Professional Documents
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Introduction
Air Masses
Frontal Systems
Mid-latitude Cyclones
Thunderstorms
Tornadoes
Hurricanes
Summary
Figure 1.
Extreme weather
events in the
lower 48 states.
Note hurricanes
are found along
Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, and
tornadoes are
most common
over the Great
Plains and upper
Midwest.
2
The first half of the chapter is divided into three sections that
describe how common weather systems develop across much
of the nation. Weather in any region is influenced by the
atmospheric changes that occur when masses of air with
contrasting properties interact. The characteristics of air
masses vary with location ranging from dry and cold to warm
and humid. The daily clash of air masses over North America
generates our common weather patterns characterized by high-
and low-pressure systems bounded by warm and cold fronts.
These frontal systems are relatively narrow, curvilinear zones
that mark a transition from one air mass to another. Weather
experienced over much of the central and eastern U.S. is the
result of the west-to-east migration of regional-scale low-
pressure systems, termed mid-latitude cyclones, and their
associated warm and cold fronts. Mid-latitude cyclones affect
much of the continental landmass for up to a week at a time.
Meteorologists attempt to predict the path of these mid-latitude
cyclones and their frontal systems by monitoring their
associated atmospheric conditions such as moisture,
temperature, pressure, and wind direction. Using these
characteristics they can predict the potential weather for two to
five days in the future. However, these dynamic systems are
subject to change, and the short-term, relatively accurate
forecast becomes a long-term calculated guess as the forecast
extends beyond two or three days.
Figure 2. Top:
Cost of damages
associated with
weather events,
1998. Total cost
was over $16
billion. Bottom:
Proportion of
fatalities
associated with
specific weather-
related
phenomena.
3
Such is our devotion to understanding how future weather
patterns will affect us that millions daily tune in to the cable
weather news station, the Weather Channel. Regardless of
where we get our information on the weather forecast, almost
all of it comes from the same place, the National Weather
Service (NWS). The NWS processes over one million weather
observations per day. These basic observations may be
reprocessed by commercial weather companies (e.g.,
Accuweather) to generate maps and graphics for public
distribution to a variety of media sources.
Figure 3. Early
national weather
map, created
September 1,
1872, shows a
high-pressure
system over the
Northeast. Image
courtesy of NOAA
photolibrary.
4
Figure 4.
Geostationary
satellites
generate
thousands of
images per
day. Image
courtesy of NOAA
photolibrary.
The latter half of the chapter is divided into three sections that
review extreme weather events in the U.S., thunderstorms,
tornadoes, and hurricanes. Thunderstorms form as warm,
humid air is forced aloft, either in advance of cold fronts that
are migrating toward the east or as a result of differential
warming of air near Earth's surface. The high winds, hail,
heavy rains, and lightning associated with these storms claim
approximately a hundred lives a year in the U.S. Furthermore,
over the much of central and eastern U.S., thunderstorms
produce even more violent tornadoes (Fig. 5), the highest
velocity winds on Earth. The use of new technology, such as
Doppler radar, has increased the average lead time for tornado
warnings in the U.S. from 5 minutes (1986) to 12 minutes in
1998.
Figure 5. A
tornado near
Dimmit, west
Texas, 1995.
Image courtesy
of NSSL's photo
album.
5
Dangerous weather phenomena such as tornadoes and
hurricanes cannot be stopped but with detailed observations
meteorologists can provide timely warnings to protect people
from the onslaught of these hazardous winds. The sheer sizes
of hurricanes, hundreds of kilometers across and bigger than
most states, mean that they will have significant impact on
people and property when they come on shore. The most
expensive natural disaster in U.S. history occurred in 1992
when Hurricane Andrew wrecked havoc across southern
Florida, causing $30 billion in damages (Fig. 6). Damages
could easily have been doubled if the storm had made landfall
in the highly developed areas further north. Continued coastal
development makes a future $50 to $100 billion disaster
inevitable.
Figure 6.
Property damage
in southern
Florida resulting
from Hurricane
Andrew, 1992.
Image courtesy of
NOAA.
Think about it . . .
Examine the map at the end of the chapter that illustrates
the distribution of extreme weather events for the
conterminous U.S. during 2000. What patterns can you
identify in the weather characteristics displayed on the
map?
Air Masses
• Air masses are large regions of the lower atmosphere with
uniform characteristics that are originally defined by a
source area.
