IJSO Stage-I & II

IJSO STAGE-I & II
PHYSICS
PREFACE
Dear Student,
In the current competitive environment, there are certain students who always aspire for more.
These students are those who have extremely good fundamentals and do not face any problem in
attempting the regular school book problems. This study material is for those students.
This material is aimed at equipping the students with first and second stage of International
Junior Science Olympiad (IJSO) i.e. National Standard Examination in Junior Science (NSEJS)
and INJSO (Indian National Junior Science Olympiad). The best use of this material is for those
students who have natural interest in problem solving and want to aspire for more.
As this material is exam oriented rather than class oriented, there is no specific class wis target.
However, based on our prior experience, this material can be best utilized by students of class
VIII, IX and X.
We hope you this material in its accuracy and appropriateness.
Team Resonance.
Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division
Every effort has been taken to make our study material error free, however any suggestion to
improve is welcome in this regard.
Subject : PHYSICS IJSO STAGE-I & II
CONTENTS
S. NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.
1. Mathematical Tools & Vector 1 - 28
2. Unit & Dimensions 29 - 40
3. Kinematics 41 - 74
(Rectilinear Motion, Projectile motion, Relative motion)
4. Force and Newtons laws of motion (NLM) 75 - 104
5. Work, Power & Energy 105 - 126
6. Gravitation 127 - 147
7. Circular Motion 148 - 157
8. Fluid 158 - 179
9. Wave Sound & SHM 180 - 208
10. Electricity 209 - 242
11. Magnetic Effect of Current & EMI 243 - 272
12. Light 273 - 322
13. Heat 323 - 350
14. Centre of Mass, Ragid Body Dynamics & Impact or Collision 351 - 369
15. Answer key 370 - 375
© Copyright reserved
All right reserved. Any photocopying, publishing or reproduction of full or any part of this study
material is strictly prohibited. This material belongs to only the enrolled student of RESONANCE.
Any sale/resale of this material is punishable under law.
1. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
FUNCTION
MEASUREMENT OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ANGLES
Function is a rule of relationship between two variables
in which one is assumed to be dependent and the
other independent variable, for example :
e.g. The temperatures at which water boils depends
on the elevation above sea level (the boiling point drops
as you ascend). Here elevation above sea level is the
independent & temperature is the dependent variable
e.g. The interest paid on a cash investment
depends on the length of time the investment is held.
Here time is the independent and interest is the
dependent variable. y
ILLUSTRATIONS
x
1. The volume V of a ball (solid sphere) of radius r is Negative
Measure
given by the function V(r) = (4 / 3)  (r )3
The volume of a ball of radius 3 m is ?
Sol. V(3) = 4 / 3(3)3 = 36 m3 . An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard

position if its vertex lies at the origin and its initial ray
lies along the positive x-axis (Fig.). Angles measured
counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned
2. Suppose that the function F is defined for all real
positive measures ; angles measured clockwise are
numbers r by the formula F(r) = 2(r – 1) + 3.
assigned negative measures.
Evaluate F at the input values 0, 2, x + 2, and F(2).
Sol. : In each case we substitute the given input value for r
y
into the formula for F :
F(0) = 2(0 – 1) + 3 = – 2 + 3 = 1 ;
F(2) = 2(2 – 1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
F(x + 2) = 2(x +2 – 1) + 3 = 2x + 5 ;
F(F(2)) = F(5) = 2(5 – 1) + 3 = 11. x
3. A function (x) is defined as (x) = x2 + 3, Find 0) 9

, (1), x2), (x+1) and 1)). 4
Sol. (0) = 02 + 3 = 3 ;
(1) = 12 + 3 = 4 ; y
(x2) = (x2)2+3 = x4+3
(x+1) = (x + 1)2 + 3 = x2 + 2x + 4 ;
((1)) = 4) = 42+3 = 19
x
4. If function F is defined for all real numbers x by the 3
formula F(x) = x2 . –
4
Evaluate F at the input values 0,2, x + 2 and F(2)
Sol. : F(0) = 0 ;
F(2) = 22 = 4 ;
F(x+2) = (x+2)2 ;
F(F(2)) = F(4) = 42 = 16
PAGE # 1
Values of sin , cos  and tan  for some standard
SIX BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS angles.
The trigonometric function of a general angle 
Degree 0 30 37 45 53 60 90 120 135 180
are defined in terms of x, y, and r. Radians 0 / 6 37 / 180  / 4 53 / 180  / 3  / 2 2 / 3 3 / 4 
sin  0 1/ 2 3/5 1/ 2 4/5 3 /2 1 3 /2 1/ 2 0
opp y cos  1 3 /2 4/ 5 1/ 2 3/5 1/ 2 0  1/ 2  1/ 2 1
Sine : sin = =
hyp r tan  0 1/ 3 3/4 1 4/3 3   3 1 0
hyp r
Cosecant : cosec = = DIFFERENTIATION
opp y
(a ) Definition of Differentiation
Another name for differentiation is derivative. Suppose
y is a function of x or y = f(x)
Differentiation of y with respect to x is denoted by
symbol f ’(x)
dy
where f ’ (x) = dx is very small change in x and
dx
dy is corresponding very small change in y.
( b ) Geometrical Meaning of Differentiation

