Cell theory  All have ribosomes

Hierarchy: Prokaryotic cells:

cell tissues organ & organism  Do not contain a nucleus
(species)
 Have their DNA located in a region called
organ systems
the nucleoid
population community
Eukaryotic cells
 Contain a true nucleus, bounded by a membranous
1. The cell is the smallest unit of life
nuclear envelope
Hierarchy:
 Generally, quite bigger than prokaryotic cells
 Cell theory is one of the foundations of Biology, it
provides an explanation of the relationship between cells
and living organisms. There are three points to Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
remember: PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
 First, the cell is the basic structural, functional and “po”: before “eu” : true
organizational structure of life. “karyon”: kernel “karyon” : kernel
Nucleoid region With membrane enclosed
 The cell that’s responsible for metabolic processes
nucleus
aggregate into tissues to perform a specific function.
Simple organization Complex & elaborate
Organs are formed when 2 or more types of tissues work organelle organization
together to perform a function. Lastly, there is the Circular DNA Linear DNA
organism which is composed of the different organ 1-10 µm in size 10-100 µm in size
system. Has cell wall May /may not possess a cell
wall
2. All organisms are made from one or more cells
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Single-celled organisms
- Functions as a selective barrier
 Escherichia coli
- Allows enough passage of nutrients
 Giardia lamblia
and waste
Multicellular organisms
- Selective semi permeable
 Hibiscus rosa sinensis (Gumamela)
- Dissolve oxygen carried by blood (cell respiration)
 Bufo americanus
- Hydrophobic
 There are organisms that can survive as a single-cell unit - hydrophilic
while others exist in a multicellular organization. For the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
single-celled organism these are mostly from the archaea - Encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from
and bacteria domain and some protozoans like this the cytoplasm
parasite, Giardia lamblia which causes giardiasis (severe - Has pores to contact with cytoplasm
diarrhea).
- Protects nucleous
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cell (revised by Rudolph - Produces RNA
Virchow and Robert Remak) RIBOSOMES: Protein Factories in the Cell
through Cell Division (Mitosis, Meiosis) - Are particles made of ribosomal RNA
 Cells came from pre-existing cells. They do not come and protein
from spontaneous generation but through cell division - Carry out protein synthesis
(mitosis and meiosis) thus the cells have the same - tRNA and rRNA (helpers)-subordinate of ribosomes
genetic make-up.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER): Biosynthetic Factory
Cell Structure and functions
- Accounts for more than half the total membrane in
- Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that
many eukaryotic cells
compartmentalize their functions
- Helps in the purification of protein from ribosome
Two types of cells make up every organism:
- Endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and
o Prokaryotic
performs metabolic functions in the cell
o Eukaryotic
- The endomembrane system
(All Prokaryotes came from eukaryotes)
- Includes many different structures
All cells have several basic features in common:
- Filters through rough ER to Smooth ER
 Are bounded by a plasma membrane
ER MEMBRANE
 Contain a semifluid substance called the cytosol
- Is continuous with the nuclear envelope
 Contain chromosomes
 -storage
-reserve of cells
Two distinct regions of ER:  Food vacuoles
 SMOOTH ER - Are formed by phagocytosis
– Synthesizes lipids  Contractile vacuoles
– Metabolizes carbohydrates - Pump excess water out of protist cells
– Stores calcium  Central vacuoles
– Detoxifies poison - Found in plant cells
– Lacks ribosomes - Hold reserves of important organic
 ROUGH ER compounds and water
– Produces proteins and membranes, which are o Cytosol- liquid part of cytoplam
distributed by transport vesicles(GOLGI BODIES) THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
– Contain bond ribosome - Is a complex and dynamic player in the cell’s
compartmental organization
o Apoptosis-cell program death Relationships among organelles of the endomembrane
system:
THE GOLGI APPARATUS: Shipping and Receiving Center
- Receives many of the transport vesicles produced in
the rough ER
- Consists of flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae
Functions:
- Modification of the products of the rough ER
- Manufacture of certain macromolecules

