Introduction

Components

Axiomatic Axiomatic Systems

System Example

Finite Projective
Planes

Properties

Enrichment
Jennifer C. Bunquin
 Words differently arranged have a different meanings and
meanings differently arranged have a different effect.
- Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

The study of any mathematics Introduction

requires an understanding of the nature of
Components
deductive reasoning; frequently, geometry
has been singled out for introducing this Axiomatic
Systems
methodology to secondary school students.
Example
This topic introduces the terminology
essential for a discussion of deductive Finite
Projective
reasoning so that the extraordinary Planes
influence of the history of geometry on the
Properties
modern understanding of deductive
reasoning will become evident. Enrichment
 Introduction
Deductive reasoning takes place in
the context of an organized logical structure
Components
called an axiomatic ( or deductive) system.
Axiomatic
Systems
One of the pitfalls of working with a
Example
deductive system is too great a familiarity
with the subject matter of the system. We Finite
Projective
need to be careful with what we are Planes
assuming to be true and with saying
Properties
something is obvious while writing a proof.
Enrichment
 Remember: Introduction

Components
 it is crucially important in a proof to use
only the axioms and the theorems which Axiomatic
Systems
have been derived from them and not
depend on any preconceived idea or Example
picture. Finite
 diagrams should be used as an aid, since Projective
Planes
they are useful in developing conceptual
understanding. Properties

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 Components of an Axiomatic
System
Introduction
Undefined Terms
Components
Certain terms are left undefined to
prevent circular definitions. Examples of Axiomatic
undefined terms (primitive terms) in Systems
geometry are point, line , plane, on and Example
between. Finite
Projective
Undefined terms are of two types: Planes
terms that imply objects, called elements,
Properties
and terms that imply relationships between
objects, called relations. Enrichment
 Components of an Axiomatic
System
Introduction
Defined Terms
Components
They are not necessary, but in nearly
every axiomatic system certain phrases Axiomatic
involving undefined terms are used Systems
repeatedly. Thus, it is more efficient to Example
substitute a new term, that is, a defined Finite
term, for each of these phrases whenever Projective
they occur. Planes

Example: Properties
 lines that do not intersect = parallel lines
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 Components of an Axiomatic
System
Introduction
Axioms
Components
Statements that are accepted without
proof. Axiomatic
Systems

Early GREEKS: Example

Axiom = an assumption common to all Finite
sciences Projective
Planes
Postulate = an assumption peculiar to
the particular science Properties
being studied
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 Components of an Axiomatic
System
Introduction
A system of logic
Components

From the axioms, other Axiomatic

Systems
statements can be deduced or proved
Example
using the rules of inference of a
Finite
system of logic (usually Aristotelian). Projective
Planes

Properties

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 Components of an Axiomatic
System
Introduction

Theorems Components

Axiomatic
New statements which are Systems
deduced or proved using the axioms, Example
system of logic and previous Finite
theorems. Projective
Planes

Properties

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 Axiomatic Systems
Introduction

Four Point Geometry Components

Axiomatic
AXIOMS 4P: Systems
1. There exist exactly four points.
Example
2. Each two distinct points are on
Finite
exactly one line. Projective
3. Each line is on exactly two Planes

points. Properties

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 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Consistency
Components

Axiom 4P.1 explicitly guarantees the Axiomatic

existence of exactly four points. However, Systems
even though lines are mentioned in Example
Axioms 4P.2 and 4P.3,new cannot
Finite
ascertain whether or not lines exist until Projective
theorems verifying this are proved, since Planes
there is no axiom that explicitly insures Properties
their existence.
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 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Consistency
Components
Axiom 4P.2 and 4P.3. like many Axiomatic
mathematical statements, are disguised Systems
“if… then” statements. Axiom 4P.2 should
Example
be interpreted as follows: If two distinct
Finite
points exist, then these two points are Projective
on exactly one line. Axiom 4p.3 should be: Planes
If there is a line, then it is on exactly two Properties
points.
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 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Consistency
Components
MODEL A Undefined Axiomatic
Interpretation
Term Systems
3 Points Dots denoted 1, 2, 3, Example
4
Lines Segments illustrated Finite
1 by the figure. Projective
4 Planes
On A dot is an endpoint
of a segment or vice- Properties
versa
2 Enrichment
 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Consistency
Components
MODEL B Axiomatic
Systems
Undefined Term Interpretation
Example
Points Letters A, B, C, D
Lines Columns of letters below Finite
On Contains, or is contained in Projective
Planes
LINES A A A B B C
Properties
B C D C D D
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 Four Point Geometry
Introduction

