Principles of Cargo Work

UNIT 2 PRINCIPLES OF CARGO WORK AND and Port Watch Keeping

PORT WATCH KEEPING
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Definitions
2.3 Sea Worthiness and Cargo Worthiness
2.4 Load Lines
2.5 Cargo Planning and Load Distribution
2.6 Stowage of Cargoes
2.7 Segregation and Separation of Cargoes
2.8 Ballasting/Deballasting
2.9 Requirement of a Cargo Watch
2.10 Duties of Watch Keeping Officer during Cargo Operation
2.11 Summary
2.12 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of Merchant ships is to carry cargo from one place to another for profit.
The ship owner or the charterer (person who has hired the ship) needs to make sure that,
the venture would be commercially viable.
To be able to do this successfully the ships’ officers should also be familiar with the
measures which are necessary to ensure that the cargo would be carried safely without
any damage or deterioration for which proper planning, cargo distribution and stowage in
different compartments, segregation and separation of cargo is required.
They would learn about the various systems for loading and discharging of liquid cargoes
and necessity of maintaining proper supervision by ships officers during cargo
operations. Carrying cargo from one place to another is an expensive business. The ship
owner or the charterer must make sure that the venture is profitable. In this unit we will
learn the basic principles involved in cargo work and the vigilance required during port
operations.

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to
• explain the various terms related to the measurement of cargo and spaces,
• calculate the space available for the carriage of cargoes and the quantities of
various cargoes that can be carried on the ship,
• prepare a plan for the safe carriage of different cargoes,
• explain the preparations required on board ship for the safe carriage of
cargoes, and
• explain the necessity of maintaining proper supervision during the cargo
operations.

19
Cargo Handling
and Stowage 2.2 DEFINITIONS
2.2.1 Bale Capacity
Bale capacity is the space available in a ship’s compartment where cargo is loaded in
packaged form e.g. bales, bundles, bags, drums, boxes, etc.
Bale capacity is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth is taken from the inside of
the cargo battens, the depth from the top of the tank top or wooden sheathing on the tank
top to the under side of the deck beams and the length from the inside of the bulkhead
stiffeners or spar ceiling where fitted. In other words it is the volume of clear space
available inside the cargo hold without any obstructions.

Bale Capacity Grain Capacity

Figure 2.1

2.2.2 Grain Capacity

Grain capacity is the volume occupied by grain or any form of bulk cargo inside the
cargo hold.
It is the volume of space available for loading when the length, breadth and depth are
measured right to the ship’s side plating and bulkheads.
Allowance is made for the volume occupied by the frames, beams and stiffeners.
When loading bulk cargoes, which can occupy the full space even if there were
obstructions, the grain capacity of the space must be used.
From the above definitions it is clear that grain capacity is greater than bale capacity. In
certain bulk carriers and Ro – Ro ships the locale capacity may be equal to the grain
capacity.
2.2.3 Stowage Factor (SF)
The earning capacity of a ship is determined by the amount of cargo she can carry. The
ship has plans indicating the spaces available for the carriage of cargo. To calculate how
much cargo can be carried on board a ship, it is important that the space occupied by unit
mass of cargo is known.
Volume occupied by a unit mass of cargo is termed as stowage factor. In metric system
its unit is usually expressed in meter³/tonne. Thus, we say that the stowage factor of
cotton bales is 3m3/tonne.