Concept: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from

LYSOSOMES: Digestive Compartments
- Is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes(helpers)
- Can digest all kinds of macromolecules(Lipids)
- Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion by:
 Phagocytosis - large particles (such as bacteria)
are taken up into phagocytic vacuoles or
phagosomes
 Autophagy - gradual turnover of the cell’s own
components.  - Structure includes:
-breakdown damage organelles
VACUOLES: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
- A plant or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles
one form to another
MITOCHONDRIA: Chemical Energy Conversion
- Are the sites of cellular respiration
- Are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
- Chemical energy converter
- Matrix (fluid of mitochondria)
- Enclosed by two membranes:
 A smooth outer membrane
 An inner membrane folded into cristae
CHLOROPLASTS: Capture of Light Energy
- Found only in plants, are the sites of photosynthesis
- A specialized member of a family of closely related plant
organelles called plastids
- Contains chlorophyll
- Are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and
in algae
 Thylakoids (stack = Granum) -membranous sacs
 Stroma -the internal fluid
(Mitochondria and chloroplasts – both have DNA)
 - Can be divided in 2 groups:
PEROXISOMES: Oxidation 1. Extremely halophile grows at salt concentration
- Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water 2. of 15% w/v NaCl (2.5M) –highly saline
CYTOSKELETON T-Temperature
- network of fibers that organizes structures and activities o Psychrophilic bacteria – grow within the temp range
in the cell, extending throughout the cytoplasm. of 32°F (0°C) – 70°F (21°C)
- Gives mechanical support to the cell (Spoilage organisms)
- Roles: Support, Motility, and Regulation o Mesophilic bacteria – 70°F (21°C) – 110°F(43°C)
- Involved in cell motility w/c utilizes motor proteins o Thermophilic bacteria – grows best above 110°F
- Holds cell in shape (43°C)-60°C
Helper: o Hyperthermophilic bacteria – 60°F (43°C) - 100°C
Receptor(Motor protein)-release ATP (volcanoes)
3 main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton:
 Microtubules  METHANOGENS
- Shape the cell - Live in swamps and marshes
- Guide movement of organelles - Produce methane as a waste product
- Help separate the chromosome copies in dividing
cells Prokaryotic most common shapes:
 Centrosome 1. Spheres (cocci)
- Considered to be a “microtubule-organizing center” 2. Rods (bacilli)
 Centrioles 3. Spirals
- occurring in pairs and involved in the development
of spindle fibers in cell division. Cell Surface Structures:
PROKARYOTES VS EUKARYOTES - Cell wall: one of the most important features of nearly all
- prokaryotic – single cell but can function on its own prokaryotic cells
- eukaryotic – multi-cellular - Covered by a capsule, a sticky layer of polysaccharide
WHITTAKER SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION: or protein.
1. PLANTAE - eu - Some prokaryotes have fimbriae and pili
2. ANIMALIA - eu Fimbriae and Pili- attachment purposes
3. PROTISTA – pro & eu (e.g amoeba) -movement and attachment
- Some are unicellular/multicellular -networking for
MONERA Flagella
(algae, seaweed)
4. EUBACTERIA - eu -motility(movement)
5. ARCHAEBACTERIA- pro - Most motile bacteria propel themselves by flagella:
6. FUNGI- eu structurally and functionally different from eukaryotic
From 7 kingdoms to 6, now only 5 flagella.
Prokaryote in General:  In a heterogeneous environment, many bacteria exhibit
- Most are microscopic taxis.
- Almost everywhere  Taxis-different movement
- Are resilient (reason why they’re plenty)  Phototaxis- respond to sunlight
- Thrive almost everywhere:  Some Prokaryotes have specialized membranes that
(Places too acidic, too salty, too cold or too hot) perform metabolic functions.
 Thermophiles-too hot and cold  Prokaryotes has more flagella than eukaryotes
 Acidophiles-too acidic  Some species of bacteria have smaller rings of DNA
 Halophiles-too salty called plasmids.
Reproduction and Adaptation
 ACIDOPHILIC (Acid-loving) Bacteria Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by binary fission.
- Acidophilic microbes thrive in this biofilm growing - Ribosomes divide first, and they double the protein
inside an abandoned mine at Iron Mountain, Calif. - Can divide every 1-3 hours.
- Can still live below 2.0 PH or below  Replication of DNA
Human Stomach is 3.0 PH  Growth of cell
 HALOPHILES  Segregation of DNA
- Found in salt marshes (landlocked wetland)
  Splitting of cells (new individual)
Concept: A great diversity of nutritional and metabolic
adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes
Examples of all four models of nutrition are found among
prokaryotes
 Photoautotrophy-
 Chemoautotrophy-
 Photoheterotrophy
 Chemoheterotrophy
 PHOTOAUTOTROPHS – use light-energy to drive
synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide;
internal membrane with light-harvesting pigment
systems.
- light dependent; make their own food
 CHEMOAUTOTROPHS – need only CO2 as a carbon
source, obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances:
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), ferrous ions (Fe2+)
-chemicals (inorganic)
 PHOTOHETEROTROPHS – use light-energy to generate
ATP, but must obtain carbon in organic form.
 CHEMOHETEROTROPHS – must consume organic
molecules for both energy and carbon.
Metabolic Relationships to Oxygen
Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect to oxygen.
 OBLIGATE AEROBES
- Require oxygen
 FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES
- Can survive with or without oxygen
 OBLIGATE ANAEROBES
- Are poisoned by oxygen
Nitrogen Metabolism
Prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in variety of ways.
 NITROGEN FIXATION – some prokaryotes convert
atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia.
 NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA-nitrogen go to soil