Independence Components

Axiomatic
The independence of this axiomatic Systems
system is demonstrated by the Example
following three model, all of which
Finite
interpret points as letters of the Projective
alphabet and lines as the columns of Planes

letters indicated. Properties

Enrichment
 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Models for Independence
Components
Model 4P. 1 Axiomatic
Axiom 4P.1: There exist exactly four Systems
points.
Example
Axiom 4P.1’: There do not exist four
points. Finite
Projective
Points Lines Planes

A Properties
A, B
B
Enrichment
 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Models for Independence
Components
Model 4P. 2
Axiomatic
Axiom 4P.2: Each two distinct points are on Systems
exactly one line.
Axiom 4P.2’: There are two distinct points Example
not on one line..
Finite
Projective
Points Lines Planes
A C
A, B, C, D Properties
B D
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 Four Point Geometry
Introduction
Models for Independence
Components
Model 4P. 3
Axiomatic
Axiom 4P.3: Each line is on exactly two Systems
points.
Axiom 4P.3’: There are lines not on exactly Example
two points.
Finite
Projective
Points Lines Planes
A A B C
Properties
A, B, C, D B D D D
C Enrichment
 Four Point Geometry
Introduction

Completeness Components

Axiomatic
If all models of a system are pairwise Systems
isomorphic, it is clear that each model has
Example
the same number of points and lines.
Hence, if all models of the system are Finite
Projective
necessarily isomorphic, it follows that the Planes
system is complete.
Properties

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 Four Point Geometry
Introduction

Completeness Components

Axiomatic
Systems
In Four Point geometry, it is
clear that Model A and Model B are Example

isomorphic. Finite
Projective
Planes

Properties

Enrichment
 Axiomatic Systems
Introduction
Four Point Geometry
Components

THEOREMS: Axiomatic
Systems

1. The four point geometry has Example

exactly six (6) lines. Finite

Projective
2. Each point of the geometry has Planes
exactly three (3) lines Properties

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 Examples
Introduction
Three Point Geometry
Components

AXIOMS: Axiomatic
System
1. There exist exactly three points.
2. Each two distinct points are on Examples
exactly one line.
Finite
3. Not all the points are on the same Projective
line. Planes
4. Each two distinct line are on at least Properties
one point.
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 Examples
Introduction
Three Point Geometry
Components

MODEL: Axiomatic
System

Examples

Finite
Note: Projective
Nothing is said about the type of Planes
line whether it is straight or curved. Properties

Enrichment
 Examples
Introduction
Three Point Geometry
Components

THEOREMS Axiomatic
System

Examples
1. Each two distinct lines are on
exactly one point. Finite
Projective
2. There exist exactly three lines. Planes

Properties

Enrichment
 Examples
Introduction
Five Point Geometry
Components

Axiomatic
AXIOMS: System

1. There exist exactly five points. Examples

2. Each two distinct points have exactly Finite
one line on both of them. Projective
Planes
3. Each line has exactly two points.
Properties

Enrichment
 Examples
Introduction
Five Point Geometry
Components

Axiomatic
MODEL
1 System
Note: No point
Examples
2 exists
3 4 where Finite
there are Projective
Planes
lines that
Properties
intersects.
5
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 Examples
Introduction
Five Point Geometry
Components

Axiomatic
THEOREMS: System

1. The five point geometry has exactly Examples

ten (10) lines. Finite
2. Each point of the geometry has Projective
Planes
exactly four (4) lines
Properties

Enrichment
 What is a MODEL?
Introduction
A model of an axiomatic system is
obtained if we can assign meaning to the Components

undefined terms of the axiomatic system Axiomatic

which converts the axioms in to true Systems
statements about the assigned concepts. Example

It is also used to establish Finite

Projective
consistency. Planes

Models are in two types. Properties

Enrichment
 What is a MODEL?
Introduction
TWO TYPES : Concrete Models
Abstract Models Components