• Air masses are identified by temperature (polar vs. tropical)
and the nature of the source area (continental vs. maritime)
• North American weather patterns are dominated by
continental polar and maritime tropical air masses.
6
• Air masses are modified as they move over areas with
different temperatures or topography than the source area.
Source Areas
An air mass develops when the atmosphere is located above a
relatively uniform land or water surface for several days. The
lower atmosphere assimilates some of the properties of the
underlying surface. Air masses are identified by their
temperature (polar/tropical) and the character of the
underlying surface (continental/maritime). The latter property
is a proxy for moisture content. Air masses that develop
above oceans contain much more moisture than those formed
over land.
7
Heavy rains in the Midwest can result from the interaction
between the continental polar air mass and the maritime
tropical air mass that pushes northward across much of the
eastern U.S. during summer.
Figure 8. Lake
effect snows in
Michigan and
northern Illinois
and Indiana,
January 1997.
Image courtesy of
NASA GOES.
8
the Northeast and most of the Pacific coastline (Fig. 9).
Temperatures at the ocean surface are less extreme than on
land (less cold) so mP air is warmer than cP air.
• mT - high temperatures and high humidity distinguish the
maritime tropical air masses that move inland from the
tropical Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and tropical Atlantic
Ocean (Fig. 9). The mT air brings hot, humid summers to
southeastern states and can form at any time during the
year.
Figure 9. Principal
source areas for
air masses that
influence weather
patterns across
North America.
Original globe
courtesy of NOAA's
National
Geophysical Data
Center.
9
Think about it . . .
Create a concept map that summarizes the characteristics
of the principal air masses and their influence on weather
patterns in North America.
Frontal Systems
• Frontal systems form along the boundaries between
colliding air masses of contrasting properties.
• Cold fronts and warm fronts are associated with the
interaction of continental polar and maritime tropical air
masses over the central U.S.
• Heavy rainfall, decreasing temperatures, decreasing
humidity, and changing wind directions are associated with
passage of a cold front.
• Light to moderate rain, warmer temperatures, increasing
humidity, and changing wind directions follow passage of a Figure 10. Weather
warm front. patterns typically
• An occluded front forms when a cold front overtakes a encountered with cold
warm front. and warm fronts
associated with a
Frontal systems represent the meteorological battle that cyclone (low-pressure
ensues when air masses of contrasting properties clash along system) over the
central U.S. The
their boundaries. As air masses move across Earth's surface
occluded front formed
they inevitably interact to create relatively narrow, curvilinear where cold and warm
fronts coalesced over
the northern plains.
Warm maritime tropical
air from the Gulf of
Mexico lies between
the two fronts. Note
that cloud cover occurs
in advance of the cold
front, adjacent to the
warm front, and around
the occluded front.
Lines A-B and C-D
represent sections
through the frontal
system (see Figs. 11
and 14).
10
zones that mark a front, a transition from one air mass to
another (Fig. 10). Advancing frontal systems bring clouds and
precipitation and are accompanied by changes in moisture,
temperature, pressure, and wind direction.
The clash between cP and mT air masses over the Great Plains
and Midwest is the most common source of frontal systems in
the U.S. (For more on the causes of this phenomenon, see the
section, Mid-latitude Cyclones.) Weather conditions change in
a predictable sequence as warm and cold fronts pass over an
area.
11
Figure 12. A squall
line highlighted by
intense
thunderstorms
associated with a
rapidly advancing
cold front, Gulf of
Mexico. Image
courtesy of NASA's
Johnson Space
Center Image
Services.
the warm air (not much, but twice as steep as a warm front).
Warm air will always rise over cooler air so both the cold and
warm fronts are inclined toward the warm air mass. Warm air
is pushed up and over the advancing cold front, causing
relatively rapid cooling and condensation that results in the
development of tall cumulonimbus clouds that host heavy but
relatively short-lived precipitation (Fig. 11). Rapidly advancing
cold fronts may be marked by the growth of a squall line of
thunderclouds (Fig. 12).
Warm Front
Changes following the passage of the warm front (Fig. 10) are
more benign than the storms that travel with the cold front.
Friction at Earth's surface causes the warm front to slope
gently (~½ degree inclination) toward the warm air mass (Fig.