20
2.2.4 Broken Stowage (BS) Principles of Cargo Work
and Port Watch Keeping
It is the space lost between the packages when stowing it in cargo holds. Two factors
contribute to this loss of space, which are:
• Type of the cargo, and
• Shape of the cargo hold.
• It is maximum when the packages are large and of irregular shape.
Broken stowage is expressed as a percentage of the volume of cargo.
To find the actual volume required to load unit weight break bulk cargo, broken stowage
must be added to stowage factor.
∴ Volume occupied by such a cargo = SF + (SF × BS/100)
Example 2.1
A cargo hold has a grain capacity of 3200 Cu. mtrs. and bale capacity of 3100 Cu. Mtrs.
Find the quantity of each of the following commodities which can be loaded in the
compartment:
• Cotton bales, Stowage Factor 1.6 cu.m. per ton and Broken Stowage 10%.
• Iron ore having stowage factor 0.40 cu.m. per ton.
Solution
Space available to load cotton bales = Bale capacity = 3100 cu. m.
Space required to load 1 ton = SF + (SF × BS/100)
= 1.6 + (1.6 × 10/100)
= 1.6 + 0.16 cu.m.
= 1.76 cu.m.
Quantity of cotton bales which can be loaded in the cargo hold
= 3100/1.76 tonnes
= 1761.363 tonnes
Space available to load iron ore = grain capacity
= 3200 cu. m.
Space required to load 1 ton = Stowage factor = 0.40 cu. m.
Quantity of iron ore which can be loaded in cargo hold = 3200/ 0.40
= 8000 tonnes.
2.2.5 Load Density
Load density is the maximum amount of weight that can be loaded safely on a unit area.
In metric system it is expressed as tones/meter².
Load density of various decks is provided in stability booklet, capacity plan, etc.
The height of the cargo can be decided with the help of load density of the deck and
stowage factor of the cargo.
Example 2.2
If load density of the hold in Example 1 was 10 tonnes per sq. m. and dimensions of
cargo hold is 18 × 15 × 12 m. find the quantity of cargoes in cases A and B.
Solution
Maximum quantity of cargo which can be loaded = Area of the tank top × Load density
= 18 × 15 × 10 tonnes
= 2700 tonnes
21
Cargo Handling When the vessel is loading cotton bales although maximum weight which can be loaded
and Stowage in the hold is 2700 tonnes, same can not fit as the volume of the hold is insufficient and
the ship cannot load the 2700 tonnes.
On the other hand the hold has the cubic capacity to receive 8000 tonnes of iron ore, but
load density does not permit us to load that much cargo.
Hence it can load only 2700 tonnes of iron ore.
Example 2.3
A tween deck is 18m × 15m × 4m and has a permissible load density of 5 t/m². Steel
billets of SF 0.35 m³/t and general cargo of SF 4.0 m³/t are to be loaded therein to fill all
the available space. Find the maximum quantity of steel billets that can be loaded and the
quantity of over stowed general cargo so that the load density is not exceeded.
Solution
Given dimensions of the tween deck are 18m × 15m × 4m
Volume of the compartment = 18 × 15 × 4 = 1080 m³
Area of the deck = 18 × 15 = 270 m²
Load Density = 5 t/m²
Maximum amount of cargo that can be loaded in the tween deck = 270 × 5
= 1350 Tonnes
Let x tonnes of steel billets and y tonnes of general cargo are loaded such that
x + y = 1350 … (1)
Space occupied by steel billets = Weight × S.F. = 0.35 × m³
Space occupied by gen. Cargo = Weight × S.F. = 4y m³
Hence 0.35x + 4y = 1080 … (2)
By solving equation 1 and 2 we get
x = 1183.562 tonnes
y = 166.438 tonnes
Therefore ship can load 1183.562 tonnes of steel billets and 166.438 tonnes of general
cargo to fill up the tween deck completely and not exceeding the load density.
2.2.6 Cargo Density
Cargo density is defined as mass of a cargo per unit volume. In metric system its unit is
tonnes/meter³. Therefore we can say that cargo density is reciprocal of stowage factor.
High density cargoes will have low stowage factor and low density cargoes will have
high stowage factor.
The owner of a ship wants that the space on the ship is completely utilized and also she is
loaded down to her maximum permissible draft. Only in that case he will earn maximum.
Cargoes, which have high stowage factor and less density, will not be able to bring the
ship down to her maximum permissible load line. In other words the ship’s space will get
filled up with less amount of cargo. The owner would then like to charge freight on the
volume of cargo loaded. If a heavy cargo is loaded on the ship, it will bring her to her
maximum permissible draft before the hatches are full. In this case the owner would like
to charge the freight based on the deadweight carried. Based on which the freights are
charged, the cargoes are divided into two categories. These are –
• Deadweight Cargo
• Measurement Cargo
22
2.2.7 Deadweight Cargoes Principles of Cargo Work
and Port Watch Keeping
Deadweight cargoes are those cargoes on which freight is charged on its weight. These
cargoes have low stowage factor.
2.2.8 Measurement Cargoes
Measurement cargoes are those cargoes on which freight is charged on the volume
occupied by the cargoes. These cargoes have high stowage factor.
Cargoes of stowage factor 1.2 meter³/tonne or more are treated as measurement cargoes.
In this case freight is charged on the volume occupied by the cargo.
Cargoes of stowage factor less than 1.2 meter³/tonne are treated as deadweight cargoes
and freight is charged on their weight.
Cargoes having stowage factor 0.56 meter³/tonne or lesser are termed as high density
cargoes. When such cargoes are loaded in bulk, there are special requirements.
2.2.9 Ullage
The measurement of liquid cargoes in shore tanks is usually made by measuring the
actual depth of liquid in the tank by “dipping”, i.e. lowering a steel tape into the tank and
reading the depth of oil.
Since ship’s tanks are nearly full after loading and before discharge, it is simpler to
measure the “ullage” or the space remaining between the top of the oil in the tank and the
top of the tank.