through lightning
Metabolic Cooperation
- Cooperation between prokaryotes allows them to use
environmental resources they could not use as individual
cells.
In the cyanobacterium Anabaena
- Photosynthetic cells and nitrogen-fixing cells
exchange metabolic products.
- heterocysts
In some prokaryotic species
- Metabolic cooperation occurs in surface-coating
colonies called biofilms.-full of fungi(colony) in
petri dish
Concept: Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotic
phylogeny.
- Until the late 20th Century: Systematists based
prokaryotic taxonomy on phenotypic criteria
- Applying molecular systematics to the investigation of
prokaryotic phylogeny produced dramatic results.
-prokaryotes have thylakoid –perform metabolic function
ARCHAEA
- share certain traits with bacteria and other traits with
eukaryotes.
- Some live in extreme environments
- Extreme Thermophiles thrive in very hot environments.
- Extreme Halophiles live in high saline environments.
-chloroplasts(cyanobacteria)-prokaryote
-ancestor of plant cell
Concept: Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere:
recycling of chemical
- Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as
decomposers.
- Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes add usable nitrogen to the
environment.
Symbiotic Relationships
- Many prokaryotes live with other organisms in symbiotic
relationship such as mutualism and commensalism.
Concept: Prokaryotes have both harmful and beneficial
impacts on humans
- Some prokaryotes are human pathogens.
- Prokaryotes cause about half of all human diseases.
(e.g. Lyme disease)
- Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease by releasing
exotoxins or endotoxins.
- Many pathogenic bacteria are potential weapons of
bioterrorism.
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology
- Experiments using prokaryotes have led to importance
advances in DNA technology.
- Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation: the
use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment.
- Prokaryotes are also major tools in:
 Mining -activate and regulate T and B cells
 Synthesis of vitamins  T cells
 Production of antibiotics, hormones and other products. - Fight against virus infection and
tumor cells
EXTRA NOTES: - Remember type of virus or
 If fungi and bacteria cool-off and grows in mass it is bacteria that affect the person
called a biofilm - Innate and adoptive
 Biofouling= the accumulation of microorganisms, responses(phagocytosis)
- Years to replenish
plants, algae, or animals on wetted surfaces. Such
 T Supressor cells (T regulatory cells)
accumulation is referred to as epibiosis when the
- You will go back to normal after
host surface is another organism and the
infection
relationship is not parasitic - For autoimmunity
 The structure of the chloroplast is cocci - Take weeks
 Cyanobacteria -a division of microorganisms that B cells
are related to the bacteria but are capable of -release anti bodies
photosynthesis. They are prokaryotic and represent Monocytes
the earliest known form of life on the earth. - Migrates in blood stream and become a resident of
the liver or macropages
Adipocytes
CELL TYPES (SPECIALIZATION AND MODIFICATION) - Cell signaling
TYPES OF ANIMAL CELL: Erithocyte
Stem cell - RBC
- from bone marrow, placenta,umbilical cord Muscle cells (myocytes)
- unspecialized - For bodily movement
bone cells - Skeletal muscle
o osteoid- fluid - Cardiac
types: - Smooth muscle (organs)
 osteoclasts- large cells that decompose Fat cells (adipocytes)
bones for resorption and assimilation - Regulate sex hormone metabolism
(digest) - Help balance temperature
 osteoblast-regulate bone mineralization - Triglycendes(stored fat)-used for energy
 osteocytes-aids bone formation and - Cell send signal or enzyme
calcium balance - Fat being stored, fat cells swell (expand) and become
blood cells bound. If used it will shrink
- blood type, distribute oxygen(RBC) Skin cells
- destroy phatogens for immunesytem (WBC)-  Keratinocytes –keratin- pigmentain of hair
phagocytosis  Melanocyte –melanin –pigmentation of
- help blood clot (platelets) skin
- types of WBC or leukocytes  Merkel cell
 neutrophils- love bacteria and fungi (eat)  Langerhan cell
-6hrs to days (apoptosis)
 eosinophils-eat large parasite Nerve cells (neurons)
-allergic inflammatory responses - Nerve ending attached and give responses
-8 to 12 days
 basophil-modulate allergic reaction Endothelial cells
-antihistamine (allery rxn) - Inner lining of cardiovascular system and lymphatic
-few hours to days - Responsible for angiogenesis , regulate movement of
 lymphocytes-fight tumor cells macromolecules
-release anti bodies and - Inner layer of blood and lymphatic and organ vessels
activation of T cells - Also found in skin
Types of T cells: Kupffer cell
T helper cells - Macrophage found in our lives
Sex cells (gametes)
- Reproductive cells
- Sperm and ovary
Parenchyma
- From greek word “parenklyma” means something
poured beside
- Major cell of plants
- Leaves; responsible for plant metabolism and
production(photosynthesis)
- Flexible; thinner walls
- Isodiametricin shape
- Carry large amount of chloroplast
- Have starch, protein, fats, pigments crystals
- Walls are cellulose(hard)
- Softest among the 3
- Green due to photosynthesis

Collenchyma
- Living thin walled cells
- Provide plants support when young (it stretches out)
- Elastic; hypodermis of stem and leaves
- Absent in monocots and roots(only in dicot)
- Provide mechanical support
- Found in dicot stem

Sclerenchyma
- From greek word “skleros” means hard
- Thick lignified walls
- Seen in roots (anchorage)
- No intercellular spaces
- Occur in hypodermis,pericycle
- Thickest among the 3

Xylem
- Water conducting cells
- Hard cells
- Not live past maturity
- One way
- No end walls between cells
- Outer cells not living

Phloem
- Transport sugar produced by leaves
- Live past maturity
- Has 2 pathways
- Living cells but need support