The geometrical meaning of differentiation is very much
useful in the analysis of graphs in physics. To
understand the geometrical meaning of derivatives we
adj x should have knowledge of secant and tangent to a curve
Cosine : cos = =
hyp r Secant and tangent to a curve :
hyp r Secant : A secant to a curve is a straight line, which

Secant : sec = = intersects the curve at any two points.
adj x y
opp y
Tangent : tan = = q Secant
adj x
adj x P
Cotangent : cot = =
opp y x
Tangent:-
GENERAL TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve at
a particular point. Tangent is a limiting case of secant
1. which intersects the curve at two overlapping points.
cos2  + sin2  = 1
2 2
1 + tan  = sec .
2 2
1+ cot  = cosec . In the figure-1 shown, if value of x is gradually reduced
then the point Q will move nearer to the point P. If the
2. process is continuously repeated (Figure - 2) value of
x will be infinitely small and secant PQ to the given
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B curve will become a tangent at point P .
sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan A  tan B  y  dy
tan (A+B) = Therefore   = dx = tan 
1  tan A tan B x 0  x 
3. sin 2 = 2 sin  cos  ; Q

y+ y
cos 2 = cos2  – sin2 = 2cos2  – 1
= 1 – 2sin2 
y
2 1  cos 2  1 – cos 2 
cos  = ; sin2  = P 
2 2 y R
x
x
x + x
Figure - 1
PAGE # 2
we can say that differentiation of y with respect to x, i.e.
d  4  d –3 12
(ii)   = 4 (x ) = 4(–3)x–4 =  4 .
 dy  dx  x 3  dx x
  is equal to slope of the tangent at point P (x, y)
 dx 
d 1/ 2 1 1
dy 8. (a) ( x ) = x 1/ 2 =
or tan =
dx 2 2 x
dx
Function defined for x  0 derivative defined only for
x>0
d 1/ 5 1 –4/5
(b) (x ) = x
dx 5
Q
y+y
Function defined for x  0 derivative not defined at x = 0
Q
Q y
y
P 
Q
R
 Rule No. 3 : The constant multiple rule :
x
If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant,
x x+x d du
then (cu) = c
Figure - 2 dx dx
In particular, if n is a positive integer, then
d
(From fig. 1, the average rate of change of y from x to x (cx n ) = cn xn–1
dx
+ x is identical with the slope of secant PQ.)
(c ) Rules for Differentiation 9. The derivative formula :

d
Rule No. 1 : Derivative of a constant : (3 x 2 ) = 3(2x) = 6x
dx
says that if we rescale the graph of y = x2 by multiplying
 The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of each y–coordinate by 3, then we multiply the slope at
every constant function is zero. each point by 3.
d
If c is constant, then c = 0. 10. A useful special case :
dx The derivative of the negative of a differentiable function
is the negative of the function’s derivative. Rule 3 with
d d  1 d
5.
dx
(8 )  0 ,    0 ,
dx  2  dx
 3 0 c = –1 gives.
d d d
(u) = ( 1 u) = –1  (u)
dx dx dx
Rule No. 2 : Power rule :
d
=  (u)
dx
d n
 If n is a real number, then x  nx n1 .
dx
Rule No. 4 : The sum rule :
To apply the power Rule, we subtract 1 from the original
exponent (n) and multiply the result by n.  The derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions
is the sum of their derivatives.
f x x2 x3 x4 .... If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their

6. sum u + v is differentiable at every point where u and v
f' 1 2x 3x2 4x3 ....
are both differentiable functions is their derivatives.
d d
(u  v ) = [u  ( 1)v ]
d  1 d 1 dx dx
7. (i)   = (x–1) = (–1)x–2 =  2
dx  x  dx x
du dv du dv
=  (1)  
dx dx dx dx
PAGE # 3
The Sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two Example can be done as well (perhaps better) by
functions, as long as there are only finitely many multiplying out the original expression for y and
functions in the sum. If u1, u2,.........un are differentiable differentiating the resulting polynomial. We now check
at x, then so is u1 + u2 + ........+ un , and : y = (x2 + 1) (x3 + 3) = x5 + x3 + 3x2 + 3
d dy
(u1  u 2  .....  un ) = 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x.
dx dx
du1 du 2 du This is in agreement with our first calculation.
=   .......  n . There are times, however, when the product Rule must
dx dx dx
be used. In the following examples. W e have only
numerical values to work with.
11. (a) y = x4 + 12x
4 2 13. Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find