2.3 SEA WORTHINESS AND CARGO WORTHINESS

2.3.1 Seaworthiness
The fitness of a ship in all respects to cope with conditions likely to be encountered at
sea; this includes not only her hull, machinery and equipment, but also her crew
competency, sufficient provisions, stores and bunker quantity.
2.3.2 Cargo Worthiness
The fitness and readiness of the ship to load a particular type of cargo is called cargo
worthiness of the ship.

2.4 LOAD LINES

It has long been recognized that limitations on the draught to which a ship may be loaded
make a significant contribution to her safety. These limits are given in the form of
freeboards, which constitute, besides external weather tight and watertight integrity.
Acronyms with their meanings are as follows:
TF : Tropical, Fresh - This is the draft to which the vessel can load when carrying cargo
in the Tropical Fresh designated zone.
F : Fresh - This is the draft to which the vessel can load when carrying cargo in the fresh
designated zone.
T : Tropical - This is the draft to which the vessel can load when carrying cargo in the
Tropical designated zone.
S : Summer - This is the draft to which the vessel can load when carrying cargo in the
Summer designated zone.
W : Winter - This is the draft to which the vessel can load when carrying cargo in the
winter designated zone.

23
Cargo Handling
and Stowage

Powered Vessel
Starboard Side
300 MM
LTF
540 MM

230 MM LF
TF

LT 230 MM 230 MM
F
540 MM T
LS

230 MM
S
LW

C1
W

LWNA 300 MM C2
WNA

450 MM

DECK LINE
Figure 2.2

WNA : Winter, North Atlantic - This is the draft to which the vessel can load when
carrying cargo in the Winter North Atlantic designated zone and is applicable to ships
whose length is less than 100 meters.
The horizontal line whose upper edge is passing through the center of the circle is called
PLIMSOLL LINE.
The top most horizontal line is called DECK LINE.
The Deck line and the Plimsoll mark are situated exactly amidships.
The distance between the deck line and the mark to which the vessel is loaded is the
Freeboard. The mark is required to be permanently fixed to the vessel amidships on both
sides of the hull and painted in a colour that contrasts with the hull colour.
All vessels must, in addition to having the loadline permanently marked
on both sides of the hull, carry a loadline certificate, issued by a classification society,
this certificate stipulates the distances and drafts required for that particular vessel.
All the lines are 25 mm thick and are cut into the shell plating. The upper edge of each
load line indicates its exact level. The top of the deck line indicates where the top of the
freeboard deck meets the outer side of the shell plating.
Exactly 540 mm forward of the disk is a vertical line with horizontal lines 230 mm long
on each side of it. On the forward side of vertical line are marked T, S, W and if
applicable, WNA.
The upper edge of summer line is at the same level as the upper edge of line of the
Plimsoll mark.
The distance between upper edges of S and T and also S and W is 1/48 of Summer Draft
of the ship. If WNA mark is applicable then it is situated exactly 50 mm below the winter
mark.

24
The vertical distance between S and F and also between T and TF is called the fresh Principles of Cargo Work
water allowance (FWA) of the ship. and Port Watch Keeping

