former including
man's nature, destiny, and relations to ​God​, the latter all those changes in theory,
conduct of educational work. It is with the first aspect of the subject that the present
article is mainly concerned; and from this standpoint education may be defined as that
form of social activity whereby, under the direction of mature minds and by the use of
adequate means, the physical, ​intellectual​, and moral powers of the immature human
being are so developed as to prepare him for the accomplishment of his lifework here
and for the attainment of his eternal destiny. Neither this nor any other definition was
formulated from the beginning. In primitive times the helplessness and needs of the
child were so obvious that his elders by a natural impulse gave him a training in the
rude arts that enabled him to procure the necessaries of life, while they taught him to
propitiate the hidden powers in each object of nature, and handed on to him the tribal
customs and traditions. But of education properly so called the savage knows nothing,
and much less does he busy himself with theory or plan. Even civilized peoples carry on
the work of education for a long time before they begin to reflect upon its meaning, and
such reflection is guided by ​philosophical​ speculation and by established social,
religious, and political institutions. Often, too, their theorizing is the work of exceptional
minds, and presents a higher ideal than might be inferred from their educational
practice. Nevertheless, an account of what was done by the principal peoples of
antiquity will prove useful by bringing out the profound modification which ​Christianity
wrought.

Oriental education 

The invention of writing was of the utmost importance for the developments of
language and the keeping of records. The earliest texts, chiefly of a religious nature,
became the sources of ​knowledge​ and the means of education. Such were in ​China​ the
writings of Confucius​, in ​India​ the Vedas, in ​Egypt​ the Book of the Dead, in ​Persia​ the
Avesta​. The main purpose in having these books studied by youth was to secure
uniformity of thought and custom, and unvarying conformity with the past. In this
respect ​Chinese​ education is typical. The sacred writings contained minute prescriptions
for conduct in every circumstance and station of life. These the pupil was ​obliged​ to
memorize in a purely mechanical fashion; whether he understood the words as he
repeated them was quite indifferent. He simply stored his memory with a multitude of
established forms and phrases, which subsequently he employed in the preparation of
essays and in passing the governmental examinations. That he should learn to think for
himself was of course out of the question.

With such a training, the development of free ​personality​ was impossible. In ​China​, the
family​, with its sacred traditions and its ancestor-worship was controlled by the State;
in ​Egypt​ by the ​priesthood​; in ​India​ by the different castes. There was, doubtless, in the
Oriental mind a consciousness of ​personality​; but no effort was made to strengthen it
and give it value. On the contrary, the ​Hindu​ philosophy, which regarded ​knowledge​ as
the means of ​redemption​ from the miseries of life, placed that ​redemption​ itself in
nirvana, the extinction of the individual through absorption into the being of the world.
The position of ​women​ was, in general, a degraded one. Though the early training of
the child devolved upon the mother, her responsibility brought with it no dignity. But
little provision was made for the education of girls; their only vocation was to ​marry​,
bear children, and render service to the head of the ​family​.

In view of these facts, it cannot be said that education as the Western world conceives
it owes any great ​debt​ to the East. It is ​true​ that some of the ​sciences​, mathematics,
astronomy​, and ​chronology​, and some of the arts, as ​sculpture​ and architecture, were
carried to a certain degree of perfection; but the very success of Oriental ability and
skill in these lines only emphasizes by contrast the deficiencies of Oriental education.
Even in the sphere of morality the same antagonism appears between precept and
practice. It cannot and need not be denied that many of the sayings, e.g. of ​Confucius​,
evince a high ideal of virtue, while some of the ​Hindu​ proverbs, such as those of the
"Pantscha-tantra", are full of practical wisdom. Yet these facts only make it more
difficult to answer the question: Why was the actual living of these people so far
removed from the formally accepted standards of virtue? Nevertheless, Oriental
education has a peculiar significance; it shows quite plainly the consequences of
sacrificing the individual to the interests of human institutions, and of reducing
education to a machine like process, the aim of which is to mould all minds upon one
unchanging pattern; and it further shows how little can be accomplished for real
education by despotic authority, which demands, and is satisfied with, an outward
observance of custom and law. (See Davidson. ​A History of Education,​ New York,
1901.)

The Greeks 

If the education of the Oriental peoples was stationary, that of the Greeks exhibits a
progressive development which passes from one extreme to another through a variety
of movements and reactions, of ideals and practice. What remains constant throughout
is the ​idea​that the purpose of education is to train youth for citizenship. This, however,
was conceived, and its realization attempted, in different ways by the several
City-States. In ​Sparta​, the child, according to the Code of Lycurgus, was the ​property​ of
the State. From his seventh year onward he received a public training whose one object
was to make him a soldier, by developing physical strength, ​courage​, self control, and
obedience to law. It was a hard training in gymnastic exercises, with little attention to
the ​intellectual​ side and less to the æsthetic; even music and dancing took on a military
character. Girls were subjected to the same severe discipline, not so much to
emphasize the equality of the sexes as to train the sturdy mothers of a warrior race.

The ideal of ​Athenian​ education was the completely developed man. Beauty of mind
and body, the cultivation of every inborn faculty and energy, harmony between thought
and life, decorum, temperance, and regularity — such were the results aimed at in the
home and in the ​school​, in social intercourse, and in civic relation. "We are lovers of the
beautiful", said Pericles, "yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind without
the loss of manliness" (Thucydides, II, 40). The means of culture were music and
gymnastics, the former including history, poetry, the drama, oratory, and ​science​,
along with music in the narrower sense; while the latter comprised games, athletic
exercises, and the training for military ​duty​. That music was no mere "accomplishment"
and that gymnastics had a higher aim than bodily strength or skill is evident from what
Plato​ tells us in the ​Protagoras​. The Greeks indeed laid stress on ​courage​, temperance,
and obedience to law; and if their theoretical disquisitions could be taken as fair
accounts of their actual practice, it would be difficult to find, among the products of
human thinking, a more exalted ideal. The essential weakness of their moral education
was the failure to provide adequate sanction for the principles they formulated and for
the counsels they gave to youth. The practice of religion, whether in public services or
in household worship exerted but little influence upon the formation of character. The
Greek ​deities​, after all, were no models for imitation; some of them could scarcely have
been objects of reverence, since they were endowed with the weaknesses and passions
of men. Religion itself was mechanical and external; it did not touch ​conscience​ nor
awaken the sense of ​sin​. As to the future life, the Greeks believed in the ​immortality​ of
the ​soul​; but this ​belief​ had little or no practical significance. Thus the motive for
virtuous action was found, not in respect for ​Divine law​ nor in the hope of eternal
reward, but simply in the desire to temper in due proportion the elements of ​human
nature​. Virtue is not self-repression for the sake of ​duty​, but, as ​Plato​ says, "a kind of
health, and beauty and good habit of the ​soul​"; while vice is "a disease and deformity
and sickness of it." The just man

will so regulate his own character as to be on good 

terms with himself, and to set those three principles 
(reasons, passion, and desire) in tune together, as if 
they were verily three chords of a harmony, a higher, 
and a lower, and a middle, and whatever may lie 
between these; and after he had bound all these 
together and reduced the many elements of his 
nature to a real unity as a temperate and duly 
harmonized man, he will then at length proceed to 
do whatever he may have to do. (Republic, IV, 443)  
This conception of virtue as a self-balancing was closely bound up with that ​idea​ of
personal worth which has already been mentioned as the central element in Greek life
and education. But the ​personality​ referred to was not that of man for the sake of his
humanity, nor even that of the Greek for the sake of his nationality; it was the
personality​ of the free citizen, and from citizenship the artisan and the slaves were
excluded. The mechanical arts were held in bad repute; and ​Aristotle​ declares that
"they render the body and ​soul​ or ​intellect​of free ​persons​ unfit for the exercise and
practice of virtue" (Politics, V, 1337). A still more serious limitation, affecting not only
their concept of human dignity, but their regard for ​human​ ​life​ as well, consisted in the
exposure of children. This was practised at ​Sparta​ by the ​public authority​, which
destroyed the child that was unfit for the service of the State; while at ​Athens​ the fate
of his offspring was committed to the father and might be decided in accordance with
purely personal interests. The mother's position was not much better than it had been
in the Orient. ​Women​ were generally regarded as inferior beings, "impotent for good,
but clever contrivers of all ​evil​" (Euripdes, ​Medea​, 406). At best she was a means to an
end, the bearing of children and the care of the household; her education consequently
was of the scantiest sort. The only exceptions were the ​hetaerae,​ i.e. the ​women​ who
were outside the home circle and who with greater freedom of living combined higher
culture than the legitimate wife could hope for. Under such circumstances marriage
implied for ​woman​ a lowering of personal worth that was in marked contrast with the
ideals set up for the education of men.