(b) y = x3 + x – 5x + 1 y’(2) if u(2) = 3, u’(2) = –4, v(2) = 1,
3
and v’(2) = 2.
dy d 4 d Sol. From the Product Rule, in the form
Sol. (a)  (x )  (12 x ) y’ = (uv)’ = uv’ + vu’ ,
dx dx dx
we have
= 4x3 + 12
y’(2) = u(2) v’(2) + v(2) u’ (2) = (3) (2) + (1) (–4) = 6 – 4
dy d 3 d 4 2 d d = 2.
(b) 
dx dx
x    x 
dx  3  dx
(5x ) 
dx
(1)
Rule No. 6 : The quotient rule :
4 8
= 3x2 + .2x – 5 + 0 = 3x2 + x – 5.  If u and v are differentiable at x, and v(x)  0, then the
3 3
quotient u/v is differentiable at x,
Notice that we can differentiate any polynomial term by
term, the way we differentiated the polynomials in du dv
d u v u
above example.
and   = dx dx
Rule No. 5 : The product rule :
dx  v  v2
 If u and v are differentiable at x, then so is their product Just as the derivative of the product of two differentiable
functions is not the product of their derivatives, the
d dv du derivative of the quotient of two functions is not the
uv, and (uv) = u v .
dx dx dx quotient of their derivatives.
The derivative of the product uv is u times the derivative
of v plus v times the derivative of u. In prime notation
(uv)’ = uv’ + vu’. t2  1
14. Find the derivative of y =
t2  1
While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the
Sol. We apply the Quotient Rule with u = t2 – 1 and v = t2 + 1
sum of their derivatives, the derivative of the product of
two functions is not the product of their derivatives. For d  u  v( du / dt )  u( dv / dt )
instance,  
dt  v  v2
d d 2
(x.x) = (x ) = 2x,
dx dx dy ( t 2  1).2t  ( t 2  1).2t
=
d d dt ( t 2  1)2
while (x) . (x) = 1.1 = 1.
dx dx
2t 3  2t  2t 3  2t 4t
= 2 2 = .
2 3
12. Find the derivatives of y = (x + 1) (x + 3). ( t  1) (t  1)2
2
Sol. From the product Rule with u = x2 + 1 and v = x3 + 3, we

Rule No. 7 : derivative of sine function :
find
d
[( x 2  1)( x 3  3)] = (x2 + 1) (3x2) + (x3 + 3) (2x) d
dx  (sin x )  cos x
dx
= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 6x
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x.
PAGE # 4
15. (a) y = x2 – sin x : 17. Find dy / dx if y = tan x .
dy d d d  sin x 
= 2x  (sin x ) (Difference Rule) Sol. (tan x) =  
dx dx dx dx  cos x 
= 2x – cos x
d d
(b) y = x2 sin x :
cos x (sin x ) – sin x (cos x)
dx dx
=
dy d cos 2 x
= x2 (sin x) + 2x sin x (Product Rule)
dx dx =
cos x cos x – sin x (–sin x)
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x
cos 2 x
sin x
(c) y =
x cos 2 x  sin 2 x 1
= = = sec2 x
cos x 2
cos2 x
d
dy x. (sin x )  sin x.1
= dx (Quotient Rule)
dx x2 d d
18. (a) (3x + cot x) = 3 + (cot x) = 3 – cosec2 x
dx dx
x cos x  sin x
= .
x2 d  2  d d
(b)   = (2cosec x) = 2 (cosec x)
Rule No. 8 : derivative of cosine function : dx  sin x  dx dx
d = 2 (–cosec x cot x) = – 2 cosec x cot x

 (cos x )   sin x
dx
Rule No. 10 : Derivative of logarithm and exponential
16. (a) y = 5x + cos x functions :
dy d d d
Sol. = (5x) + (cosx) Sum Rule  loge x   1 ; d x
 
e  ex
dx dx dx dx x dx
= 5 – sin x
(b) y = sinx cosx 19. y = ex . loge (x)

dy d d dy d x d
Sol.
dx
= sinx
dx
(cosx) + cosx
dx
(sinx) Product Rule 
dx dx
 
e . log (x) +.
dx
[loge (x)] ex
= sinx (– sinx) + cosx (cosx)

= cos2 x – sin2 x dy ex
 = ex . loge (x) +
dx x
Rule No. 9 : derivatives of other trigonometric Rule No. 11 : chain rule or “outside inside” rule :
functions:
dy dy du
Because sin x and cos x are differentiable functions of  = .
dx du dx
x , the related functions
It sometimes helps to think about the Chain Rule the
sin x 1 following way. If y = f(g(x)),
tan x = ; sec x =
cos x cos x dy
 f ' [g( x )].g' ( x ) .
cos x 1 dx
cot x = ; cosec x = In words : To find dy/dx , differentiate the “outside”
sin x sin x
function f and leave the “inside” g(x) alone ; then multiply
are differentiable at every value of x at which they are
by the derivative of the inside.
defined. There derivatives. Calculated from the
Quotient Rule, are given by the following formulas.
We know how to differentiate sin x and x2 – 4, but how
d do we differentiate a composite like sin (x2 – 4)? The
 (tan x) = sec2 x ; answer is, with the Chain Rule, which says that the
dx
d derivative of the composite of two differentiable
(sec x) = sec x tan x functions is the product of their derivatives evaluated
dx
at appropriate points. The Chain Rule is probably the
d most widely used differentiation rule in mathematics.
(cot x) = – cosec2 x ;
dx This section describes the rule and how to use it. We
d begin with examples.
(cosec x) = – cosec x cot x
dx
PAGE # 5
20. The function y = 6x – 10 = 2(3x – 5) is the composite of
d d
the functions y = 2u and u = 3x – 5. How are the (c) A sin (t + ) = A cos (t + ) (t + )
derivatives of these three functions related ? dt dt
= A cos (t + ). .
dy dy du
Sol. : We have =6, =2 , =3. = A  cos (t + )
dx du dx
dy dy du Rule No. 12 : power chain rule :