2.5 CARGO PLANNING AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION

Cargo Planning is required to ensure that optimum utilization of cargo space is carried
out to earn maximum freight and also to ensure the safety and economy of cargo
operations.
Prior to loading any cargo or preparing stowage plan, five basic concepts must be
considered. These are:
• The stability of the Ship
• Care of the Cargo
• Optimum use of Cargo Space
• Minimizing Port Time
• Safety of Personnel
2.5.1 The Stability of the Ship
Improper loading of cargo can cause excessive stresses on ships structure or inadequate
stability during the voyage and therefore this aspect has to be taken care of during the
planning stage.
Cargo must be distributed throughout the ship in such a way that, the ship must have the
ability to remain stable at all stages of loading, discharging and while in transit. In other
words the cargo should be so loaded that the vessel is stable at all times.
Another important aspect of cargo planning is, that the loading should not over stress any
part of the vessel. Due consideration should be given to load density and stresses caused
due to uneven and improper loading. (Load Density is the amount of cargo loaded per
square meter - t/m2). Poor distribution of the cargo may “stress” the vessel resulting in
possible structural damage and loss of the ship.
Cargo must be secured in such a way that it will not shift during the voyage, as any
shifting may cause excessive and unacceptable list and/or trim. The cargo if allowed to
shift may become loose and the momentum developed by the cargo during shifting can
do serious damage to ship’s structure and even affect the watertight integrity of the
vessel.
2.5.2 The Protection of the Cargo
Cargo should be transported in a safe and efficient manner from load port to destination.
It is in interest of all parties involved that the cargo is delivered in a proper condition. In
order to achieve this all efforts must be made to protect the cargo against damages that
may occur due to:
• Moisture – due to improper ventilation causing ship or cargo sweat,
• Water – through leaky hatch covers trunk ways, ventilators or ingress of
water from other places,
• Contamination with other cargo,
• Not following instructions given by the shipper,
• Packing getting damaged while in care of vessel,
• Temperature sensitive cargo being heated or cooled above/below acceptable
limits,
• Shifting of cargo because of improper and/or insufficient lashing, and
• Improper loading causing cargo to collapse.
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Cargo Handling 2.5.3 Optimum Use of Cargo Space
and Stowage
The vessel should be fully loaded up to her loadline marks to earn the maximum freight.
Thus the planning of loading and stowage should be such that no space within the hold is
left unoccupied. This is an ideal condition and is rarely achieved as some space is left due
to different sizes of cargo and uneven shape of hold. The skill and experience of the
stevedores and ship’s officers, and full knowledge of hold and cargo dimensions and
proper planning can limit the broken stowage considerably.
2.5.4 Minimizing Port Time
A ship earns while carrying cargo from load port to the destination, but the expenses at
the discharge port are more if the ship stays longer than required. Thus the time spent by
the ship in port is particularly expensive to a ship owner and/or charterer and therefore is
required to be kept to a minimum.
In order to achieve fast turn around and to avoid over carriage and over stowage,
complete and up-to-date cargo booking list should be available. Cargo for different ports
should be distinctly marked and loaded under constant supervision of ship’s officers.
Palletized cargoes may be pre-slung to reduce port time. Proper gear for loading all types
of cargo should be readily available.
2.5.5 Safety of Personnel
The risk to life or injury is considerably reduced, if ship’s crew and stevedores are aware
of potential hazard related to cargo handling of a particular operation.
“Numerous publications issued by various organizations are available and should be
consulted before carrying out any operation. Some of the publications are listed below:
CODE OF SAFE PRACTICES FOR MERCHANT SEAMEN.
IMO CODES FOR THE CARRIAGE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF CARGOES.
IMO CODE OF SAFE PRATICES FOR CARRIGE OF BULK CARGOES.
IMDG CODE (2 VOLUMES + 1 SUPPLEMENT).
“MGN” AND “MS” NOTICES.
INTERNATIONAL SAFETY GUIDE FOR OIL TANKERS and TERMINALS
“IF IN ANY DOUBT, ASK (WHO, WHEN, WHAT, WHERE, WHICH, HOW)” should
be your motto, so that you can keep yourself away from trouble.

2.6 STOWAGE OF CARGOES

2.6.1 Measurement of Spaces in Hold
Prior to stowing cargo it is very important to know the capacities and dimensions of
cargo spaces. All these capacities i.e. Bale Capacity, Grain Capacity, Container Capacity,
etc. are given in the capacity plan.
Apart from these capacities, it is important to also know the breakdown of above-
mentioned capacities and dimensions e.g. capacity and dimension of under wing spaces
(port and starboard) and end spaces (forward and aft) which are not accessible by
derrick/crane, and capacity and dimension of clear hatch square. This helps in planning
the cargo better where segregation, separation and port of rotation play important role.
The dimension and capacity breakdown is also given in the capacity plan.
Once the preliminary cargo planning is over, spaces in hold are physically measured and
marked according to dimension of cargo. This ensures the feasibility of the preliminary
cargo plan and proper stowage of cargoes.