These ideals, again, underwent a decided change during the fifth century B.C. In one
respect at least it was a change for the better; it extended the ​rights​ of citizenship. The
constitution of Solon was set aside and that of Clisthenes adopted in its stead (509
B.C.) The democratic character of the latter, with the increase in prosperity at home
and the widening of foreign relations, afforded new opportunities for individual ability
and endeavour. This heightened activity, however, was not put forth in behalf of the
common good, but rather for the advancement of personal interests. At the same time
morality was deprived of even the outward support it had formerly drawn from religion;
philosophy gave way to scepticism; and education, while it became more ​intellectual​,
laid emphasis on form rather than on content. The most influential teachers were the
Sophists​, who supplied the growing demand for instruction in the art of public
discussion and offered information on every sort of subject. Developing in practical
directions the principle that "man is the measure of all things", they carried
individualism​ to the extreme of subjectivism alike in the sphere of speculative thought
and in that of moral conduct. The purposes of education were correspondingly modified,
and new problems arose. Now that the old standards and basis of morality had been
rejected, the main question was to replace them by others in which due allowance
would be made on the one hand for individuality and on the other for social needs. The
answer of ​Socrates​ was: "Know thyself" and "Knowledge is virtue", i.e. a ​knowledge
drawn from personal experience, yet possessing universal validity; and the means
prescribed by him for obtaining such ​knowledge​ was his ​maieutics,​ i.e. the art of giving
birth to ​ideas​ through the method of question and answer, by which he developed the
power of thinking. As an ​intellectual​ discipline, this scheme had undoubted value; but it
left unsolved the chief problem; how is ​knowledge​, even of the highest kind, to be
translated into action? ​Plato​ offered a twofold solution. In the ​Republic​, setting out from
his general theory that the ​idea​ alone is real, and that the good of each thing consists
in harmony with the ​idea​ when it originated, he reaches the conclusion that
knowledge​consists in the perception of this harmony. The aim of education, therefore,
is to develop ​knowledge​ of the good. So far, this scheme contains little more promise of
practical results than that of ​Socrates​. But ​Plato​ adds that ​society​ is to be ruled by
those who attain to this ​knowledge​, i.e. by the ​philosophers​; the other two classes,
soldiers, and artisans, are subordinate, yet each individual being assigned to the class
for which his abilities fit him, reaches the highest self-development and contributes his
share to the social weal. In the ​Laws,​ ​Plato​ attempts to revise and combine certain
elements of the ​Spartan​ and of the Athenian system but this reactionary scheme met
with no success.

This problem, finally, was taken up by ​Aristotle​ in the ​Ethics​ and the ​Politics.​ As in his
philosophy, so in his educational theory, he departs from ​Plato's​ teaching. The goal for
the individual as well as for ​society​ is ​happiness​: "What we have to aim at is for the
happiness​ of each citizen, and ​happiness​ consists in a complete activity and practice of
virtue" (Politics, IV). More precisely, ​happiness​ is "the conscious activity of the highest
part of man according to the ​law​ of his own excellence, not unaccompanied by
adequate, external conditions." Merely to ​know​ the good does not constitute virtue; this
knowledge​ must issue in practice the ​goodness​ of the ​intellect​ (knowledge of universal
truth​) must be combined with ​goodness​ of action. The three things which make men
good and virtuous — nature, habit, and reason —

must be in harmony with one another (for they do 

not always agree); men do many things against 
habit and nature, if reason persuades them that they 
 ought. We have already determined what natures 
are likely to be most easily moulded by the hands of 
the legislator. All else is the work of education; we 
learn some things by habit and some by instruction. 
(Politics, Bk. VII)  
Education, however, must always be adapted to the peculiar character of the State:
"The citizen should be moulded to suit the form of government under which he lives"
(ibid., VIII). And again, "It is right that the citizens should possess a capacity for affairs
and for ​war​, but still more for the enjoyment of peace or leisure; right that they should
be capable of such actions as are indispensable and salutary, but still more of such as
are moral ​per se​. It is with a view to these objects, then, that they should be educated
while they are still children, and at all other ages, till they pass beyond the need of
education" (ibid., IV). "Neither must we suppose that any one of the citizens belongs to
himself, for they all belong to the State, and are each of them a part of the State, and
the care of each part is inseparable from the care of the whole" (ibid., VII).

In the theories of ​Plato​ and ​Aristotle​ are found the highest reaches of hellenic thought
regarding the purpose and nature of education. Each of these great thinkers established
schools​ of ​philosophy​, and each has profoundly affected the thought of all subsequent
time, yet neither succeeded in providing an education sound and permanent enought to
avert the moral and political downfall of the nation. The diffusion of Greek thought and
culture throughout the world by conquest and colonization was no remedy for the evils
which sprang from an exaggerated ​individualism​. Once the ​idea​ was accepted that each
man is his own standard of conduct, neither brilliancy of literary production nor fineness
of philosophic speculation could prevent the decay of patriotism, and of a virtue which
had never looked higher than the State for its sanction. ​Aristotle​ himself, at the close of
his ​Ethics​, points out the radical difficulty:
 Now if arguments and theories were able by 
themselves to make people good, they would, in the 
words of Theognis, be entitled to receive high and 
great rewards, and it is with theories that we should 
have to provide ourselves. But the ​truth​ apparently 
is that, though they are strong enough to encourage 
and stimulate young men of liberal minds, though 
they are able to inspire with ​goodness​ a character 
that is naturally noble and sincerely loves the 
beautiful, they are incapable of converting the mass 
of men to g
​ oodness​ and beauty of character.  
No such "conversion" was aimed at by the ​Sophists​. Appealing to the natural tendencies
of the individual, they developed a spirit of selfishness which in turn broke out in
discord, thus opening the way for the conquest of ​Greece​ by Roman arms.

The Romans 

In striking contrast with the Greek character, that of the Romans was practical,
utilitarian, grave, austere. Their religion was serious, and it permeated their whole life,
hallowing all its relations. The ​family​, especially, was far more sacred than in ​Sparta​ or
Athens, and the position of ​woman​ as wife and mother more exalted and influential.
Still, as with the Greeks, the power of the father over the life of his child — ​patria
potestas​ — was absolute, and, in the earlier period at least, the exposure of children
was a common practice. In fact the ​laws​ of the Twelve Tables provided for the
immediate destruction of deformed offspring and gave the father, during the whole life
of his children, the ​right​ to imprison, sell, or slay them. Subsequently, however, a
check was placed on such practices. The ideal at which the Roman aimed was neither
harmony nor ​happiness​, but the performance of ​duty​ and the maintenance of his ​rights​.
Yet this ideal was to be realized through service to the State. Deep as was the ​family
feeling, it was always subordinate to devotion to the public weal. "Parents are dear,"
said Cicero, "and children and kindred, but all loves are bound up in the ​love​ of our
common country" (DeOfficiis, I, 17). Education therefore was essentially a preparation
for civic ​duty​. "The children of the Romans are brought up that they may one day be
able to be of service to the fatherland, and one must accordingly instruct them in the
customs of the State and in the institutions of their ancestors. The fatherland has
produced and brought us up that we may devote to its use the finest capacities of our
mind, talent, and understanding. Therefore we must learn those arts whereby we may
be of greatest service to the State; for that I hold to be the highest wisdom and ​virtue​."

These words express, at any rate, the spirit of the early Roman education. The home
was the early ​school​, and the ​parents​ the only teachers. Of scientific and æsthetic
training there was little or none. To learn the Laws of the Twelve Tables, to become
familiar with the lives of the men who had made ​Rome​ great and to copy the virtues
which he saw in the father were the chief endeavour of the boy and youth. Thus the
moral element predominated, and virtues of a practical sort were inculcated: first of all
pietas​, obedience to ​parents​ and to the gods: then ​prudence​, fair dealing, ​courage​,
reverence, firmness, and earnestness or ​philosophical​ reasoning, but through the
imitation of worthy models and, as far as possible, of living and concrete examples.
Vitæ discimus,​ "We learn for life," said Seneca; and this phrase sums up the whole
purpose of Roman education. In the course of ​time​, elementary ​schools​ (​ludi​) were
opened, but they were conducted by private teachers and were supplemented to the
home instruction. About the middle of the third century B.C. foreign influence began to
make themselves felt. The works of the Greeks translated into Latin, Greek teachers
were introduced and ​schools​established in which the educational characteristics of the
Greeks reappeared. Under the direction of the ​literatus​ and the ​grammaticuse
​ ducation
took on a literary character, while in the ​school​ of the ​rhetor​ the art of oratory was
carefully cultivated. The importance which the Romans attached to eloquence is clearly
shown by Cicero in his "De Oratore" and by Quintilian in his "Institutes"; to produce the
orator became eventually the chief end of education. Quintilian's work, moreover, is the
principal contribution to educational theory produced in ​Rome​. The hellenizing process
was a gradual one. The vigorous Roman character yielded but slowly to the
intellectualism of the Greeks, and when the latter finally triumphed, far-reaching
changes had come about in Roman ​society​ government, and life. Whatever the causes
of decline — political, ​economic​, or moral — they could not be stayed by the imported
refinement of Greek thought and practice. Nevertheless, ​pagan​ education as a whole,
with its ideals, successes, and failures, has a profound significance. It was the practical,
that the world has known. It pursued in turn the ideals that appeal most strongly to the
human​ ​mind​. It engaged the thought of the greatest ​philosophers​ and the action of the
wisest legislators. Art, ​science​, and literature were placed at its service, and the mighty
influence of the State was exerted in its behalf. In itself, therefore, and in its results, it
shows how much and how little ​human​ ​reason​ can accomplish when it seeks no
guidance higher than itself and strives for no purposes other than those which find, or
may find, their realization in the present phase of existence.