Since 6 = 2 . 3 , = .
dx du dx  If u(x) is a differentiable function and where n is a Real
number , then un is differentiable and
dy dy du
Is it an accident that = . ?
dx du dx d n
u = nun1
du
,  nR
If we think of the derivative as a rate of change, our
dx dx
intuition allows us to see that this relationship is
reasonable. For y = f(u) and u = g(x) , if y changes twice
d d
as fast as u and u changes three times as fast as x, 23. (a) sin 5 x = 5 sin4 x (sin x)
then we expect y to change six times as fast as x. dx dx
= 5 sin4 x cos x
21. W e sometimes have to use the Chain Rule two or d d

(b) (2x + 1)–3 = – 3(2x + 1)–4 (2x + 1)
more times to find a derivative. Here is an example. dx dx
Find the derivative of g(t) = tan (5 – sin 2t)
= – 3(2x + 1)–4 (2) = – 6 (2x + 1)–4
d
Sol. g ’(t) = (tan(5– sin 2t)
dt d  1 
(c)  
dx  3 x – 2 
d
= sec2 (5– sin 2t) . (5 – sin 2t)
dt
d d
= (3x – 2)–1 = – 1(3x – 2)–2 (3x – 2)
d dx dx
= sec2 (5 – sin 2t) . (0 – (cos 2t) . (2t)
dt
= sec2 (5 – sin 2t) . ( – cos 2t) . 2 3
= –1 (3x – 2)–2 (3) = –
= –2(cos 2t) sec2 ( 5 – sin 2t) (3 x – 2)2
In part (c) we could also have found the derivative with
the Quotient Rule.
d 1
22. (a) (1 – x2)1/4 = (1–x2)–3/4 (–2x)
dx 4
d
Function defined 24. (a) (Ax + B)n
dx
on [–1 , 1]
u = 1 – x2 and n = 1/4 du
Sol. (a) Here u = Ax + B , =A
dx
–x
2(1 – x 2 )3 / 4 d
=  (Ax + B)n = n(Ax + B)n–1 . A
dx
derivative defined
only on (–1 ,1)
d
(b) sin (Ax + B) = cos (Ax + B). A
dx
d d
(b) sin 2x = cos 2x (2x) d 1
dx dx (c) log (Ax + B) = .A
dx Ax  B
= cos 2x . 2
d
= 2 cos 2x (d) tan (Ax + B) = sec2 (Ax + B). A
dx
d (Ax + B) (Ax + B)
(e) e =e .A
dx
PAGE # 6
APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES y
Differentiation as a rate of change :
dy
is rate of change of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’ :
dx
x
For examples : x1 x2
dx dy
(i) v= this means velocity ‘v’ is rate of change
dt slope = = 0.
dx
of displacement ‘x’ with respect to time ‘t’
MAXIMA :
dv Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the
(ii) a = this means acceleration ‘a’ is rate of
dt maximum it is zero and just after the maximum it is
change of velocity ‘v’ with respect to time ‘t’ . dy
negative. Thus, decreases at a maximum and
dp dx
(iii) F = this means force ‘F’ is rate of change of
dt
dy
momentum ‘p’ with respect to time ‘t’ . hence the rate of change of is
dx
dL d
(iv)  = this means torque ‘ ’ is rate of change  dy 
dt negative at a maximum i.e.   < 0 at maximum.
dx  dx 
of angular momentum ‘L’ with respect to time ‘t’
dW
(v) Power = this means power ‘P’ is rate of
dt
change of work ‘W’ with respect to time ‘t’
dq
(vi)  = this means current ‘’ is rate of flow of
dt
charge ‘q’ with respect to time ‘t’
25. The area A of a circle is related to its diameter by the
 2
equation A = D.
4 d  dy 
How fast is the area changing with respect to the The quantity   is the rate of change of the
dx  dx 
diameter when the diameter is 10 m?
Sol. : The (instantaneous) rate of change of the area with

d2 y
slope. It is written as .
respect to the diameter is dx 2
dA  D Conditions for maxima are:
= 2D =
dD 4 2
When D = 10 m, the area is changing at rate (/2) 10 =
dy d2 y
 (a) = 0 (b) <0
5 m2/m. This means that a small change D m in the dx dx 2
diameter would result in a change of about 5 D m2 in MINIMA :
the area of the circle. Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from
negative to positive.
Hence with the increases of x. the slope is increasing
MAXIMA AND MINIMA that means
the rate of change of slope with respect to x is positive
Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x in d  dy 
a manner shown in the figure. It becomes maximum hence   > 0.
dx  dx 
at x1 and minimum at x2. At these points the tangent to
the curve is parallel to the xaxis and hence its slope
is tan  = 0. Thus, at a maximum or a minimum.
PAGE # 7
Solv ed e xa mp le s on a pp li ca ti on of
d er i va t i ve :
27. Does the curve y = x4 – 2x2 + 2 have any horizontal