11). Warm, humid air is transported upward over a distance of
approximately 1,000 km (625 miles). The first signal of an
approaching warm front is the appearance of light, upper-level
clouds (cirrus, cirrostratus). Up to 12 hours later, the high
clouds will be replaced by lower nimbostratus with associated
light to moderate precipitation. Rain associated with a warm Figure 13. An
front may last longer than precipitation that accompanies a cold occluded front forms
front because the warm front typically moves more slowly and when a cold air
extends over a larger area. Temperatures and humidity rise and mass overtakes a
warmer air mass.
winds typically shift direction (from south to southwest) with
the passage of the warm front.
Occluded Front
The cold front moves more rapidly than the warm front (~ 10
km per hour faster) and will eventually close the gap between
the fronts, forcing the intervening warm air upward generating
additional precipitation (Figs. 13, 14). An occluded front is
represented by a combination of warm and cold front symbols
12
Figure 14.
Nimbostratus
clouds generate
precipitation
along an
occluded front
(see section C-D
on Figure 10).
Think about it . . .
Examine the map located at the end of the chapter and
answer the conceptest questions about frontal systems
based on the locations featured on the map. One or two of
the questions may require you to read the section that
follows on mid-latitude cyclones.
Mid-latitude Cyclones
• Weather in the eastern U.S. is mainly the result of the
migration of regional-scale low-pressure systems, termed
mid-latitude cyclones.
• Mid-latitude cyclones develop where continental polar and
maritime tropical air masses collide over the U.S. along the
polar front.
• Converging surface winds associated with low-pressure
systems must be matched with divergent flow in the upper
atmosphere.
• Cyclones develop from a waveform that originates where
irregularities at the surface cause local shearing that distorts
the polar front.
13
Figure 15. A classic
comma-shaped
cloud pattern is
associated with a
mid-latitude cyclone
in the central United
States, Christmas
Eve, 1997. A low-
pressure center is
located over the
lower Mississippi
Valley and a warm
front spirals over the
Gulf of Mexico.
Image courtesy of
NASA-Goddard Space
These weather patterns are differentiated from tropical Flight Center, NOAA
cyclones formed over the warm tropical ocean waters that may GOES.
build into hurricanes. Mid-latitude cyclones (also called wave
cyclones) may be 1,000 to 2,000 km (625-1,250 miles) across
and can affect much of the continental land mass for periods of
three days to as much as a week.
14
mountains and contrasting atmospheric properties at land/water
boundaries. The waveform becomes exaggerated as warm air
pushes northward and cold air moves south, generating
counterclockwise rotation typical of cyclones and forming the
pairing of warm and cold fronts discussed in the previous
section.
15
Think about it . . .
Review the Frontal Systems and Mid-latitude Cyclones
exercise (see end of chapter) referred to following the
previous section. Would you change any of the answers
after reading the section above?
Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorms form where warm, humid air is forced
upward at cold fronts or as a result of differential heating at
Earth's surface.
• Latent heat, released during condensation, generates
updrafts that maintain upward movement.
• Thunderstorms are most frequent over the southeastern
U.S.
• The three stages (cumulus, mature, dissipating) in the life
cycle of a thunderstorm occur over approximately two
hours.
16
Isolated afternoon thunderstorms, or cells, are commonplace in
warm summer months where moist maritime tropical air
masses move over land (Fig. 18). The temperature of the land
surface rises to a maximum during the mid-afternoon, warming
overlying air parcels and causing them to become unstable
enough to rise, generating scattered thunderstorms. (For more
on this process, see Clouds and Cloud Formation in the
chapter, The Atmosphere).
17
There are three stages during the life of a typical thunderstorm
that rarely lasts for more than two hours:
1. Cumulus stage - early cloud development when a cumulus
cloud expands laterally and vertically as air enters the cloud
mass at all levels. Cloud formation is rapid, requiring
approximately 15 minutes to grow vertically to heights of
10 km (6 miles; Fig. 20a). Updrafts (~ 4 m/sec near ground
surface to ~ 10 m/sec at high levels) within the cloud carry
humid air to higher, colder levels where condensation
occurs.
Figure 20a.
Cumulus stage in
the life cycle of a
thunderstorm is
characterized by
rapid vertical
growth of the cloud
and condensation.
Figure 20b.
Downdrafts and
precipitation
characterize the
mature stage in
the life cycle of a
thunderstorm.
18
Figure 21.
Developing
thunderstorm
cloud (top) and
mature supercell
(below). Images
courtesy of NOAA
Photolibrary.
19
• The U.S. experiences more tornadoes than any other nation
and most occur in tornado alley (Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana).