The Jews 

Among the pre-Christian peoples the ​Jews​ occupy a unique position. As the recipients
and custodians of ​Divine revelation​, their conception of life and morality were far above
those of the ​Gentiles​. ​God​ manifested Himself to them directly as a Person, a Spirit,
and an ​ethical​ Being, guiding them by His providence, making known to them His will,
and prescribing the minutest details of life and religious practice. Throughout the ​Old
Testament​, ​God​ appears as the teacher of His chosen people. He sets before them a
standard of righteousness which in none other than Himself: "You shall be holy,
because I am holy" (​Leviticus 11:46​). Through Moses and the Prophets He gives them
His Commandments and the promises of a ​Messiah​ to come. But He also placed upon
them the ​duty​ of instructing their children.
 Hear, O ​Israel​, the L
​ ord our God​ is one Lord. Thou 
shalt ​love​ the ​Lord thy God​ with thy whole heart, and 
with thy whole ​soul​, and with they whole strength. 
And these words which I command thee this day, 
shall be in thy heart: and thou shalt tell them to thy 
children, and thou shalt ​meditate​ upon them sitting 
in thy house, and walking on thy journey, sleeping 
and rising. (​Deuteronomy 6:4-7​)  
In accordance with this injunction, education, at least in the earlier period, was given
chiefly in the home. Jewish ​family​ life, indeed, far surpassed that of the ​Gentiles​ in the
purity of its relations, in the position it secured to ​woman​, and in the care which it
bestowed on children, who were regarded as a blessing vouchsafed by ​God​ and
destined for His service by fidelity to the ​Divine law​. An important function of the
synagogue​ also was the instruction of youth, which was committed to the scribes and
the ​doctors​. Schools, as such, came into existence only in the later period, and even
then the teaching was permeated by religion. Though the ​Old Testament​, contains no
theory of education in the stricter sense, it abounds in maxims and principles which are
all the more weighty because they are inspired by Divine wisdom and because they
have a practical bearing upon life. ​God​ Himself showed the dignity of the teacher's
office when he declared: "They that are learned shall shine as the brightness of the
firmament​: and they that instruct many to ​justice​, as stars for all ​eternity​" (​Daniel
12:3​). In the light, however, of a more perfect revelation, it is clear that ​God's​ dealings
with ​Israel​ had an ultimate purpose which was to be realized "in the fullness of time."
Not only the utterances of the Prophets, but many signal events in the history of the
Jews​ and many of their ritual observances were types of the ​Messiah​; as ​St. Paul​ says,
"All these things happened to them in figure" (​1 Corinthians 10:11​), and "The law was
our pedagogue in Christ" (​Galatians 3:24​). As the Supreme Teacher of ​mankind​, ​God​,
while imparting to them the ​truth​ which they presently needed, also prepared the way
for the greater ​truths​ of the Gospel.

Christian education 

As in many other respects so for the work of education, the advent of ​Christianity​ is the
most important epoch in the history of ​mankind​. Not only does the ​Christian​ conception
of life differ radically from the ​pagan​ view, not only does the ​Christian​ teaching impart
a new sort of ​knowledge​ and lay down a new principle of action, but ​Christianity​,
moreover, supplies the effectual means of making its ideals actual and of carrying its
precepts​ into practice. Through all vicissitudes of conflict and adjustment, of changing
civilizations and varying opinions, in spite even of the shortcomings of its own
adherents, ​Christianity​ has steadfastly held up before men the life and the lessons of its
Divine Founder.

Jesus Christ as teacher

"God who, at sundry-times and in divers manners, spoke in times past to the fathers by
the ​prophets​, last of all, in these days hath spoken to us by his Son" (​Hebrews 1:1-2​).
This communication through the ​God-Man​ was to reveal the ​true​ way of living: "The
grace of ​God our Saviour​ hath appeared to all men; instructing us, that, denying
ungodliness and worldly desires, we should live soberly, and justly, and godly in this
world, looking for the blessed hope and coming of the great ​God​ and our ​Saviour Jesus
Christ​" (​Titus 2:11-12​). Of Himself and His mission Christ declared, "I am come a light
into the world; that whosoever ​believeth​ in me, may not remain in darkness" (​John
12:46​); and again, "For this was I born, and for this came I into the world; that I
should give testimony to the ​truth​" (​John 18:37​). The ​knowledge​ which He came to
impart was no mere ​intellectual​ possession or theory: "I am come that they may have
life, and may have it more abundantly" (​John 10:10​). He taught therefore, as one
"having authority"; He insisted that His heirs should believe the ​truths​ which He taught,
even though these might seem to be "hard sayings." His doctrines, indeed, made no
appeal either to ​pride​ of ​intellect​ or to selfishness or to passion. For the most part, as in
the Sermon on the Mount, they were dramatically opposed to the maxims that had
obtained in the ​pagan​ world. They were, in the highest sense, ​supernatural​, not only in
proposing eternal life as the ultimate goal of man's existence and action, but also in
enjoining the denial of self as the chief requisite for attaining that destiny. Service to
the neighbor was insisted upon, but this was to be rendered in the spirit of ​love​, the
new commandments which Christ gave (​John 13:34​). Faithfulness also to civic ​duty​ was
required, but the sanction which imparted force to such ​obligation​ was man's elevation
to a higher citizenship in the Kindgom of ​God​. To strive after this and to realize it in
one's earthly life, so far as possible, was the ideal to which every other good was
subordinate; "Seek ye first the ​kingdom of God​, and his ​justice​, and all these things
shall be added unto you" (​Matthew 6:33​).

Truths of this kind, so far removed from the natural tendencies of human thought and
desire, could be imparted only by one who embodied in himself all the qualifications of
a perfect teacher. The ​philosophers​ no ​doubt​ might, and did, formulate beautiful
theories regarding ​knowledge​ and virtue; but Christ alone could say to His disciples: "I
am the way, the ​truth​, and the life" (​John 14:6​). And whatever worth they attached in
theory to ​personality​ was of far less ideal in ​Christ's​ own Person. He could thus
rightfully appeal to that imitative tendency which is so deeply rooted in ​man's​ nature
and from which so much is expected in modern education. The axiom, also, that we
learn by doing and that ​knowledge​ gets its full value only when it issues in action, finds
its best exemplification in ​Christ's​dealings with His disciples. He "began to do and to
teach" (​Acts 1:1​). In His ​miracles​ he gave evidence of His power over all nature and
therefore of His authority to require ​faith​ in His words: "The works themselves which I
do give testimony of me, that the Father hath sent me" (​John 5:36​). To His disciples,
when they hesitated or were slow to realize that the Father abided in Him, the answer
was given: "Otherwise believe for the very works' sake" (xiv, 12). What He demanded
in turn was no mere outward profession of ​faith​ or loyalty: "Not every one that saith to
me Lord, Lord, shall enter into the ​kingdom of heaven​; but he that doth the will of my
Father" (​Matthew 7:21​).

The necessity of manifesting ​belief​ through action is constantly pointed out both in the
literal teaching of Christ and in His parables. These, again, illustrate His practical
wisdom as a teacher. They were drawn from objects and circumstances with which His
hearers were familiar. In each instance they were adapted to the manner of thinking
suggested by the local surroundings and the customs of the people; and they were
often called forth by an incident that seemed unimportant or by a question which was
asked now by His followers and again by His tireless enemies. Thus the simplest things
of nature — the vine, the lily, the fig-tree, the birds of the air, and the grass of the field
— were made to yield lessons of the deepest moral significance. His aim was not to
adorn His own discourse, but rather to bring its content into the minds of his hearers
more vividly, and to secure for it greater permanence by associating in their thought
some ​supernatural​ ​truth​ with the facts of daily experience. Sensory perception,
memory, and ​imagination​ were thus developed to form a ​mental​ setting for the great
truths​ of the Kindgom. The same principle found its appreciation in the institution of the
sacraments​ whereby natural elements are made the outward signs of inward grace. As
St. John Chrysostom​ aptly says,

If you were incorporeal, he would have bestowed on 

you incorporeal gifts in their bare reality; but 
because the s
​ oul​ is bound up with the body, he 
gives you intelligible things under sensible forms. 
(Homilia, lx, as populum Antioch)  
In fact the whole teaching of Christ is the clearest ​proof​ of the principle that education
must adapt itself in method and practice to the needs of those who are to be taught. In
accordance with this principle He prepared the minds of His followers beforehand for
the institution of the ​Holy Eucharist​ for His own death, and for the coming of the ​Holy
Ghost​ (​John 6:14-15​); and he even reserved certain ​truths​ to be made known by the
Paraclete​: "I have yet many things to say to you: but you cannot bear them now. But
when he, the Spirit of ​truth​, is come, he will teach you all ​truth​" (xvi, 12, 13). Thus the
completion of His work as a teacher is left not to human conjecture or speculation, nor
to the theories of ​philosophical​ ​schools​, but to the ​Spirit of God​ Himself. This of course
was best realized by those who were nearest to Him; yet even those of the ​Jews​ who
were not among the Apostles, but were, like ​Nicodemus​, disposed to judge fairly,
confessed His superiority: "We ​know​ that thou art come a teacher from ​God​; for no
man can do these signs which thou dost, unless ​God​be with him" (​John 3:2​).

The aim of Christian education

Had ​Christ's​ mission ended when He quitted the earth, He would still have been in word
and work the ideal teacher, and would have influenced for all time the education of
mankind​ so far as its ultimate aims and basic principles are concerned. But as a matter
of fact, He made ample provision for the perpetuation of His work by training a select
body of men who for three years were constantly under His direction and were
thoroughly imbued with His spirit. To these Apostles, moreover He gave the command:
"Going therefore, teach ye all nations . . . . and behold I am with you all days, even to
the consummation of the world" (​Matthew 27:19-20​). These words are the charter of
the ​Christian Church​ as a teaching institution. While they refer directly to the ​doctrine
of ​salvation​, and therefore to the imparting of religious ​truth​, they nevertheless, or
rather by the very nature of that ​truth​ and its consequences for life, carry with them
the ​obligation​ of insisting on certain principles and maintaining certain characteristics
which have a decisive bearing on all educational problems.

1. The ​truth​ of ​Christianity​ is to be made known to all men. It is not confined to any
one race or nation or class, nor is it to be the exclusive possession of highly gifted
minds​. This characteristic of ​universality​ is in plain contrast with the highest
conceptions of the ​pagan​ world. The cultured Greek had only contempt for the
barbarian, and the Roman looked upon outside nations a subjects to be governed
rather than as people to be taught. But at ​Athens​ also and at ​Rome​ there was the
distinction between free citizens and slaves, in consequence of which the latter were
excluded from the benefits of education. As against these narrow limitations Christ
charged His apostles to "teach all men"; and ​St. Paul​, in the same spirit, professes
himself a debtor to all men, Greeks and barbarians, the wise and the unwise alike. All,
in fact, were to be dealt with as children of the same Heavenly Father and heirs of the
Kingdom of God​. In respect of these ​supernatural​ perogatives, the distinctions which
had hitherto prevailed were set aside: ​Christianity​ appeared as one vast ​school​with
mankind​ at large for its disciples.