tangents ? If so, where ?
Sol. The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope
dy/dx is zero. To find these points. We
dy d 4
1. Calculate dy/dx : = (x – 2x2 + 2) = 4x3 – 4x
dx dx
Conditions for minima are:

dy
2. Solve the equation : = 0 for x : 4x3 – 4x = 0
dy 2
d y dx
(a) =0 (b) >0
dx dx 2 4x(x2 – 1) = 0
x = 0,1, –1
Quite often it is known from the physical situation
whether the quantity is a maximum or a minimum. The The curve y = x4 – 2x2 + 2 has horizontal tangents at
x = 0,1, and –1.
d2 y
test on may then be omitted. The corresponding points on the curve are (0,2) (1,1)
dx 2 and (–1,1).
26. Particle’s position as a function of time is given as x =

5t2  9t + 3. Find out the maximum value of position co-
ordinate? Also, plot the graph.
Sol. x = 5t2  9t + 3
dx
= 10t  9 = 0
dt
 t = 9/10 = 0.9
Check, whether maxima or minima exists.
d2 x
= 10 > 0
dt 2 See figure.
 there exists a minima at t = 0.9

Now, Check for the limiting values.
When t=0 ; x=3 INTEGRATION
t=  ; x= 
So, the maximum position co-ordinate does not exist.
(a) IN TE GRATI ON :
Graph In mathematics, for each mathematical operation,
there has been defined an inverse operation.
For example- Inverse operation of addition is
subtruction, inverse operation of multiplication is
division and inverse operation of square is square root.
Similarly there is a inverse operation for differentiation
which is known as integration
Antiderivatives OR Indefinite Integrals :

Putting t = 0.9 in the equation
x = 5(0.9)2  9(0.9) + 3 = 1.05 Definitions : A function F(x) is an antiderivative of a
function f(x) if F´(x) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f. The
set of all antiderivatives of f is the indefinite integral of
NOTE : If the coefficient of t2 is positive, the curve will f with respect to x, denoted by
open upside.
PAGE # 8
7.  cos ec x cot x dx   cos ec x  C
d
(–cosec x) = cosec x cot x
dx
1 1
8.  (ax  b)  a n(ax  b)  C
The symbol  is an integral sign. The function f is the
28. Examples based on above formulas :
integrand of the integral and x is the variable of
integration. x6
(a)
 x 5 dx  C
6
( b ) Integral Formulas : Formula 1 with n = 5
Indefinite Integral Reversed derivative formula : 1

(b)  x
dx
x n1
1.
 x n dx   C ,n  –1, n rational 1/ 2
dx  2x1 / 2  C  2 x  C
n 1 = x
Formula 1 with n = –1/2
d  x n1 
n  cos 2x
dx  n  1  = x (c)  sin 2x dx  C
2
Formula 2 with k = 2
 dx = 1dx  x  C (special case) x
d
(d)  cos 2 dx
(x) = 1
dx 1 sin(1/ 2)x x
=  cos 2 xdx  1/ 2
 C = 2 sin  C
2
 cos( Ax  B) Formula 3 with k = 1/2
2.  sin(Ax  B)dx  A
C
d  cos kx 
  = sin kx
29. Right :  x cosx dx = x sin x + cos x + C
dx  k  Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is

the integrand:
sin kx d
Check : (x sin x + cos x + C) = x cos x + sin x – sin x
3.  cos kx dx 
k
C dx
+ 0 = x cos x.
d  sin kx 
  = cos kx
dx  k  Wrong : 
x cosx dx = x sin x + C
Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is not
2
4.  sec x dx  tan x  C the integrand:
d
d Check : (x sin x + C) = x cos x + sin x + 0  x cos x.
tan x = sec2 x dx
dx
2 (c ) Rules for Integration :
5.  cos ec x dx   cot x  C
Rule No. 1 : constant multiple rule :

d
(–cot x) = cosec2 x
dx
 A function is an antiderivative of a constant multiple
kf of a function f if and only if it is k times an antiderivative
6.  sec x tan x dx  sec x  C of f.
d
dx
sec x = sec x tan x  k f ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx ; where k is a constant
PAGE # 9
30. Rewriting the constant of integration Find the simplest antiderivative you can for each part
add the constant at the end.
 5 sec x tan x d x
32. W e can sometimes use trigonometric identities to
=5  sec x tan x d x Rule 1 transform integrals we do not know how to evaluate
into integrals we do know how to evaluate. The integral
= 5 (sec x + C) Formula 6 formulas for sin 2 x and cos 2 x arise frequently in
= 5 sec x + 5C First form
applications.
= 5 sec x + C´ Shorter form, where
C’ is 5C 2 1  cos 2 x
= 5 sec x + C Usual form–no prime. (a)  sin xdx =  2
dx
Since 5 times an
arbitrary constant is an arbitrary constant, 1 cos 2x
we rename C’. sin2 x =
2
Rule No. 2 : sum and difference rule :
1 1 1
 A function is an antiderivative of a sum or difference f
=
2(1  cos 2x ) d x =
2
dx 
2   cos 2x dx
 g if and only if it is the sum or difference of an x  1  sin 2x x sin 2x
antiderivative of f an antiderivative of g. = – 2 C = – +C
2   2 2 4
 [f (x)  g(x)] dx   f (x)dx   g( x)dx 2 1  cos 2x 1 cos 2x