The funnel of the tornado moves more slowly than the winds
that give it shape. Funnels are typically less than 600 m (2,000
feet) wide and average funnel velocities are approximately 50
km/hr, although velocities as high as 200 km/hr (125 mph)
have been recorded. Tornado paths follow the direction of
movement of their parent thunderstorms that are in turn
20
Figure 24.
Destruction
associated with a
violent tornado in a
suburb of Oklahoma
City, May 3, 1999.
There were 38
deaths from this
single tornado that
reached F5 strength
along part of its
path. Image courtesy associated with east to northeast-directed mid-latitude
of FEMA.
cyclones. Scientists have been unable to observe the birth of a
tornado because of the difficulty in determining exactly where
tornadoes may originate. One hypothesis on tornado formation
considers tornado development in three stages (Fig. 25):
Figure 25.
Stages in the
development
of a tornado.
21
Figure 26. Left:
Waterspouts are
tornado-like
phenomena formed
over water. Right:
The latter stages in
tornado
development for an
example that
touched down in
forecasting methods have reduced the number of fatalities Enid, Oklahoma.
associated with tornadoes (Fig. 27). Approximately two-thirds Images courtesy of
of U.S. fatalities occur as a result of tornadoes destroying NSSL's photo album.
homes; nonpermanent mobile homes are especially susceptible
(Fig. 28).
Figure 28.
Proportion of U.S.
tornado fatalities by
location, 1985-1998.
22
Great Plains as the front retreats northward in late spring.
Summer sees tornado activity shifting to the northern Plains
states and the upper Midwest.
Figure 29.
Average annual
distribution of
strong and
violent
tornadoes,
1950-1995.
Figure 30.
Tornado
bearing down
across open
country. Image
courtesy of
NSSL's photo
album.
Think about it . . .
Use the Venn diagram located at the end of the chapter to
compare and contrast the characteristics of tornadoes and
hurricanes.
Hurricanes
• Hurricanes are rotating storm systems hundreds of
kilometers across that strike the U.S. during summer and
early fall.
• Hurricanes grow from tropical depressions in regions of
convergent winds and warm oceans, and are sustained by
divergent airflow in the upper troposphere.
• Destruction from high winds, heavy rains, and coastal
flooding occurs when hurricanes make landfall.
23
• Hurricanes are divided into five categories by wind speed
using the Saffir-Simpson hurricane intensity scale.
Building a Hurricane
Hurricanes develop under a specific suite of conditions
including warm surface waters, cyclonic circulation, and
divergent flow in the upper troposphere.
• The initial stage in the development of a hurricane is the
formation of a tropical depression (low-pressure system)
where the trade winds converge near the equator. The
location of the convergent winds changes with seasons,
lying north of the equator during summer in the Northern
Hemisphere and migrating to southern latitudes during our
winter. The rising air cools and condenses to form cumulus
24
clouds that will develop into cumulonimbus cells if the
rising air is sufficiently warm and humid.
• Water temperatures must be at least 27oC and should
extend downward for 50 to 65 meters (165-215 feet) to
ensure that colder water won't be drawn to the surface by
the developing storm. Warm surface waters typically
straddle the equator but are absent south of the equator in
the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans due to oceanic
circulation patterns (Fig. 32). The North Atlantic
hurricane season officially lasts from June 1 to November
30, and most U.S. hurricanes strike in August and
September.
Figure 32.
Hurricanes
originate in
areas of the
world's oceans
where water
temperatures
are greater than
27oC.
Hurricanes in
the Northern
Hemisphere are
most common • Earth's rotation as reflected in the Coriolis effect imparts a
during summer clockwise (Southern Hemisphere) or counterclockwise
and early fall. (Northern Hemisphere) rotation to the growing storm (Fig.
Southern
33). The magnitude of the Coriolis effect increases with
Hemisphere
hurricanes are
increasing latitude and is zero at the equator. Consequently,
frequent during the necessary rotation is not imparted on storms within 5
our winter (their degrees either side of the equator.
summer). • The inflow of air into the developing low-pressure system
must be matched with an outflow of air in the upper
troposphere to maintain the pressure gradient in the
developing hurricane. If not, the pressure contrast decreases
and wind speed declines.
25
Figure 33. Four
by a central eye characterized by clear skies. Bands of clouds
hurricanes in the
spiral outward from the vortex that will continue to grow in North Atlantic
size and intensity as long as the underlying water temperature Ocean, 1998.
remains above 27oC. Precipitation is concentrated within a Image courtesy of
radius of approximately 100 km on either side of the eye, NOAA.
releasing up to 20 billion tons of water per day.