2. The commission given to the Apostles was not to expire with them; it was to remain
in force "all days, even to the consummation of the world." ​Perpetuity​, therefore, is an
essential feature in the educational work of ​Christianity​. The institution of ​paganism​ had
indeed flourished and advanced from phase to phase of development, but they did not
contain the element of enduring vitality. In the higher departments of learning, as in
philosophy​, ​school​ had followed ​school​ into vigour and into decay. And in education
itself, one ideal after another had been put forward only to be displaced. ​Christianity​,
on the contrary, while it could never become a rigid system, held up to ​mankind​ certain
unchangeable ​truths​ which should serve as criteria for determining the value of every
fundamental theory of life and of education. By insisting, especially, that man's destiny
was to be attained, not in any form of temporal service or success but in union with
God​, it proposed an ideal which should be valid for all time and amid all the variations
of human thought and endeavour. That such changes would inevitably come to pass,
Christ​, without ​doubt​, foresaw. In view of these, a merely human teacher would have
provided for the stability of his work by devices which would, if successful, have
attested his foresight, or shrewdness, or ​knowledge​ of ​human​nature​. But Christ's
guarantee to the Apostles is at once simpler and surer: "Behold I am with you all days."
The task of instructing the world in ​Christian​ ​truth​ would have been impossible but for
this permanent abiding of Christ with His appointed teachers. On the other hand, once
the force of His promise is realized, the significance of ​Christianity​ as a perpetual
institution becomes evident: it means that Christ, Himself through a visible agency was
to continue for all time the work He began during His earthly life as Teacher of the
human race​.

3. It has already been pointed out that some of the ​pagan​ peoples, and notably the
Greeks, had attained a very high conception of ​personality;​ and it has also been shown
that this conception was by no means perfect. The teaching of ​Christianity​ in this
respect is so far superior to any other that if a single element could be designated as
fundamental in ​Christian​ education it would be the emphasis which it lays on the worth
of the individual. In the first place, ​Christianity​ had its origin, not in any abstract
speculation as to ​goodness​ or virtue, but in the actual, concrete life of a Person who
was absolutely perfect. It was not, then, ​obliged​ to cast about for the ideal man, or to
present a theory as to what that ideal might possibly be: it passed the most exalted
ideas​ of human wisdom. In Christ first appeared the full dignity of ​human​ ​nature
through its elevation personal union with the Word of ​God​; and in Him, as never before
or since, were manifest those traits which furnish the noblest models for imitation.

Christianity​, furthermore, elevated human ​personality​ by the value it set upon each
human ​soul​ as created by ​God​ and destined for eternal life. The State is no longer the
supreme arbiter, nor is service to the public weal the ultimate standard. These, it is
true​ within their legitimate sphere have just claims upon the individual. ​Christianity​ by
no means teaches that such claims can be disregarded or the corresponding ​duties
neglected, but rather that the discharge of all social and civic ​obligations​ will be more
thorough when subordinated to, and inspired by, fidelity in the ​duties​ that man owes to
God​. While the value of ​personality​ is thus enhanced, the sense of responsibility is
correspondingly increased; so that the freer development of the ​person​ is not allowed
to culminate in selfishness nor in that extreme ​individualism​ which is a threat to social
organization.

4. From these principles ​Christianity​ drew consequences which were totally at variance
with the thought and practice of ​paganism​. The position of ​woman​ was lifted at once to
a higher plane; she ceased to be a chattel, or a mere instrument of passion, and
became the equal of man, with the same personal worth and the same eternal destiny.
Marriage was no longer a union entered into through caprice or convention, but an
indissoluble bond involving mutual ​rights​ and ​duties​. Moreover, it was raised to the
dignity of a sacrament, which not only sanctified the marital relation and its purposes,
but also conferred the ​graces​ needful for the due fulfilment of its ​obligations​. The whole
meaning of the ​family​ was thus transformed. Parental authority was indeed maintained,
but such an exercise of the patria potestas as the destruction or the exposure of
children could not have been tolerated once it was realized that the child's ​personality
also is sacred, and that ​parents​ are responsible not simply to the State, but also to
God​, for the proper education of their offspring. ​Christianity​, moreover, laid upon the
child the ​duty​ of respecting and obeying his ​parents​, not out of servile fear or hard
necessity, but through a spirit of reverence and filial ​love​. The ties of home-life were
thereby strengthened, and the whole work of education took on a new character
because it was ​consecrated​ in its very source by religion.

5. In respect of its content ​Christianity​ opened up to the ​human​ ​mind​ wide realms of
truth​ which unaided reason could not possibly have attained, and which nevertheless
are of far deeper import for life than the most learned speculations of ​pagan​ thought.
Upon those ​truths​, also, which the ​philosophers​ had but vaguely discerned, or about
which they had remained in ​doubt​, it shed a new light. There could be no further
questioning, for the ​Christian​, as to the existence of a personal ​God​, the reality of His
providence, the ​immortality​ of the ​soul​, the freedom of the will, and the resulting
accountability of man to Divine Justice. Above all, the nature of the moral order was set
forth in unmistakable terms. ​Christianity​ insisted that morality was not mere outward
conformity to custom or law, but the inner rectitude of the will, that æsthetic
refinement was of far less consequence than purity of heart, and that ​love​ of the
neighbour as proven in deed, not personal gain or advantage, was the ​true​ norm of
human relationships. That such a conception of life, with its emphasis on really spiritual
aims, must lead to the formation of educational ideals unknown to the ​pagan​ world, is
obvious. But on the other hand it would be wrong to infer that ​Christianity​, in its "other
worldliness", reduces or neglects the values of the present life. What it consistently
maintains is, that life here gets it highest value by serving as a preparation for the life
to come. The question is not whether one should live now without any regard to the
future or look forward to the future with no concern for the present; but rather how one
should profit by the opportunities of this life in such wise as as to secure the other. The
problems, then, is one of establishing proportions, i.e. of determining values according
to the standard of man's eternal destiny. When education is defined as "preparation for
complete living" (Herbert Spencer), the ​Christian​ can take no objection to the words as
they stand; but he will insist that no living can be "complete" which leaves out of
consideration the ultimate purpose of life, and hence that no education really
"prepares" which thwarts that purpose or sets it aside. It is just this completeness — in
teaching all men in harmonizing all ​truths​, in elevating all relationships, and in leading
the individual ​soul​ back to the Creator — that forms the essential characteristic of
Christianity​ as an educational influence.

The educational work of the Church 

Next in importance to ​Christ's​ personal teaching was the establishment of a teaching

body whose mission was identical with His own: "As the Father hath sent me, I also
send you" (​John 20:21​); and "He that heareth you, heareth me" (​Luke 10:16​). He was
not content with proclaiming once for all the ​truths​ of the Gospel, nor did He leave its
wider dissemination to individual enthusiasm or initiative; He founded a Church to carry
on His work. The spread of His ​doctrine​ was entrusted, not to books, nor to ​schools​ of
philosophy​, nor to the governments of the world, but to an organization that spoke in
His name and with his authority. No other body of teachers ever undertook so vast a
work, and no other ever accomplished so much for education in the highest sense.
Apart from the preaching of the Apostles, the earliest form of ​Christian​ instruction was
that given to the ​catechumens​ in preparation for ​baptism​. Its object was twofold: to
impart a ​knowledge​ of ​Christian​ ​truth​, and to train the candidate in the practice of
religion. It was conducted by the ​bishop​ and, as the number of ​catechumens​ increased,
by ​priests​, ​deacons​, and other ​clerics​. Until the third century this mode of instruction
was an important adjunct to the Apostolate; but in the fifth and sixth centuries it was
gradually replaced by private instruction of the converts, who were then less numerous,
and by the training given in other ​schools​ to those who had been ​baptized​ in infancy.
The catechumenal ​schools​, however, gave expression to the spirit which was to animate
all subsequent ​Christian​ education: they were open to every one who accepted the
faith​, and they united religious instruction with moral discipline. The "catechetical"
schools​, also under the ​bishop's​supervision, prepared young ​clerics​ for the ​priesthood​.
The courses of study included philosophy and ​theology​, and naturally took on an
apologetic character in defense of ​Christian​ ​truth​ against the attacks of ​pagan​ learning.
One of the oldest of these ​schools​ was at the Lateran in ​Rome​; the most famous was
that of Alexandria (see ​CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE​).

In addition to this formal instruction, the ​Church​ from the beginning carried on through
her worship and educational work embodying the deepest and soundest ​psychological
principles. The ritual at first was of necessity simple; but as the ​Church​ was allowed a
larger freedom, and her worship passed from the ​catacombs​ to the basilica, statelier
forms were introduced; yet their essential purpose was the same. The Mass, which has
always been the central ​liturgical​ function, appeals to the mind through the medium of
sense. It combines light and colour and sound, the action of the ​priest​, and the
dramatic movement that fills the sanctuary, especially in the more solemn service.
Beneath these outward forms lies the inner meaning. The altar itself, in every detail, is
full of a symbolism that brings vividly to mind the life and ​personality​ of ​Christ​, the
work of ​redemption​, and the enduring sacrifice of the Cross. In due proportion, each
item fo the liturgy conveys a lesson through eye and ear to the highest faculties of the
soul​. Sense, memory, ​imagination​, and feeling are thus aroused, not simply as æsthetic
activities, but as a support of ​intellect​ and will which thereupon issue in adoration and
thanksgiving for the "mystery of ​faith​." On the other hand, the liturgy has always
included in its purpose the participation of the ​faithful​, and hence it prescribes the
response of the people to the ​prayers​ at the altar, the chanting of certain portions of
the service, bodily postures and movements in keeping with the various phases of the
sacred rite. The faithful are not merely bystanders or onlookers; they are not to
maintain a passive, receptive attitude, but rather to give active expression to the
religious​ thought and feeling aroused in them. This is especially evident in the
sacramental system. While each of the ​sacraments​ is a sign to be perceived, it is also a
source of grace to be received; and the reception involves in each case a series of
actions which manifest the ​faith​ and disposition of the recipent. Moreover, each
sacrament is adapted to some particular need, and the whole system for ​sacraments​,
from ​baptism​ to extreme unction, builds up the spiritual life by processes of cleansing,
strengthening, nourishing, and healing, which parallel the stage and requirements of
organic growth.