26
2.6.2 Hogging and Sagging Principles of Cargo Work
and Port Watch Keeping
Hogging and Sagging are longitudinal bending stresses, which may occur due to action
of waves or loading/discharging. Excessive weight at ends of ship may cause her to hog
while too much weight amidships may cause her to sag. The cargo should be so stowed
that these stresses are not exceeded.
2.6.3 Port Rotation
Port Rotation is the sequence of ports the vessel is going to call at for loading and/or
discharging. It is very important to know port rotation prior to preparing a cargo stowage
plan.
2.6.4 Cargo Plan
Prior to loading of cargo, a reasonably accurate cargo stowage plan is prepared by the
Chief Officer based on the available information on the cargo spaces and the cargo. It
gives estimation as to how much cargo should be loaded in which compartment/space.
Benefits of preparing cargo plans are:
• Estimation of the cargo quantity to be loaded.
• Quick reference at the time of loading/discharging
• Best utilization of available space.
• Facilities like good distribution of cargo and keeping a check on draft, trim
and stresses at each load and discharge port.
• Help stevedores in locating cargo at the port of discharge and prevent over
carriage.
• To Loading sequence can be easily determined on the basis of discharge port
sequence.
• Mobilization of all resources required for loading (e.g. special cargo gear)
and segregation (e.g. dunnage, markers, nets, etc.) in time.
• Fast turn around and best utilization of time in port.
• Better management and cost saving.

2.7 SEGREGATION AND SEPARATION OF

CARGOES
2.7.1 Segregation and Separation
Certain cargo may contaminate due to the presence of other cargoes in the vicinity and
therefore need to be segregated either by means of proper dunnaging or by loading in a
separate compartment.
Contamination of cargo means degradation of the quality of cargo carried. Once the
cargo has been loaded on board it becomes the responsibility of the ship's staff to
maintain the quality and quantity of cargo. If these two are not maintained the cargo may
not be accepted and claim on ship owners for the loss or damage to the cargo.
Some cargoes may be affected due to strong smells of other cargoes and should be loaded
well away of such cargoes. Other cargoes contain pungent smell and may affect other
cargoes. Deodorizing of the compartment becomes necessary if such cargoes have been
loaded in them previously.
Dirty Cargoes are those that give stains, strong smells, fumes or dust e.g. oils, paints and
animal products.
Clean Cargoes are those that do not give stains, smell or dusts e.g. finished products of
timber, steel, etc.
27
Cargo Handling 2.7.2 Separation
and Stowage
Separation may be required for the different grades of cargo or different parcels of the
same cargo. Method of separation depends on the type of cargo e.g. bales are separated
by rope yarns; steel rails are separated by marking them with paint or wire strands; boxes
and bagged cargo are separated with the help of burlap; colour coding of bags is done to
separate same cargo for different ports.
Precautions for Segregation and Separation
• Dirty cargoes should be segregated from clean cargoes.
• Odorous cargoes should be separated from sensitive cargoes.
• Light and fragile cargoes should not be loaded along with heavy cargoes.
• Dangerous cargoes have their own segregation table and should be stowed
strictly as per the IMO guidelines.
• Block stowage should be given to same type of cargo carried for two
different ports to avoid over-carriage.
• Markings, separation nets or other means of identifying the cargoes for
different ports should be used in the cargo holds and reflected on the cargo
plan.
• Detailed information should be obtained from various publications for
segregation and separation to avoid any damage to cargo.
Certain cargoes may get contaminated due to the presence of other cargoes in the vicinity
and therefore need to be segregated either by means of proper dunnaging or by loading in
a separate compartment.
Contamination of cargo means degradation of the quality of cargo carried. Once the
cargo has been loaded on board it becomes the responsibility of the ship’s staff to
maintain the quality and quantity of cargo. If these two are not maintained the cargo may
not be accepted and claim on ship owners for the loss or damage to the cargo.
Some cargoes may be affected due to strong smells of other cargoes and should be loaded
well away of such cargoes. Other cargoes contain pungent smell and may affect other
cargoes. Deodorizing of the compartment becomes necessary if such cargoes have been
loaded in them previously.
Dirty Cargoes are those that give stains, strong smells, fumes or dust e.g. oils, paints and
animal products.
Clean Cargoes are those that do not give stains, smell or dusts e.g. finished products of
timber, steel, etc.

2.8 BALLASTING/DEBALLASTING
2.8.1 Ballasting/Deballasting
A ship normally carries cargo from one port to another. There may be certain ports,
where there is no cargo to be loaded on the ship. The ship might have to sail from a port
without any cargo after discharging the cargo. When the ship has to sail without cargo,
she is said to be in light condition. The underwater volume of the ship may be such that it
may become difficult to handle the ship. The ships are normally designed to take water
into tanks specially meant for this purpose so that the ship can be handled properly. The
water which is taken for this purpose is known as ballast. In earlier times, general cargo
ships used to carry solid ballast, but this limited the cargo carrying capacity of the ship.
Now-a-days water ballast is carried. The operation of taking in the ballast is known as
ballasting and the procedure of pumping out ballast is known as deballasting.