Hurricane Landfall
Atlantic hurricanes, driven westward by prevailing winds at
rates of 10-25 km/hr (6-16 mph), may turn north parallel to the
U.S. east coast or pass south of Florida to strike along the Gulf
Coast or Caribbean islands (Figs. 34, 35). Florida and Texas
experience more hurricane landfalls than any other states (Fig.
35). A hurricane will begin to decay when it passes over land
as it experiences greater frictional drag and a dramatic decrease
in the water supply that is essential for its maintenance.
Although wind speeds will be reduced to the level of a tropical
storm or depression, the storm itself is still capable of dumping
large volumes of rain for some distance inland.
26
Figure 34.
Selected
hurricane tracks
for storms that
originated in the
Atlantic Ocean.
Figure 35.
Number of
hurricane
landfalls by state
1900-1996. Blue
- all hurricanes;
red - major
(category 3, 4,
and 5) storms.
Much of the destruction associated with hurricanes isn't caused
OT (other)
includes by high winds or storm surges but is linked to the exceptional
Delaware, Maine, precipitation events that can unload 60 cm (24 inches) of rain
Maryland, from a single storm system in just a few days. Heavy rains
Massachusetts, from Hurricane Mitch (Fig. 36), the most devastating storm to
New Hampshire, strike North America and Central America in the last two
and New Jersey. centuries, claimed over 10,000 lives from flooding (both inland
and coastal flooding) and landslides. Honduras, one of the
hemisphere's poorest nations, took the brunt of the
storm. Entire villages were demolished, nearly 20% of the
population evacuated their homes, a quarter of the schools were
wrecked, water supplies were cut off, and almost all major
roads were damaged. The nation's economy was devastated and
the loss to sugar, banana, and sugar crops pushed up prices of
those commodities worldwide.
27
Figure 36.
Hurricane Mitch
approaching the
coast of Central
America. Image
courtesy of
NOAA.
Figure 37.
Hurricane Floyd
(1999)
threatened
much of the
southeastern
U.S. before
making landfall
in North
Carolina. Image
courtesy of
NOAA.
28
The largest peacetime evacuation in U.S. history occurred in
advance of Hurricane Floyd which endangered Florida and
other southeastern states in September 1999 (Fig. 37). Floyd
was unusually large and threatened to affect a substantial
length of highly developed coastline. Authorities err on the side
of caution and evacuate large regions in advance of a hurricane
because of the difficulty in accurately predicting the storms
future path. Florida residents breathed a sigh of relief when
Floyd turned north, eventually coming onshore in North
Carolina. Thousands of people stranded on crowded, slow-
moving highways highlighted the difficulty of evacuating large
populations in advance of an impending storm.
Hurricane Measurement
Hurricanes are divided into five categories by wind speed using
the Saffir-Simpson hurricane intensity scale. Destruction
associated with major (category 3, 4 and 5) hurricanes includes
damage to permanent homes, widespread coastal flooding,
uprooting of trees, toppling of power lines. Anticipation of
such damages prompts evacuation of residents from the area of
expected landfall. Hurricane Camille in 1969 was the most
recent category 5 hurricane to make landfall in the U.S.,
coming onshore along the Gulf Coast of Mississippi.
29
39) if it were to occur today. The convention of naming
hurricanes didn't begin until the 1950's.
Figure 38.
Before and after
pictures of
damage to a
hotel resulting
from Hurricane
Camille. Thirty
people at a
“hurricane
party” on the
site died.
Images courtesy
of NOAA's
photolibrary.
Figure 39.
Destruction of
homes in a cul-
de-sac in
southern Florida,
caused by
Hurricane
Andrew, a
category 4 storm.
Image courtesy of
NOAA.
Think about it . . .
1. Use the Venn diagram located at the end of the chapter
to compare and contrast the characteristics of tornadoes
and hurricanes.
2. You work in a team of disaster specialists for the
Weather Channel. The channel wants to create its own
scoring system that better evaluates the potential
damage from incoming storms. You and your team are
given the assignment to create an evaluation rubric to
assess factors that will influence the risk of potential
damage from a future hurricane. Go to the end of the
chapter to complete the exercise.