In a larger way, also, the ​liturgical​ year, as it commemorates the principal events in the
life of ​Christ​, brings into ​Christian worship​ a variety which affects to some extent both
the details of the liturgy itself and the religious feelings which it inspires — from the ​joy
of ​Christmas​ to the triumph of ​Easter​ and Pentecost. For the due observance of the
greater festivals the ​Church​ provides, as in ​Advent​ and ​Lent​, by seasons of preparation.
The ​Old Law​ with its types foreshadowed the New; the Baptist announce the ​Messiah​;
Christ himself prepared His disciples beforehand for the mystery of the Eucharist, for
His death, and for the coming of the ​Holy Ghost​. The ​Church​, following the same
practice arouses in the mind of the faithful those thoughts and feelings which form an
apperceptive preparation for the central mysteries of ​faith​ and their proper observance
at appointed times. Along with these greater solemnities come year by year the
commemorations of the ​Christian heroes​, the men and ​women​ who have walked in the
footsteps of ​Christ​, laboured for the spread of His kingdom, or even shed their blood for
His sake. These are held up as models to be imitated, as realizations more or less
perfect of the sublime ideal which is ​Christ​ Himself. And among the ​saints​ the foremost
place is given to ​Mary the Mother of Christ​, the ideal of ​Christian​womanhood, to whom
the ​Son of God​ was "subject" in the home at ​Nazareth​. Each festival in her ​honour​ is at
once an exhortation to copy her virtues and an evidence of the high station to which
woman​ was raised by ​Christianity​. The liturgy, then, is an application on a large scale of
those principles which underlie all real teaching — appeal to the senses, association,
apperception, expression, and imitation. The ​Church​ did not began by theorizing about
these, nor did she wait for a ​psychological​ analysis to determine their value. Instructed
by her founder, she simply incorporated in her liturgy those elements which were best
fitted to teach men the ​truth​ and lead them to act in conformity with the Gospel. It is
none the less significant that modern education is adopting for its own purposes, i.e.
the teaching of secular subjects, the ​psychological​ principles which the ​Church​ from the
beginning has put into practice.

While the ​Church​, in her interior life and in the execution of her mission, gave ​proof​ of
her vitality and of her ability to teach mankind, she necessarily came into contact with
influences and practices which were the legacy of ​paganism​. In point of religious ​belief
there was, of course, a clean breach between the ​polytheism​ of ​Athens​ and ​Rome​ and
the ​doctrines of Christianity​. But philosophy and literature were factors which had to be
counted with as well as the educational system, which was still largely under ​pagan
control. Schools had been opened by converts who were imbued with the ​ideas​ of
Greek philosophy — by ​Justin​ at ​Rome​, and Aristides at ​Athens​; while, at Alexandria,
Clement and ​Origen​ enjoyed the highest repute. These men regarded philosophy as a
means of guiding reason to ​faith​, and of defending that ​faith​ against the attacks of
paganism​. Others again, like ​Tertullian​, condemned philosophy outright as something
with which the ​Christian​ could have nothing to do. In regard to the ​pagan​ classics the
conflict of opinion was even sharper. Some of the greatest ​theologians​ and Fathers, like
St. Basil​, ​St. Gregory Nazianzen​, and ​St. Gregory of Nyssa​, had studied the classics
under ​pagan​masters and were therefore in favour of sending ​Christian​ youths to
non-Christian ​schools​ on the ground that literary studies would enable them the better
to defend their religion. At the same time these Fathers would not permit a ​Christian​ to
teach in such ​schools​ lest he should be ​obliged​ to take part in ​idolatrous​ practices.
Tertullian​ (de Idolatriâ, c. x) insists on the same distinction, the teacher, he says, by
reason of his authority, becomes in a way the "catechist of ​demons​"; the pupil, imbued
with ​Christian​ ​faith​, profits by the letter of classical instruction, but rejects its ​false
doctrine​ and holds aloof from the ​superstitious​ practices which the teacher can hardly
avoid. Such a distinction was naturally the source of difficulties and gave rise to much
discussion. The situation was not remedied by the edict of ​Julian the Apostate​,
forbidding the ​Christians​ to teach; though this called forth some protests and suggested
the creation of a ​Christian​literature based on classical models of style, nothing decisive
resulted. On the other hand, fear of the corrupting influence of ​pagan​literature had
more and more alienated ​Christians​ from such studies; and it is not surprising to find
among the opponents of the classics such men as ​St. John Chrysostom​, ​St. Ambrose​,
St. Jerome, and ​St. Augustine​. Though they had received a thorough classical
education, and though they appreciated fully the worth of the ​pagan​ authors, their final
attitude was adverse to the study of ​pagan​ literature. Apart from many controverted
points in this subject, it is clear that the Fathers, at a time when the enviroment of the
Church​ was still ​pagan​, were far more anxious for the purity of ​faith​ and ​morals​ than
for the cultivation of literature. In later ages, as the danger of contamination grew less,
classical studies were revived and encouraged by the ​Church​; but their value has more
than once been questioned (see Lalanne, Influence des Pères de l'Englise sur
l'éducation publique, ​Paris​ 1850).

Meanwhile the work of education was not neglected. If the Empire gave way before
barbarian invasion, the ​Church​ found a new field of activity among the vigorous races
of the North. To these she brought not only ​Christianity​ and civilization, but also the
best elements of classical culture. Through her missionaries she became the teacher of
Germany​ and ​France​, of ​England​ and ​Ireland​. The task was a difficult one, and its
accomplishment was marked by many vicissitudes of temporary failure and hard-won
success. At times, indeed, it would seem that the desire for learning had quite
disappeared even among those for whom the acquisition of ​knowledge​ was a sacred
obligation​. Yet these drawbacks only served to stimulate the ​zeal​ of ​ecclesiastical​ and
civil rulers in behalf of a more thorough and systematic education. Thus the salient
feature of the ​Middle Ages​ is the co-operation of ​Church and State​ for the development
of ​schools​. Theodoric in ​Italy​, Alfred in ​England​, and ​Charlemagne​ in the ​Frankish
Kingdom are illustrious examples of princes who joined their authority with that of
bishops​ and councils to secure adequate instruction for ​clergy​ and people. Among
churchmen​ it suffices to mention ​Chrodegand of Metz​, ​Alcuin​, ​St. Bede​, ​Boethius​, and
Cassiodorus​ (see the several articles). As a result of their efforts, education was
provided for the ​clergy​ in the ​cathedral​ ​schools​ under the direct supervision of the
bishop​ and for the ​laity​ in ​parochial​ ​schools​ to which all had access. In the curriculum,
religion held the first place; other subjects were few and elementary, comprising at
best the ​trivium​ and ​quadrivium​ (see ​THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS​). But the significance
of this education lies not so much in its content as in the fact that it was the means of
arousing a ​love​ of learning among peoples that had just emerged from barbarism, and
of laying the foundations of Western culture and ​science​. This history of education
records no greater undertaking; for the task was not one of improving or perfecting,
but of creating and had not the ​Church​ gone vigorously about her work, modern
civilization would have been retarded for centuries. (See ​SCHOOLS​; ​MIDDLE AGES​.)

One of the chief factors in this progress was ​monasticism​. The ​Benedictine​ ​monasteries
especially were homes of study and depositories of the ancient learning. Not only
sympathetic writers, like ​Montalembert​, but those also who are more critical,
acknowledge the service which the ​monks​ rendered to education.

In those restless ages of rude culture, of constant 

warfare​, of perpetual lawlessness and the rule of 
might, monasticism offered the one opportunity for 
a life of repose, of contemplation, and of that 
leisure and relief from the ordinary vulgar but 
necessary​ d
​ uties​ of life essential to the student . . . . 
Thus it happened that the ​monasteries​were the sole 
schools​ for teaching; they offered the only 
professional training; they were the only ​universities 
of research; they alone served as publishing houses 
for the multiplication of books; they were the only 
libraries​ for the preservation of learning; they 
produced the only scholars; they were the sole 
educational institutions​ of this period. (Paul 
 Monroe, A Text-Book in the History of Education, 
New York, 1907, p. 255)  
In addition to their prescribed studies, the ​monks​ were constantly occupied in copying
the classic texts.

While the Greek classics owed their safe 

preservation to the ​libraries​of Constantinople and to 
the m
​ onasteries​ of the East, it is primarily to the 
monasteries​ of the West that we are indebted for 
the survival of the Latin classics. (Sandys, A History 
of Classical Scholarship, 2nd ed. Cambridge, 1906, 
p. 617)  
The specific work of education was carried on in the ​monastery​ ​school​ and was
intended primarily for the ​novices​. In some cases, however, a ​schola exterior,​ or outer
school​ was added for lay students and for aspirants to the ​secular priesthood​. The
course of study included, besides the seven liberal arts, the reading of Latin authors
and the music of the ​Church​. Finally, through their annals and chronicles, the ​monks
provided a rich store of information concerning ​medieval​ life, which is invaluable to the
historian of that period. The Chief importance, however, of the ​monastic​ ​schools​ is
found in the fact that they were conducted by an organized body of teachers who had
withdrawn from the world and devoted their lives under the guidance of religion, to
literary pursuits and educational work. The same ​Christianity​ that had sanctified the
family​ now gave to the profession of teacher a sacredness and a dignity which made
teaching itself a noble vocation.