(b)  cos x dx =
 2
dx cos2 x =
2
31. Term–by–term integration
x sin 2x
 C As in part (a), but with a sign change
Evaluate :  (x2 – 2x + 5) dx. =
2
+
4
Sol.. If we recognize that (x3 /3) – x2 + 5x is an antiderivative
of x2 – 2x + 5, we can evaluate the integral as 34. Find a body velocity from its acceleration and initial
velocity. The acceleration of gravity near the surface of
the earth is 9.8 m/sec2. This means that the velocity v
of a body falling freely in a vacuum changes at the rate
dv
of = 9.8 m/sec2. If the body is dropped from rest,
dt
If we do not recognize the antiderivative right away, we what will its velocity be t seconds after it is released?
can generate it term by term with the sum and
Sol. In mathematical terms, we want to solve the initial value
difference Rule:
problem that consists of
2
 2x  5)dx = x 2 dx –
 (x   2xdx +  5dx The differential condition :
dv
= 9.8
dt
The initial condition : v = 0 when t = 0 ( abbreviated as
x3
= + C1 – x2 + C2 + 5x + C3. v (0) = 0 )
3
W e first solve the differential equation by integrating
This formula is more complicated than it needs to be.
both sides with respect to t:
If we combine C 1,C 2 and C 3 into a single constant
C = C1 + C2 + C3, the formula simplifies to dv
3 The differential equation ; = 9.8
x dt
– x2 + 5x + C
3
dv
and still gives all the antiderivatives there are. For this
reason we recommend that you go right to the final
Integrate with respect to t ;  dt dt =  9.8dt
form even if you elect to integrate term by term. Write Integrals evaluated ; v + C1 = 9.8t + C2
2 2
 (x  2x  5)dx =  x dx –  2xdx +  5dx Constants combined as one ; v = 9.8t + C.
This last equation tells us that the body’s velocity t

x3
= – x2 + 5x + C. seconds into the fall is 9.8t + C m/sec.
3
PAGE # 10
For value of C : What value? We find out from the initial
1/ 2
condition : v = 9.8t + C 36. Evaluate  1  y 2 • 2y dy = u du
0 = 9.8(0) + C ; v( 0) = 0
Let u = 1 + y2, du = 2y dy.
C = 0.
Conclusion : The body’s velocity t seconds into the fall u(1 / 2) 1
i s v = 9.8t + 0 = 9.8t m/sec. = Integrate, using rule no. 3 with n = 1/2.
(1/ 2)  1
The indefinite integral F(x) + C of the function f(x) gives 2 3/2

= u + C ; Simpler form
the general solution y = F(x) + C of the differential 3
equation dy/dx = f(x). The general solution gives all the
solutions of the equation ( there are infinitely many,
2
one for each value of C). W e solve the differential = (1  y 2 ) 3 / 2 + C Replace u by 1 + y2.
equation by finding its general solution. We then solve 3
the initial value problem by finding the particular 1
solution that satisfies the initial condition 37. Evaluate  cos (7 + 5) d =  cos u  7 du
y(xo) = yo ( y has the value yo when x = xo.). Let u = 7 + 5, du = 7d, (1/7) du = d.
1
Rule No. 3 : Rule of substitution : =
7 
cos u du
W ith (1/7) out front, the integral is now in

  f (g(x)) • g’(x) dx =  f (u)du standard form.
1. Substitute u = g(x), du = g’(x) dx. 1
= sin u  C ; Integrate with respect to u.
= F(u) + C 7
2. Evaluate by finding an antiderivative F (u) of
1
= sin (7 + 5) + C ; Replace u by 7 + 5.
7
f(u). (any one will do.)
2
= F (g(x)) + C 38. Evaluate x sin( x )3 dx =  sin( x)
3
• x2 dx
3. Replace u by g(x). 1
5
=  sin u • 3 du
35. Evaluate  ( x  2) dx Let u = x3, du = 3x2 dx, (1/3) du = x2dx.
We can put the integral in the form 1

=
3 
sin u du
 undu
1
= (– cos u) + C Integrate with respect to u.
by substituting 3
d 1
u = x + 2, du = d(x + 2) = (x + 2). dx =– cos(x3) + C Replace u by x3.
dx 3
= 1.dx = dx.
1 2
du = dx
39..  cos 2
2
d =  sec 2 d
5 5 1
Then  ( x  2) dx =
 u du sec 2 =
cos 2
Integrate, using rule no. 3 with n= 5. 2 1

= sec u •
2
du Let u = 2, du =2d, d = (1/2)du.
6
u
= +C (Replace u by x + 2) 1 2
6 =
2  sec u du
( x  2)6 1
= + C. = tan u + C Integrate, using eq. (4).
6 2
1
= tan 2 + C Replace u by 2.
2
PAGE # 11
d 1  APPLICATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Check:  tan 2  C 
d  2  (CALCULATION OF AREA OF A CURVE)
1 d 1  sec 2 2  d 2  From graph shown in figure if we divide whole area in