30
Summary
1. Where does the daily weather forecast come from?
Despite what they claim about "exclusive" weather
information, the original data for all local weather forecasts
comes from observations made by the National Weather
Service. These observations may be used to generate
impressive graphics by commercial weather companies but the
basic data come from the NWS.
31
6. What is the difference between weather at cold and warm
fronts?
Heavy rainfall, decreasing temperatures, decreasing humidity
and changing wind directions are associated with passage of a
cold front. Warm air will always rise above cold air so the front
is inclined toward the warmer air mass. Friction at the ground
surface causes the front to steepen, forcing warm air aloft more
rapidly and leading to the development of tall cumulonimbus
clouds. The warm front slopes gently toward the warm air mass
and humid air rises gradually over a distance of hundreds of
kilometers. Warm fronts are characterized by light to moderate
rain, warmer temperatures, increasing humidity, and changing
wind directions.
32
There are three stages in the life of a thunderstorm. A cumulus
cloud grows rapidly during the early (cumulus) stage as
updrafts carry warm, humid air to high elevations.
Condensation produces rain or hail during the second (mature)
stage, and the falling precipitation helps cool the cloud and
stop growth. The third (dissipating) stage is marked by the
decay of the cloud as the supply of moisture is depleted and the
air becomes stable.
15. Why does the U.S. have more tornadoes than any place on
Earth?
The location of tornadoes is directly linked to the passage of
the mid-latitude cyclones across the Great Plains and Midwest.
Most tornadoes grow from thunderstorms formed at cold fronts
33
where cold and warm air masses interact. The North American
continent at relatively high latitudes and the warm tropical
Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico provide the ideal breeding
grounds for air masses of contrasting properties needed to
generate the necessary atmospheric conditions to form
tornadoes.
18. Why do hurricanes affect the east coast and not the west
coast?
Hurricanes travel in the direction of the prevailing atmospheric
and oceanic circulation systems. Hurricanes move from east to
west across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans following the trade
winds. The prevailing wind direction therefore carries Atlantic
hurricanes toward a U.S. landfall while transporting Pacific
storms away from the West Coast.
34
Weather Hazards
Examine the maps of extreme weather events for 2000.
35
Frontal Systems and Mid-latitude Cyclones
Use the map to answer the questions that follow.
2. Where is it raining?
a) A and B b) B and C c) C and D
d) B and D e) A and C
36
Venn Diagram: Tornadoes vs. Hurricanes
Use the Venn diagram, below, to compare and contrast the
similarities and differences between tornadoes and hurricanes.
Print this page and write features unique to either group in the
larger areas of the left and right circles; note features that they
share in the overlap area in the center of the image.
Tornadoes Hurricanes
37
Hurricane Evaluation Rubric
You work in a team of disaster specialists for the Weather
Channel. During discussions about coverage of the upcoming
hurricane season your boss states that she doesn't believe that
the Saffir-Simpson scale sufficiently reflects the risks
associated with hurricanes because it emphasizes one factor
(wind speed). The channel wants to create its own scoring
system that better evaluates the potential damage from
incoming storms.
38
Reviewing your evaluation rubric you realize that some factors
are more significant than others. Your team decides to double
the score of the most important factor. Which do they choose?
Why?
39
Hurricane Floyd, September 1999
Floyd brought flooding rains, high winds, and rough seas along
a good portion of the Atlantic seaboard from the 14th through
the 18th of September. The greatest damages were along the
eastern Carolinas northeast into New Jersey, and adjacent areas
northeastward along the east coast into Maine. Several states
had numerous counties declared disaster areas. Flooding
caused major problems across the region, and at least 77 deaths
have been reported. Damages are estimated to be $1.6 billion in
Pitt County, North Carolina alone, and total storm damages
may surpass the $6 billion caused by Hurricane Fran in 1996.
40
of a hurricane since Charlie (category 1) hit Carteret County in
1986.
41
both the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean to its south, the stage
was set for a disaster of epic proportions. Taking into account
the orographic effects by the volcanic peaks of Central
America and Mitch's slow movement, rain fell at the rate of a
foot or two per day in many of the mountainous regions. Total
rainfall has been reported as high as 75 inches for the entire
storm. The resulting floods and mud slides virtually destroyed
the entire infrastructure of Honduras and devastated parts of
Nicaragua, Guatemala, Belize, and El Salvador. Whole villages
and their inhabitants were swept away in the torrents of flood
waters and deep mud that came rushing down the
mountainsides. Hundreds of thousands of homes were
destroyed.
42