28
2.8.2 Piping System Principles of Cargo Work
and Port Watch Keeping
Pipelines are simply lengths of steel pipes which connect groups of tanks to one and
another and by which those tanks are loaded or discharged.
There are various piping systems as follows:
(i) Ring Main System
This system is generally found on older ships. This system has basically a
circular arrangement of pipelines whereby, the oil can be pumped up one
side of the ship, across to the other and then back down that side. On ships
with pump room situated amidships, one ring main serves the tanks forward
of the pump room and the other aft tanks.
(ii) Direct Line System
This system generally found on VLCCs adopts short lengths of pipes with fewer
bends as compared to ring main system, ensuring less loss in pressure and
provides better suction. This requires less maintenance. There are lesser valves,
thus leaks are difficult to control. Lesser grades can be carried due to
segregation problems.
(iii) Free Flow System
On some VLCCs, gate valves are constructed on the tank bulkheads. When these
valves are opened, the stern trim of the vessel causes the oil to flow to the
aftermost tank from where direct lines to the pump are provided. This is a very
fast method of discharge.

2.8.3 Pumps
There are basically two types of cargo pumps on oil tankers; positive displacement and
centrifugal. These are usually driven by steam.
(i) Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pump or Screw Pump or Piston Pump
In these types of pumps, a certain amount of liquid is moved with each pump
cycle. The pump piston draws liquid through a non-return suction valve into a
cylinder. The cylinder gets full at the end of the suction stroke and on the reverse
stroke the liquid is expelled from the cylinder through a non-return discharge
valve. Most pumps are “double-acting” to ensure a steady flow of oil. These
pumps move a low volume of oil at relatively high pressure. Their use on tankers
is restricted to stripping pumps.
(ii) Centrifugal Pump
These types of pumps have an impeller inside a casing, which moves the oil by
means of pushing it. The oil is sucked into the casing through a suction valve from
the tank main line and is pumped to the deck line through a discharge valve. The
pump provides a continuous flow of oil. These pumps move large volumes of
liquid at a relatively low pressure. They are used as main cargo pumps.

2.8.4 Valves
The valves fitted on the pipeline systems fall under following categories:
(i) Manifold Valve
Cargo is loaded or discharged through shore hoses or loading arms which are
connected to deck pipelines known as manifold. Valves which are fitted to the
connecting flanges are used to control the flow of liquid.

29
Cargo Handling (ii) Drop Valves
and Stowage
The valve situated on deck, through which the liquid drops down to the tank.
These valves control the flow of liquid in drop lines, which connect the deck lines
to the tank.
(iii) Master Valves
At each place where a fore and aft line passes through a tank bulkhead a valve is
fitted in the line. This is known as master valve and usually separates tanks served
by the same fore and aft line.
(iv) Cross over Valve
Lines joining athwart ship tanks to main line are known as cross over lines and the
cross over valves separate the main lines from each other as well as individual
tanks.
(v) Tank Valves
These valves are situated close to the bell mouth in tank (from where suction is
taken). These control the flow of oil into and out of the tank.

2.8.5 Control Systems

On many tankers, cargo operations are directed from the cargo control room. The duty
officer or the Chief Officer can monitor different parameters of the cargo from here like
ullages of tanks, pressures, temperature. It is possible to operate cargo system valves and
pumps from the control room. The cargo control room may contain: indicators for
ullages, pressure, temperature; computers to indicate stress, draught and trim, controls for
valves and pumps, controls for inert gas system and indicators, alarm systems and
communication equipment for communication within and outside the ship.