= • (tan 2) + 0 = •   infinitely small strips of dx width.
2 d 2  d 
Chain Rule
1 1
= •sec2 2 • 2 = .
2 cos 2 2
4 4
40.  sin t cos t dt =  u du We take a strip at x position of dx width.
Small area of this strip dA = f(x) dx
Let u = sin t, du = cos t dt.
So, the total area between the curve and x–axis = sum
b
u5
=
5
+C Integrate with respect to u.
of area of all strips =  f ( x)dx
a
5
sin t
= + C Replace u.
5
Let f(x)  0 be continuous on [a,b]. The area of the
The success of the substitution method depends on
region between the graph of f and the x-axis is
finding a substitution that will change an integral we
cannot evaluate directly into one that we can. If the first b
substitution fails, we can try to simplify the integrand

A=  f ( x ) dx
a
further with an additional substitution or two. 42. Using an area to evaluate a definite integral
b
DEFINITE INTEGRATION OR INTEGRATION WITH LIMITS

 a
xdx 0 < a < b.
Sol. We sketch the region under the curve y = x, a  x  b

( figure) and see that it is a trapezoid with height (b – a)
and bases a and b. The value of the integral is the area
of this trapezoid :
b
b
 f ( x) dx  g( x)
a
a  g (b )  g (a )
where g(x) is the antiderivative of f(x) i.e. g´(x) = f(x)

b ab b2 a2
 a
x d x = (b – a)•
2
=
2

2
.
4 4
41. (A)  1
3dx = 3
 1
dx  3x 
4
1
= 3[4 – (–1)] = (3) (5)
Notice that x2/2 is an antiderivative of x, further evidence of
a connection between antiderivatives and summation.
= 15
/2
/2
(B)  sin xdx   cos x  0
0

=  cos   cos(0 ) = –0 + 1 = 1
2
PAGE # 12
\
VECTOR 43. Represent two forces one of 50 N due south and the
other of 25 N due east, acting simultaneously on a
particle.
Sol. A vector quantity is represented graphically by drawing
SCALARS AND VECTORS an arrow, where the length of arrow represents the
Physical quantities are classified into two categories magnitude of vector quantity on some chosen scale
and direction of arrow indicates the direction of vector
(i) Scalars
quantity. Here we have to represent two forces of 50 N
(ii) Vectors and 25 N (N = Newton). Let our scale be :
(a) Scalars : 1 cm represents 10 N
Now since 10 N = 1 cm
A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude  50 N = (1/10) × 50 cm
only. It is specified by a single number along with proper = 5 cm
unit . Eg. The distance between two points, mass of
an object, the temperature of a body, pressure, and
time at which certain event happened.
(b) Vectors :
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and

obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors. vector
is specified by giving its magnitude by a number and
its direction. Examples of vector quantities are
displacement , velocity, acceleration, force, momentum
etc. Again, 10N = 1 cm
 25 N = (1/10) × 25 cm = 2.5 cm
When we say that the displacement of a particle is 5m,
the description is incomplete because direction of the
Thus, 25 N force can be represented by a 2.5 cm long
displacement is not given. However, the statement that
straight line. Keeping this in mind, we can now proceed
the displacement of a particle is 5m towards east is
correct and meaningful. Thus the description of a vector as follows.
must be associated with magnitude as well as We draw a 5 cm long straight line AB from north to
direction. south with the arrow head pointing towards south .

Now AB represents a force of 50 N due south (on a
Importance of vectors :
scale of 1 cm = 10 N). In order to represent the other
Vectors are useful in practical problems of mechanics force of 25 N, we draw a 2.5 cm long straight line AC
and geometry . Vector analysis is powerful tool to 
pointing towards east. So AC represents a force of
formulate equations of motion of particles and then
Solve them in mechanics and engineering. 25 N due east (on scale 1 cm = 10 N)
Representation of Vectors : 44. Draw vector corresponding to the following

To represent a vector we use bold face type eg. velocity displacement :
of object is represented by V since bold face is difficult
when written by hand. So a vector is often represented (i) 6m, 60º north – east (ii) 6m, west

by an arrow placed over a letter Eg. : v . Thus both V

and v represents the velocity vector..
(iii) 25 m, 30º south – east
The magnitude of a vector is often called its absolute Sol. (i) We will first draw a vector representing a displacement of

value indicated by V or l v l = v.. 6m, at 60º in the north east direction. Let our scale be :
1 cm represents 1m.
(i) Properties of a vector : Now,
In addition to magnitude and unit  6m = 6cm
(A) it has a specified direction
(B) it obeys parallelogram law of vector addition
(C) their addition is Commutative
   