A model is concrete if the meanings Axiomatic

Systems
assigned to the undefined terms are objects
and relation adapted from the real world. A Example
model is abstract if the meanings assigned Finite
to the undefined terms are objects and Projective
Planes
relations adapted from another axiomatic
development. Properties

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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 1 Components

Axiomatic
Systems
An axiomatic system is said to
Example
be consistent if there do not exist in
Finite
the system any two axiom, any axiom Projective
and theorem, or any two theorems Planes

that contradict each other. This can Properties

be proved using a model.
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 Properties
Introduction
Consistency
Components

Axiomatic
If the model is obtained by using Systems
interpretations that are objects and
Example
relation adapted from the real world, we
have established absolute consistency. If a Finite
Projective
model is obtained using the interpretations Planes
from another axiomatic system, we have
Properties
demonstrated relative consistency.
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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 2 Components

Axiomatic
An axiom in an axiomatic Systems

system is independent if it cannot be Example

proved from the other axioms. If Finite
Projective
each axiom of a system is Planes
independent, the system is said to
Properties
be independent.
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 Properties
Introduction
Independence
Components
Independence is not necessary
Axiomatic
requirement for an axiomatic system; Systems
whereas, consistency is necessary. The
Example
verification that an axiomatic system is
independent is also done via models. The Finite
Projective
independence of Axiom A in an axiomatic Planes
system S is established by finding a model of
S’ where S’ is obtained by replacing Axiom A Properties

with a negation of A.
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 Properties
Introduction

Independence Components

Axiomatic
Systems
Thus, to demonstrate that a system
Example
consisting of n axioms is independent, n
models must be exhibited – one for each Finite
Projective
axiom. Planes

Properties

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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 3 Components

Axiomatic
An axiomatic system is complete Systems

if every statement containing undefined Example

terms of the system can be proved valid Finite
or invalid, or in other words, if it is Projective
Planes
possible to add new independent axiom
to the system. Properties

Enrichment
 Properties
Introduction

Completeness Components

Axiomatic
It is impossible to demonstrate Systems
directly that a system is complete. Example
However, if a system is complete, there
Finite
cannot exist two essentially different Projective
models. This means all models of the Planes
system must be pair wise isomorphic and Properties
the axiomatic system is categorical.
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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 4 Components

Axiomatic
Two models of an axiomatic system Systems

are said to be isomorphic if there exists a Example

one-to-one correspondence Φ from the set Finite
of points and lines α onto the set of points Projective
Planes
and lines of β that preserves all relations.
Properties

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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 4 Components

Axiomatic
In particular if the undefined terms of Systems

the system consist of the terms “point”, Example

“line”, and “on”, then Φ must satisfy the ff. Finite
conditions: Projective
Planes
1. For each point P and line l in α, Φ(P)
and Φ(l) are a point and line in β. Properties
2. If P is on l, then Φ(P) is on Φ(l)
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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 5 Components

Axiomatic
An axiomatic system is categorical if Systems
every two models of the system are Example
isomorphic.
Finite
thus for a categorical axiom system Projective
one my speak of the model; the one and Planes
only interpretation in which its theorems
Properties
are all true.
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 Properties
Introduction
Definition 6 Components

In a geometry with two undefined Axiomatic

Systems
terms, the dual of an axiom or theorem is
the statement with the two terms being Example

interchanged. Finite
Projective
EXAMPLE: Planes
The dual of “ A line contains at least
two points”, is “A point contains at least two Properties
lines”.
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 Properties
Introduction
Definition 6 Components

The dual of a statement is Axiomatic

Systems
obtained by replacing each
Example
occurrence of the word “point” by the
Finite
word “line” and vice-versa, Projective
(consequently, the words Planes

“concurrent” and “collinear” must Properties

also be interchanged.
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 Properties
Introduction

Definition 7 Components

Axiomatic
Systems
An axiomatic system in which
Example
the dual of any axiom or theorem is
Finite
also an axiom or theorem is said to Projective
satisfy the principle of duality. Planes