Two other movements form the climax of the ​Church's​ activity during the ​Middle Ages​.
The development of ​Scholasticism​ meant the revival of Greek philosophy, and in
particular of ​Aristotle​; but it also meant that philosophy was now to serve the cause of
Christian​ ​truth​. Men of ​faith​ and learning like ​Albertus Magnus​ and ​Thomas Aquinas​, far
from dreading or scorning the products of Greek thought, sought to make them the
rational basis of ​belief​. A synthesis was thus effected between the highest speculation
of the ​pagan​ world and the teachings of ​theology​. ​Scholasticism​, moreover, was a
distinct advance in the work of education; it was an ​intellectual​ training in method, in
systematic thought, in severe ​logical​ reasoning, and in accuracy of statement. But
taken as a whole, it furnished a great object-lesson, the purport of which was that, for
the keenest ​intellect​, the findings of reason and the ​truths​ of Revelation could be
harmonized. Having used the subtilities of Greek thought to sharpen the student's
mind, the ​Church​ thereupon presented to him her ​dogmas​ without the least fear of
contradiction. She thus united in a consistent whole whatever was best in ​pagan
science​ and culture with the ​doctrine​ entrusted to her by ​Christ​. If education be rightly
defined as "the transmission of our ​intellectual​ and spiritual inheritance" (Butler), this
definition is fully exemplified in the work of the ​Church​ during the ​Middle Ages​.

The same synthetic spirit took concrete form in the ​universities​. In founding these the
popes​ and the secular rulers co-operated; in ​university​ teaching all the then known
branches of ​science​ were represented; the student body comprised all classes, ​laymen
and ​clerics​, seculars and religious; and the diploma conferred was an authorization to
teach everywhere. The ​university​ was thus, in the educational sphere, the highest
expression of that completeness which had all along characterized the teaching of the
Church​; and the spirit of inquiry which animated the ​medieval​ ​university​ remains, in
spite of other modification, the essential element in the ​university​ of modern times. The
changes which have since taken place have for the most part resulted in separating
those elements which the ​Church​ had built into a harmonious unity. As ​Protestantism
by rejecting the principle of authority brought about innumerable divisions in ​belief​, so
it led the way to rupture between Church and state in the work of education. The
Renaissance​ in its extreme forms ranked ​pagan​ culture above everything else; and the
Reformation​ in its fundamental tenet went beyond the ​individualism​ which led to the
decline of Greek education. Once the ​schools​ were secularized, they fell readily under
influences which transformed ideals, systems, and methods. Philosophy detached from
theology​ formulated new theories of life and its values, that moved, at first slowly then
more rapidly away from the positive teachings of ​Christianity​. Science in turn cast off
its allegiance to philosopy and finally proclaimed itself the only sort of ​knowledge​ worth
seeking. The most serious practical result was the separation of moral and religious
from purely ​intellectual​ education — a result which was due in part to religious
differences and political changes, but also in large part to ​erroneous​ views concerning
the nature and need of moral training. Such views again are in general derived from the
denial, explicit or implicit, of the ​supernatural order​and of its meaning for ​human​ ​life​ in
its relations to ​God​; so that, during three centuries past, the main endeavour outside
the ​Catholic​Church​ has been to establish education on a purely naturalistic basis,
whether this be æsthetic culture or scientific ​knowledge​, individual perfection or social
service. In its earlier stages ​Protestantism​, which laid so much stress on ​faith​, could not
consistently have sanctioned an education from which ​religious​ ideals were eliminated.
But according to its principles worked out to their legitimate consequences, it became
less and less capable of opposing the naturalistic movement. The ​Catholic​ ​Church​ has
thus been ​obliged​ to carry on, with little or no help from other ​Christian​ bodies, the
struggle in behalf of those ​truths​ on which ​Christianity​ is founded; and her educational
work during the modern period may be described in general terms as the steadfast
maintenance of the union between the natural and the ​supernatural​.

From a human point of view the ​Church​ was under many disadvantages. The loss of the
universities​, the confiscation of monastic and other ecclesiatical ​property​, and the
opposition of various governments seemed to make her task hopeless. Yet these
difficulties only served to call forth new manifestations of her vitality. The ​Council of
Trent​ gave the impulse by decreeing that a more thorough education of the ​clergy
should be secured through the ​seminaries​ and by urging upon ​bishops​ and ​priests​ the
duty​ of building up the ​parochial​schools​. Similar measures were adopted by provincial
and ​diocesan​ symbols throughout ​Europe​. Then came the ​religious​ orders founded for
the express purpose of education ​Catholic​ youth. (See especially ​INSTITUTE OF THE
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS​; ​SOCIETY OF JESUS​; ORATORIANS.) And to
these finally must be added the numerous congregations of ​women​ who devoted their
lives to the ​Christian​ training of girls. However different in organization and method,
these institutions had for their common purpose the spread of religious ​truth​ along with
secular ​knowledge​ among all classes. Thus there arose, by force of circumstances, a
distinctly ​Catholic​system of education, including ​parish​ ​schools​, academics, colleges,
and a certain number of ​universities​ which had remained under the control of the
Church​ were founded anew by the ​Holy See​. It is especially the ​parochial​ ​school​ that
has served in recent times as an essential factor in the work of religion. In some
countries, e.g. ​Canada​, it has received support from the Government; in others, as in
the ​United States​ it is maintained by ​voluntary​ contributions. As ​Catholics​ have also to
pay their share of taxes for the public ​school​ system they are under a double burden;
but this very hardship has only served to place in clearer light their practical loyalty to
the principles on which ​Catholic​ education is based. In fact, the whole ​parochial​ ​school
movement during the nineteenth century forms one of the most remarkable chapters in
the history of education. It proves on one side that neither loss of the State's
co-operation nor lack of material resources can weaken the determination of the ​Church
to carry on her educational work; and on the other side it shows what ​faith​ and
devotional on the part of ​parents​, ​clergy​, and teachers can accomplish where the
interests of religion are at stake. (See ​SCHOOLS​.) As this attitude and this action of
Catholics​ place them in a position which is not always rightly understood, it may be
useful to present here a statement of the principles on which the ​Church​ has based her
course in the past, and to which she adheres unswervingly at the present time when
the problems of education are the subject of so much discussion and the cause of
agitation in various directions. The ​Catholic​ position may be outlined as follows:

● Intellectual education must not be separated from moral and religious education.

To impart ​knowledge​ or to develop ​mental​efficiency without building up moral

character is not only contrary to ​psychological​ law, which requires that all the

faculties should be trained but is also fatal both to the individual and to ​society​.

No amount of ​intellectual​ attainment or culture can serve as a substitute for

virtue; on the contrary, the more thorough ​intellectual​ education becomes, the

greater is the need for sound moral training.

● Religion should be an essential part of education; it should form not merely an

adjunct to instruction in other subjects, but the centre about which these are
 grouped and the spirit by which they are permeated. The study of nature without

any reference to ​God​, or of human ideal with no mention of ​Jesus Christ​, or of

human legislation without ​Divine law​ is at best a one-sided education. The fact

that religious ​truth​ finds no place in the curriculum is, of itself, and apart from

any open negation of that ​truth​, sufficient to warp the pupil's mind in such a way

and to such an extent that he will feel little concern in his school-days or later for

religion in any form; and this result is the more likely to ensue when the

curriculum is made to include everything that is worth knowing except the one

subject which is of chief importance.

● Sound moral instruction is impossible apart from religious education. The child

may be drilled in certain desirable habits, such as neatness, courtesy, and

punctuality; he may be imbued with a spirit of ​honour​, industry, and truthfulness

— and none of this should be neglected; but if these ​duties​ towards self and

neighbour are sacred, the ​duty​ towards ​God​ is immeasurably, more sacred.

When it is faithfully performed, it includes and raises to a higher plane the

discharge of every other ​obligation​. Training in religion, moreover, furnishes the

best motives for conduct and the noblest ideals for imitation, while it sets before

the mind an adequate sanction in the ​holiness​ and ​justice​ of ​God​. Religious

education, it should be noted, is more than instruction in the ​dogmas​ of ​faith​or

the ​precepts​ of the ​Divine law​; it is essentially a practical training in the

exercises of religion, such as ​prayer​, attendance at ​Divine worship​, and reception

of the ​sacraments​. By these means ​conscience​ is purified, the will to do right is

strengthened, and the mind is fortified to resist those ​temptations​ which,

especially in the period of adolescence, threaten the gravest danger to the moral

life.

● An education which unites the ​intellectual​, moral and religious elements is the

best safeguard for the home, since it places on a secure basis the various

relations which the ​family​ implies. It also ensures the performance of social

duties​ by inculcating a spirit of self-sacrifice, of obedience to law, and of

 Christian​ ​love​ for the fellow-man. The most effectual preparation for the

citizenship is that schooling in virtue which habituates a man to decide, to act, to

oppose a movement or to further it, not with a view to personal gain nor simply

in deference to public opinion, but in accordance with the standards of right that

are fixed by the ​law of God​. The welfare of the State, therefore demands that

the child be trained in the practice of virtue and religion no less than in the

pursuit of ​knowledge​.