2.9 REQUIREMENT OF A CARGO WATCH

After the planning and preparation stage, next stage is execution. Execution involves
checking of cargo, cargo tally, cargo stowage and cargo securing operation. The ship can
load maximum cargo only if a proper and efficient cargo watch is maintained. This
involves the following:
• To load cargo as per the loading plan.
• To keep the broken stowage to minimum by monitoring the way cargo is
being stowed in the cargo holds.
• Use of proper and effective dunnage material.
• Making sure that there are sufficient approved securing points around the
cargo as per Cargo Securing Manual.
• Carrying out ballasting/deballasting operations as ordered by chief officer.
If proper cargo watch is not maintained, the following consequences could be there:
• The ship could be exposed to the influence of shore personnel, who have no
responsibility on board and limited interest in its safety or commercial
viability.
• Increase in the risks of accident and pollution.
• Risk of theft, drug trafficking, stoways and other criminal activities.
• Damage to cargo or ship structure.
• No records to counter any cargo claims.
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2.10 DUTIES OF WATCHKEEPING OFFICER Principles of Cargo Work
and Port Watch Keeping
DURING CARGO OPERATION
There are many risks involved during cargo work. An efficient watch keeping officer
eliminates the risks involved. While maintaining an efficient cargo watch following
points should be borne in mind but not limited to:
• Safety of vessel is not impaired at any time.
• Ship is upright at all times and does not develop excessive trim.
• Ship is alongside pier, mooring lines taut and rat guards fitted at all times.
• Gangway watch is maintained at all times. No unauthorized persons are
allowed on board.
• Replenishment of stores, fresh water and bunkers is done in safe, effective
and efficient manner. All precautions for same should be followed.
• Proper cargo gear is in use for cargo operation.
• Ship’s cargo gear is handled properly and is never overloaded.
• Badly illuminated deck and cargo space is a virtual death trap. It is very
important to have deck and all cargo spaces well illuminated. This
prevents any accidents, fire hazards and pilferage of cargo.
• Fire being the major hazard on board ship, strict vigilance should be
maintained.
• ‘No Smoking, No Naked Lights’ is strictly observed, particularly in cargo
holds.
- Monitor fire detection system and carry out fire patrols frequently.
- No hot work is permitted during cargo operation.
- Fire-Fighting equipments are in readiness when loading dangerous
cargo.
- Cargo loaded is in good condition and packing intact.
- Cargo is loaded in accordance with Stowage Plan.
- Proper dunnaging and segregation of cargo is done where required.
- All crew and stevedores are working safely and are adopting safe
working practices.
- Discipline and orderly conduct of all personnel on board.
2.10.1 Precautions during Cargo Work
There are many factors that may cause accident during cargo operation. A great majority
of them can be prevented by taking adequate precautions as follows:
• Proper lighting should be maintained in the holds and other working area.
• On general cargo ships, when working cargo in only part of the hatch, end
beams should always be secured by beam bolts. An unsecured beam may be
caught by the cargo hook, displaced and fall in the lower compartment.
Never insert fingers to check if holes for inserting beam bolts are aligned.
• Before unshipping beams make sure that the beam bolts have been removed.
If a sliding beam gets jammed, do not use winch to free it and never walks
on a beam.
• When working Union Purchase, the preventer guys should be strong. If the
preventer guy breaks, the derrick and load will swing violently across the
deck damaging cargo and causing serious injury to crew or stevedore. Do
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Cargo Handling not use old runners for preventers. Do not secure preventer and outboard
and Stowage guy to the same point.
• Never change gear of a cargo winch without first making sure that there is
no load on the winch drum. Very often the derrick topping lift is secured on
the drum. As soon as the winch gear is shifted, the derrick comes crashing
down.
• Keep at least three turns on the winch drum when lowering a derrick or
other heavy load. Lesser turns may cause the wire to run uncontrollably
from the drum.
• Cargo hook should never be used for dragging cargo inside a hatch or
pulling barges alongside. This may cause the S.W.L. of derrick to exceed
resulting in disaster.
• Never stand or pass under a loaded sling.
• Never stand inside the bight of a rope or wire under stress. Always keep
clear of the danger zone.
• All openings should be fenced off to prevent anyone falling down.
• Never take a step backwards when on deck or in holds. Always turn around
and walk forward.
The list of precautions is never ending. One can never be safe enough and has to be on
guard at all times. It is advised to read as many publications as possible and use good
seamanship practices to avoid any mishaps on board ship.
2.10.2 Pilferage
Pilferage may be defined as minor theft arising as a result of suitable opportunity. Certain