Properties

Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction
An axiomatic system for an
important collection of finite Components
geometries known as finite projective Axiomatic
planes. In a finite projective plane, System

each pair of lines intersect; that is, Example

there is no parallel lines. This pairwise Finite
intersection of lines leads to several Projective
Planes
other differences between projective
Properties
planes and Eucledian planes.
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 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction
AXIOMATIC SYSTEM
Components
 Undefined Terms: Point, Line, Incident Axiomatic
Defined Terms: Points incident with System
the same line are said to Example
be collinear. Lines
Finite
incident with the same Projective
point are said to be Planes
concurrent.
Properties

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 Finite Projective Planes
AXIOMATIC SYSTEM Introduction

Axiom FPP.1: There exist at least four distinct Components

points, no three of which are collinear.
Axiomatic
Axiom FPP.2: There exists at least one line System
with exactly n + 1 (n > 1) distinct points
incident with it. Example
Axiom FPP.3: Given two distinct points, Finite
there is exactly one line incident with both of Projective
them. Planes
Axiom FPP.4: Given two distinct lines, Properties
there is at least one point incident with both of
them. Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction

Components

Any set of points and lines Axiomatic

System
satisfying these axioms is called a
projective plane of order n. Note Example

that the word “incident” has been Finite

Projective
used in place of the undefined term Planes
“on” in this axiom system. Properties

Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction

Components
CONSISTENCY
Axiomatic
System
MODEL A
Example
Points Lines
Finite
A, B, C, D, E, A A B A B C C Projective
F, G B D D F E D E Planes
C E F G G G F Properties

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 Finite Projective Planes
CONSISTENCY Introduction

MODEL B Components

Axiomatic
Points Lines System
Dots Segments 4
Example
denoted illustrated in the
1, 2, 3, 4, figure. Finite
5 7 Projective
5, 6, 7 6
Planes

Properties
1 3
2 Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction

Models A and B have three Components

points on each line, three lines on Axiomatic
each point, and a total of seven System
points and seven line. To determine Example
if finite projective planes exist with Finite
more points and lines, it is clearly Projective
Planes
impractical to employ trial-and-error
procedures. Properties

Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction

Components

Axiomatic
Geometers developed a series System
of theorems that lead to a general Example
result regarding the number of Finite
points and lines in a finite projective Projective
Planes
plane of order n.
Properties

Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction

Components
The proofs of these theorems
Axiomatic
are simplified by noting that this System
axiom system satisfies the principle
Example
of duality, which Coxeter has
Finite
described as “ one of the most Projective
elegant properties of projective Planes

geometry. ( Coxeter, 1969, p. 231) Properties

Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction

Components
In an axiomatic system that satisfies
Axiomatic
the principle of duality, the proof of any System
theorem can be “turned into” a proof of a
Example
dual theorem merely by dualizing the
original proof. To show that an axiom Finite
Projective
system has the property of duality, it is Planes
necessary to prove that the duals each
Properties
axiom are the theorems of the system.
Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction
Theorem FPP.1 (Dual of Axiom FPP.1)
Components

There exist at least four distinct lines, Axiomatic

System
no three of which are concurrent.
Example
Theorem FPP.2 ( Dual of Axiom FPP.3) Finite
Projective
Given two distinct lines, there is exactly Planes

one point incident with both of them. Properties

Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction
Theorem FPP.3 (Dual of Axiom FPP.4)
Components
Given two distinct points, there is at Axiomatic
least one line incident with both of them. System

Example
Theorem FPP.4 ( Dual of Axiom FPP.2)
Finite
Projective
There exists at least one point with Planes
exactly n+1 (n>1) distinct lines incident with
Properties
it.
Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction
Theorem FPP.5
P
There is exactly Components
n +1 lines through a Axiomatic
point P. System

Example
Theorem FPP.6 l1 l2 ln+1 ln+2
Each of these Finite
Projective
lines contains exactly n Planes
+ 1 points, that is, n
P1 P2 Pn+1 Properties
points addition to P.
Enrichment
 Finite Projective Planes
Introduction
Theorem FPP.7
Components
A projective plane of order n Axiomatic
contains exactly n 2 n 1 points and System
2
n n 1 lines. Example

Finite
Proof: Projective
The total number of points is (n+1) Planes
n+1 = n 2 n 1. A dual argument verifies
2 Properties
that the total number is also n n 1.
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