● Far from lessening the need of moral and religious training, the advance in

educational methods rather emphasizes that need. Many of the so-called

improvements in teaching are of passing importance, and some are at variance

with the ​laws​ of the mind. Upon their relative worth the ​Church​ does not

pronounce, nor does she commit herself to any particular method provided the

essentials of ​Christian​ education are secured, the ​Church​ welcomes whatever the

sciences​ may contribute toward rendering the work of the ​school​ more efficient.

● Catholic​ ​parents​ are bound in ​conscience​ to provide for the education of their

children, either at home or in ​schools​ of the right sort. As the bodily life of the

child must be cared for, so, for still graver reasons, must the ​mental​ and moral

faculties be developed. Parents, therefore, cannot take an attitude of indifference

toward this essential ​duty​ nor transfer it wholly to others. They are responsible

for those earliest impressions which the child receives passively, before he

exercises any conscious selective imitation; and as the ​intellectual​ powers

develop, the ​parents​ example is the lesson that sinks most deeply into the child's

mind. They are also ​obliged​ to instruct the child according to his capacity, in the

truths​ of religion and in the practice of religious ​duties​, thus co-operating with

the work of the ​Church​ and the ​school​. The virtues, especially of obedience,

self-control, and purity, can nowhere be inculcated so thoroughly as in the

home; and without such moral education by the ​parents​, the task of forming

upright men and ​women​ and worthy citizens is difficult, and if not impossible.

That the need of moral and religious education has impressed the minds of
non-Catholics also, is evident from the movement inaugurated in 1903 by the Religious
Education Association in the ​United States​ which meets annually and publishes its
proceedings at ​Chicago​. An international inquiry into the problem of moral training was
started in ​London​ in 1906, and the report has been edited by Professor Sadler under
the title, ​Moral Instruction and Training in Schools​ (London, 1908).
For the respective ​rights​ and ​duties​ of the ​church​ and the ​civil authority​, see ​SCHOOLS​;
STATE.

Co-education

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The term is now generally reserved to the practice of ​educating​ the sexes together; but
even in this sense it has a variety of meanings.

● Mere juxtaposition; this implies the use of the same buildings and equipment

under the same teaching staff for the ​education​ of both sexes, but does not

oblige​ the sexes to follow the same methods or to live under the same regimen.

● Co-ordinate ​education​; the students are taught by the same methods and the

same teachers and are governed by the same general administration; but each

sex has its own classes and, in the case of a ​university​, its separate college.

● Identical ​education​; both sexes are taught "the same things, at the same time,

in the same place, by the same faculty, with the same methods and under the

same regimen. This admits age and proficiency, but not sex, as a factor in

classification" (Clarke, op. cit. below, p. 121). It is in this third and narrowest

sense that co-education has been the subject of widespread discussion for some

time past. In the ​United States​ especially the practice has grown rapidly during

the last fifty years, while in ​European​ countries it has developed more slowly.

Extent 
Elementary schools

At present co-education is practically universal in the elementary grades of the public

schools​ of the ​United States​. It also prevails to a large extent in the elementary grades
of private and denominational ​schools​, including those which are under ​Catholic
direction, notably the ​parochial​ ​schools​.

Secondary schools

According to the Commissioner's Report for 1905-6, there were in the ​United States​ 40
public high schools for boys only, with 22,044 students, and 29 ​schools​ for girls only,
with 23,203 students; while the co-educational high schools numbered 7,962 having on
their rolls 283,264 boys and 394,181 girls; the difference indicated by these last figures
is noteworthy. During the same year there were under private direction 304 high
schools for boys only, with 22,619 students; 500 high schools for girls only, with
27,081 students; while the private co-educational ​schools​ numbered 725 with an
attendance of 26,487 boys and 25,568 gifts. From these statistics it appears that even
in private high schools the number of boys is larger where co-education prevails than it
is in ​schools​ exclusively for boys; and that the number of girls in co-educational ​schools
is not very far below the number in ​schools​ exclusively for girls

Higher and technical educational institutions

Of 622 ​universities​, colleges, and technological ​schools​ reporting to the ​United States
Bureau of Education for the year ended June, 1906, there were for men only, 158; for
women​ only, 129; for both men and ​women​, 335. Comparison with earlier statistics
shows a decided advance in co-education. In 1889-90 the ​women​ in co-educational
colleges numbered 8075, in ​schools​ of technology, 707, and in colleges for ​women​ only,
1979; the men in all colleges numbered 44,926. In 1905-6 there were 31,443 ​women
in co-educational colleges and 6653 in colleges for ​women​ only; the number of men
students was 97,738.

The tendency in ​Europe​, generally speaking, is to admit ​women​ to ​university​ courses of

study. but under restrictions which vary considerably from one country to another. In
Germany​, ​women​, for the most part, attend the ​university​ as "hearers", not as
matriculated students. The custom in ​England​ is that ​women​ should reside in colleges
of their own while receiving the benefit of ​university​ ​education​. There is also
considerable variety in the regulations concerning the granting of degrees to ​women​.
Replies to an inquiry issued by the English Department of Education in 1897, with later
revision (United States Commissioner's Report for 1904, chap. xx), showed that of 112
universities​ on the Continent, in Great Britain, and in the British colonies, 86 made no
distinction between men and ​women​ students, 6 admitted ​women​ by courtesy to
lectures and examinations, 20 permitted them to attend some lectures only; of these
20 ​universities​, 14 were German and 6 Austrian. The proportion of ​women​ students to
the total enrollment in the ​universities​ of Central ​Europe​ is shown in the following
table:--

Country Total No. Women

of Students

Austria 22,749 1,323

France 33,618 1,922

Germany 51,535 1,938

Switzerland 9,483 2,594

In ​England​, provision for the higher ​education​ of ​women​ began with the founding of
Queen's College, ​London​ (1848) and Bedford College (1849). In 1878 the University of
London​ admitted ​women​ to examinations and degrees. The ​honour​ degree
examinations of Cambridge were opened to ​women​ (students of Girton and Newnham
colleges) in 1881; some of the Oxford examinations were opened to ​women​(students of
Somerville College and Lady Margaret Hall) in 1884; the Scottish ​universities​ admitted
women​ in 1892; the ​University​ of ​Durham​ in 1895; the University of ​Wales​ from its
foundation in 1893. In ​Ireland​, both the Royal University and Trinity College, ​Dublin​,
receive ​women​ students. It should, however, be noted that the number of ​women
following ​university​ courses in ​England​ is still comparatively small. In 1905-6 the
colleges mentioned above in connexion with Oxford had in residence 136 students, and
those at ​Cambridge​, 316. On the other hand, the movement is stronger in some of the
recently founded ​universities​. Thus the institutions for ​women​ affiliated with the ​London
University (Bedford, Halloway, Westfield, and Royal Free ​hospital​) in 1905-6 numbered
628 students. It may therefore be said that co-education in ​Europe​, though it has made
a beginning, is by no means so prominent a feature of the ​schools​as it is in the ​United
States​. Its growth and effects are for this reason best studied in American institutions;
and in these the historical facts are the more important inasmuch as they are said to
furnish ample justification of the policy.

Causes 

The explanation of these facts is to be sought in a variety of conditions, some of which

are naturally connected with the general development of the country while others may
be called artificial, in the sense that they are the application of theories or policies
rather than direct responses to needs, or final solutions of problems. Thus it is
significant that co-education has found its stronghold in the Northern, Central, and
Western States of the Union which profited most by the Congressional land grants of
1787 and 1862 and by similar grants on the part of the several States. It was easy to
argue, on the basis of democratic principles, that institutions supported by public funds
should offer the same advantages to all citizens. From the founding of Oberlin College,
Ohio​ (1833), which was the first institution of its class to introduce co-education
(1837). The policy spread at such a rate that by 1880 more than half the colleges, and
by 1900 nearly three-fourths, had adopted it. In the more conservative East
segregation was the general practice until the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
But the precedent established by Boston University (1869) and by Cornell (1872) was
soon followed by many other Eastern institutions.

A still more powerful factor has been the public high school, which since 1850 has held
an important place in the ​educational​ system. Some ​schools​ of this class, notably those
in the West were co-educational from the start; others were opened at first for boys
only, but eventually they admitted girls on the same terms; this was the case in the
larger cities of the East. In 1891, only 15 out of 628 leading cities of the country had
separate high schools, in 1901 the number had fallen to 12. The growth of these
schools​ coincided with the movement in favour of higher ​education​ for ​women​. The
leaders of this movement insisted on the right of ​women​ to have equal advantages with
men in the line of ​education​; they quite overlooked or disregarded the fact that equality
in this case does not mean identity. But any defect in their reasoning on the subject
was more than compensated for by their enthusiasm and perseverance. Their efforts,
however, were in accordance with the demands made by industrial changes. The
introduction of labour-saving machinery which gradually brought about the factory
organization of industry, took from ​woman​, one by one, her traditional employments in
the home and compelled her to seek new occupations in fields hitherto occupied
exclusive by man: hence the very natural demand for equal ​educational​opportunities,
not merely to secure the more complete development of ​woman's​ faculties, but also as
a ​necessary​ means to equip her for her new position. The demand of course grew more
imperative as the professions were opened to ​women​. Once it was admitted that a
woman​ might, for instance, take up the practice of medicine, it was quite obvious as a
matter of public policy that she should receive the training given to every physician.
How fully her claims have been recognized will appear from statistics given above of the
growth of ​universities​, colleges, and ​schools​ of technology since 1889.