cargo is liable to be broached and pilfered if a suitable opportunity is given. Once the
cargo has been loaded on board, it becomes the responsibility of the ship’s staff to ensure
that no pilferage takes place.
(i) Precautions to Prevent Pilferage
• Anti-Pilferage watches should be maintained during loading/discharging
operation and meal hours. Shore watchman may be employed under
supervision of Officer.
• Circumstances permitting, all labour should be compelled to leave during
meal hours, which is also an additional precaution against fire.
• Cargo subjected to pilferage should be loaded during daytime.
• Correct documentation of cargo should be provided and used.
• Unsound and suspicious packages should be rejected.
• Strapping and securing should be sufficiently strong.
• Accurate and reliable tally of cargo should be carried out.
• Tamper proof seals should be used where appropriate.
• Adequate lighting of main deck and cargo spaces to be maintained during
night.
• Expensive cargoes, where possible, to be kept under lock and
loaded/discharged under direct supervision.
• Ventilators should be covered with wire mesh.
On completion of cargo work, hatches to be properly closed and locked. If the hold is
open, cargo liable for pilferage should be quickly overstowed.
SAQ 1
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(a) A cargo hold 20m × 15m × 12m, having bale capacity of 3550 m³ and load Principles of Cargo Work
density 5t/m² is to be filled so as to maximize the freight. The cargo and Port Watch Keeping
available is
Steel billets SF 0.5m3 /t Freight: $ 30/ per tonne.
Cotton bales SF 2.8m3 / t Freight: $ 50/ per tonne.
How much of each cargo will you load and what is the freight earned?
(b) A cargo hold measures 20m × 18 m × 10m. How many tones of cotton
having S.F. 2.60 m³/t and broken stowage 8% would fit in it?
(c) Length of hold = 18m, Breadth of hold = 10m, Height of hold = 9m. General
cargo of stowage factor 0.9m³/t is to be loaded. Find the weight of cargo that
can be loaded in the hold if the broken stowage expected is 3% and load
density of the tank top is 9 t/m².
(d) Length of hold = 17 m, Breadth of hold = 10m, height of hold = 9m.
General cargo of stowage factor 2.7 m³/t is to be loaded. Find the weight of
cargo that can be loaded in the hold if the expected broken stowage is 11%.
(e) How many tones of Jute bales would fit in a hold 12m × 9m × 3.5m given
stowage factor as 1.61 m³ /t and broken stowage 6%.
(f) A hold 12m × 8m × 5m is to be filled with steel boxes (SF 1.0 m³/ t) and oil
tins (SF 1.90 m³ /t) if the load density of the tank top is 3.6 t/ m² up to what
height should skids be loaded so that hold is completely filled and load
density is not exceeded?
(g) The dimensions of a tween deck are 20m × 15m × 3m. Find the maximum
weight of general cargo that can be loaded in the compartment if stowage
factor is 2.0 m³/t and broken stowage is 10%. Will the quantity of cargo be
different if load density of the deck is 1.25 t/ m²? Give reasons for your
answer.
(h) The dimensions of a tween deck (bale capacity of 760 m3) are
13m × 10m × 6m. 220t of cotton bales (SF 2.35 m³/t and BS = 7%) are to be
loaded. Calculate the height of empty space left in the tween deck.
(i) The dimensions of a compartment are 24m × 15m × 8m with a permissible
load density of 5.0 t/m². If 450t of steel billets is to be loaded at the bottom
and leveled, find how much quantity of cotton bales can be loaded on top of
the first cargo? Given: SF of steel billets 0.5 m³/t and SF of cotton bales
2.7 m³/t.
(j) Define following:
(i) Bale Capacity (ii) Grain Capacity
(iii) Stowage Factor (iv) Broken stowage
(v) Load Density (vi) Deadweight Cargo
(vii) Measurement Cargo
(k) Draw a neat sketch of load line as painted on Port side of the Ship.
(l) What factor will you consider prior making a loading plan?
(m) On what basis will you segregate the cargoes?
(n) Describe various types of pumps used in cargo operations.
(o) Describe the precautions need to be considered while keeping a watch as an
officer during cargo operations.

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Cargo Handling
and Stowage 2.11 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about various terms related to the measurement of cargo and
cargo spaces. You have also learnt about basic information that is required before you
can commence loading a Ship such as
− Bale and Grain Capacity of a Ship
− Stowage factor, Broken stowage of cargoes, Cargo density and load density.
− Cargoworthiness and seaworthiness.
All ships can load to the limit of assigned freeboards and the stability of a ship can be
good only if you have done proper cargo planning and distribution.
Number of precautions must be taken for the protection, seggragation and safe stowage
of cargo. An officer on Cargo Watch is responsible for the Safe handling and Stowage of
the Cargo as well as the ballasting and deballasting of the Ship during stowage and
discharge.

2.12 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Cotton bales: 1267.857 Ts. and Freight earned $ 63392.86
(b) 1282.051 Ts.
(c) 1620 Ts.
(d) 510.51 Ts.
(e) 221.493 Ts.
(f) Steel Boxes: 494.93 Ts., Oil Tins: 149.33 Ts.
(g) (i) 409.09 Ts. (ii) 170.454 Ts.
(h) 1.744 Metres
(i) Cotton bales 983.33 Ts.

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