The rapid spread of co-education aroused intense interest not only among educators
but also in the mind of the public at large. The subject was discussed from every point
of view, moral, medical, and ​economic​, no less than ​educational​. Special inquiries were
sent out by ​school​ committees, State boards, and the ​United States​ Bureau of
Education, with a view to obtaining statistics and expressions of opinion. Replies to
these inquiries served as a basis for numerous reports, such as that of the Boston
School Committee (Document 19, 1890) and that. of the Commissioner of Education
based on the inquiry of 1891. (See Commissioner's Report for 1900-1901, chap. xxviii.)
The outcome of the discussion may be summarized as follows:

● the tendency towards co-education as a universal policy was freely admitted by

all parties;

● considerable divergence of opinion was manifested as to the wisdom of

co-education, particularly in secondary ​schools​;

● in many cases the issue was obscured by treating co-education as though it were

synonymous with the higher ​education​ of ​women​.

In order to set this phase of the question in a somewhat clearer light, it should be noted
first of all that the reasons advanced in favour of the higher ​education​ of ​women​, valid
as they certainly are, do not of themselves require that this ​education​ shall be identical
with that given to men. Passing over for the present the question whether both sexes
should study the same subjects by identical methods for the same length of time, or
even supposing that this question should be answered in the affirmative, one is not
thereby compelled to admit that co-education is the only acceptable policy. The efficient
work of those colleges which are exclusively for ​women​ tells strongly in favour of
separate ​education​. On the other hand, it should be remarked that the unification of the
schools​ into a system does not necessarily imply co-education all the way through.
While endorsing the practice in the elementary ​school​ for certain reasons and in the
university​ for other reasons, one may consistently refuse to approve its introduction in
the secondary ​school​. A third consideration turns on the moral factor. This is, and
always has been, of paramount importance in ​Catholic​ ​education​. Whatever advantages
of an ​intellectual​sort may be claimed for the co-educational ​school​, these must, from
the ​Catholic​ point of view, be waived if they cannot be obtained without danger to
morality. This view of course is shared by many non-Catholic ​parents​ and teachers,
some of whom have made it the basis of their criticism of co-education. Doubtless, too,
it would have counted for more in the discussion if the whole problem of moral
education​ had received the attention bestowed in late years on everything pertaining to
purely ​intellectual​ culture. Where that problem is overlooked or lightly dismissed, some
of the most serious objections to co-education naturally lose their force, while too much
weight is attached to some of the reasons on the opposite side.

Practice and attitude of Catholic schools 

As noted above co-education prevails in most of the ​Catholic​ elementary ​schools​. That
women​ should also share in the advantages of higher ​education​ is quite in keeping with
Catholic​ policy. An instance of this is the authorization granted by ​Rome​ for ​women​ to
follow, under requisite conditions, courses at the ​English​ ​universities​ (Decision of
Propaganda​, 13 July, 1907). Another is furnished by such institutions as the Anna-Stift,
a ​university​ ​school​ for ​Catholic teaching​ sisters founded at the ​University of Münster​ in
1899 to meet the wishes of the German ​bishops​. Instruction is given by ​university
professors not in the halls of the ​university​ but in the institute itself, an arrangement
that is equivalent to what has been mentioned above as co-ordinate ​education​. (See
Engelkemper in Cath. Univ. Bulletin, May, 1908.) But in secondary ​schools​, the ​Catholic
policy is decidedly Opposed to co-education. The high schools, academies, and colleges
for boys are altogether separate from those for girls. Boys are taught by male teachers,
girls by ​women​, usually religious. Nothing in fact so strongly emphasizes the ​Catholic
attitude in this matter as the work of various orders of men established to teach boys,
and of no less various orders of ​women​ to teach girls. This is the century-old practice of
the ​Church​, and it is observed in all countries. ​Catholics​, moreover, have followed with
interest the discussions concerning co-education; and though in many other respects
they have adopted in their own work the methods approved by experience in
non-Catholic ​schools​, they have not been convinced by the arguments advanced in
favour of the co-educational plan.

From the viewpoint of economy co-education might seem the wiser plan; but as a
matter of fact, by increasing the number of pupils in each class it throws a heavier
burden on the teacher and it makes difficult if not impossible that individual instruction,
the need of which is now so generally recognized. A saving that impairs the efficiency of
the ​school​ is hardly desirable. The advantage also that is claimed on the score of
improved discipline, is more apparent than real. While the boys probably part with
some of their roughness it is by no means certain that the delicacy of feeling and the
refinement of manner that are expected in girls, gain much by the association.
Moreover, if there is a demand for better discipline, the right way to meet it is to train
teachers more thoroughly in the art of ​school​management. A skilful teacher will easily
control a class either of boys or of girls by arousing and maintaining their interest in
what is really the work of the ​school​. On the other hand, it can do no harm to young
people, especially boys, to cultivate betimes a spirit of obedience to law for its own
sake, and not merely teach them to behave themselves out of deference for the
opposite sex. There is no ​doubt​ a decided benefit to be gotten from social intercourse,
provided this is accompanied by the proper conditions. The place for it is in the home,
under the supervision of ​parents​, who will see to it that their children have the right
kind of associates, and will not leave them to the chance companionships which the
mixed ​school​ affords. It has often been held that the co-educational system extends to
the ​school​ the "good effects that flow from the mutual influence of mingling the sexes
in the ​family​ circle"; but this contention evidently overlooks the profound difference
between the home situation which associates children by natural ties of kindred, and
the situation in ​school​ where these ties do not exist. And it further forgets, apparently,
that the home influence itself has latterly been weakened in many ways and by various
causes; how far co-education has contributed to this result is of course another
question. At any rate, it avails nothing to argue that because boys and girls live
together in the same ​family​, it is more natural that they should be ​educated​ in the
same classes. When appeal is taken to the "natural" order of things, the decision is
plainly in favour of separate ​schools​.

On physiological grounds, identical ​education​ presents serious difficulties. As no

arrangement has been devised, and as none can be devised, to make the conditions of
study exactly the same for both sexes, co-education really means that girls are
subjected to a regimen intended and conducted for boys. To the physical strain which is
thus imposed on them, girls as a rule are not equal; in particular they are apt to suffer
from that very rivalry which is often cited as a desirable feature of the mixed ​school​. If
education​ is to take as its first principle conformity to nature, it must certainly make
allowance for differences of organism and function. This need becomes the more
imperative in proportion as the dependence of mind upon organic processes is more
fully realized and turned to practical account in ​educational​ work. It then appears
beyond question that from a ​psychological​ standpoint ​woman​ should have a different
training from that which men receive. There is no question here as to the superiority or
inferiority of either sex, nor will it profit to say that "soul has no gender". The fact is
that each sex has its own ​mental​ constitution and its special capacities. To develop
these is the work of ​education​; but this does not mean that unlike natures shall be
moulded into a superficial resemblance to each other. Even if it were desirable to have
the finished product exactly the same in both sexes, it does not follow that this result is
to be obtained by subjecting men and ​women​ to the same discipline. Educationists are
agreed that the need of the developing mind is the first thing to be consulted in framing
methods and in organizing the work of the ​school​. They rightly condemn not only a
system which treats the boy as though he were a man, but also any feature of method
that fails to secure adaptation, even in detail, of the teaching to the present condition of
the pupil's mind. Yet many of them, strangely enough, insist that the same training
shall he given to boys and girls in the secondary ​schools​, that is at a period which is
chiefly characterized by the manifestation of profound ​mental​ differences between one
sex and the other. The attempt now so generally made to obviate the physiological and
psychological​ difficulties of co-education by adapting the work of the ​school​ to the
capacities and requirements of girls, can evidently have but one result, and that not a
desirable one, so far as boys are concerned.

It must further be pointed out on vocational grounds that, since ​woman's​ work in the
world is necessarily different from man's, there should be a corresponding difference in
the preparation. Here again it is singular that while the whole trend of our ​schools​ is
towards specialization in view of the needs of after-life, no such consideration should be
had for diversity of calling based on diversity of sex. The student is encouraged to take
up as early as possible the special lines of work that fit him for his chosen career in
business, in literary work, or in any of the professions; yet for the essential ​duties​ of
life, widely different as these are, men and ​women​ receive an identical ​education​.
However great be the share which ​woman​ is to take in "the public expression of the
ideal energies, for morality and religion, for ​education​ and social reforms, and their
embodiment, not in the home, but in the public consciousness" — it still remains ​true
that her success as a supporter of these ideal endeavours is closely bound up with the
right discharge of those ​duties​ which are at once the lot and the privilege of her sex.
Any influence that tends to make those ​duties​ less sacred to her or less attractive, is a
menace to her individual perfection and may lead to far-reaching calamity. The lowering
of sex tension, which is the strongest argument brought forward to support
Co-education from the view-point of morality, turns out on closer inspection to be a
fatal objection; it proves too much. The "indifference" which it is said to produce has its
consequences beyond the limit of school-life, and these if left to work out their own
results would be, as they undoubtedly are in many instances, antagonistic to the
essential interests of ​family​ and home, and eventually of the national life as well.

The element of religious instruction, essential to ​Catholic​ ​schools​, has a peculiar

significance in the present problem. It not only gives free scope to ideal and æsthetic
tendencies, but it also provides effectual safeguards against the dangers to which
adolescence is exposed. As President Hall has said, "every glow of æsthetic appreciation
for a great work of art, every thrill aroused by an act of sublime heroism, every pulse of
religious aspiration weakens by just so much the potential energy of passion because it
has found its kinetic equivalent in a higher form of expression" (Pedagogical Seminary,
March, 1908). The "prophylactic value" of religious training is, from the ​Catholic​ point of
view, far greater than that of the conditions which co-education involves and on which
it depends for the development of character and ​morals​. But this value of course can be
got only by teaching religion with the same thoroughness and the same perfection of
method that characterizes the teaching of other subjects, and in such a way as to make
the ​duties​ which religion imposes on both the sexes not merely pleasing items of
knowledge​, but also vital elements in habit and action. (​See​ ​E​DUCATION​; ​S​CHOOLS​.)