A +B =B + A
Thus, a displacement of 6m can be represented by a 6
(ii) Graphical representation of vectors :
cm long straight line. Now, the displacement is towards
Graphically a vector is represented by a line with ‘North of East’ direction. So, first of all we draw north
arrow head, length of line shows the magnitude and and east direction . Then we draw a 6 cm long straight
arrow shows the direction. line OA making an angle of 60º with east direction
Tail Head (towards north). We also put an arrow-head at point A.
PAGE # 13
Now, vector OA represents a displacement of 6m, 60º
north-east (on a scale : 1 cm = 1m). TYPES OF VECTORS
(ii) Let 1cm = 1m
6m = 6cm (a) Polar Vectors :
In this case displacement is towards the ‘W est’
direction. So, from the origin O we draw a 6 cm long These have starting point (as in case of displacement)
 or point of application (in case of force)
straight line OA pointing towards west. So, the OA B
given below represents a displacement of 6m towards
west.
nt
A
6m
O eme
c
(West) (East) pla
A Dis
(iii) Scale :
1 cm represents 5m Starting Point
 25 m = (1/5) × 25 = 5 cm
Point of application
Other examples of polar vectors are velocity ,

Thus, a displacement of 25 m can be represented by a
5 cm long straight line. Here, the displacement is 30º momentum etc.
towards south of east, so first of all we draw south and
east direction. We now draw a 5 cm long straight line (b) Axial Vectors :
OA making an angle of 30º with east direction (towards
 These are those vectors which represent rotational
South). So the OA shown in the figure below effect and act along the axis of rotation in accordance
represents a displacement of 25 m, 30º south – east with right hand screw rule.
(on a scale 1 cm = 5m).
Eg. : Angular velocity, torque, angular momentum etc.
 NOTE :
(i) If a physical quantity has both magnitude and
direction it does not always implies that it is a vector
For it to be vector the third Condition of obeying laws of
Axial vector Axis of rotation
vector algebra has to be satisfied.
Eg. : The physical quantity electric current has both
magnitude and direction but it is still a scalar as it
disobeys the law of vector algebra.
(ii) It must also be noted that in physics certain physical
quantities such as area, dipole moment and current
density are defined as vectors with specific direction
Eg. to area assigned direction is outwards normal to
the surface while in case of dipole moment it is along
the line joining the charges from –ve to +ve.
Axis of rotation Axial vector
(Anticlockwise rotation) (Clockwise rotation)
Vectors may be further sub divided as :
ds (A) Null Vector or Zero Vectors :
Vector whose magnitude is zero and direction is
p indeterminate. It differs from ordinary zero in the sense
–q +q that ordinary zero has no direction but it has direction
Dipole moment
which becomes indeterminate by virtue of its zero
Plane surface 
magnitude. Null vector is denoted by 0 .
Eg. : Displacement vector of a stationary object is null
vector.
PAGE # 14
(B) Unit Vector : Z
A vector of unit magnitude and whose direction is same
as that of the given vector is called unit vector.
^ 
A is the unit vector in the direction of A
  
 A Vector 
 symbol  Â    Magnitude of the vector  .
 A 
  ^j
It is read as A cap or A hat or A caret.
 Note : X
^I
(i) A unit vector is used to specify the direction of a ^k
vector.
(ii) Unit vector has no unit.
(C) Orthogonal Unit Vector :
Y
Set of unit vectors, which are having the directions of
positive x, y and z axis of the three dimensions of the POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT VECTORS
rectangular coordinate system. They are denoted by
To describe the position of an object moving in a plane,
i, j,k . we need to choose a convenient point, say O as origin.
Let P and P be the positions of the objects at time t
and t, respectively. We join O and P by a straight line.
Then OP is the position vector of the object at time t. It

is represented by r . Point pis represented by another
Any vector can be written as product of unit vector in
position vector, OP denoted by r . The length of vector
that direction and magnitude of the given vector.
r represents the magnitude of the vector and its
(D) Equal Vectors : direction is the direction in which P lies as seen from
Two vectors are said to be equal if they have equal O. If the object moves from P to P then vector PP is
magnitudes and same direction. called the displacement vector.
  
r  r  r
 
Eg. : A B
(E) Like Vectors :

Vectors having same direction are called like vectors.
Their magnitude may or may not be same.
Eg. :
(F) Unlike Vectors : 45. Find position vector of a particle whose coordinate are
(2,3,4)
Two vectors having opposite directions and unequal

magnitudes are called unlike or parallel vectors in Sol. Position vector, r  x î  yĵ  zk̂
opposite sense.

A r  2 î  3 ĵ  4k̂
Eg. : SOME IMPORTANT POINTS REGARDING VECTORS

B
(i ) Op posi te Vec tors : Two vectors of equal (a) If a vector is displaced parallel to it self it does not
magnitudes but drawn in opposite directions are said change.
to be opposite vectors.

A
   C
Eg. : 
 A–B
B A B
( j) Co-planar vectors :
Vectors lying in the same plane are termed as co-planar.
Eg. : î and ĵ , ĵ and k̂ , î and k̂ are co-planar but î , ĵ , k̂ A= B= C

all three are noncoplanar.
PAGE # 15
(b) If a vector is rotated through an angle other then
multiple of 2 or 360º it changes
B y
A
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS
Angle between two vectors means smaller of the angle

between the vectors when they are placed tail to tail by
displacing either of two vectors parallel to itself.
Eg. (i) (ii) Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition :
(A) Statement : If two vectors acting simultaneously at

a point are represented in magnitude and direction by
B the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that
point represents the resultant in magnitude and
=
direction.
A (B) Analytical approach to parallelogram law of

vector addition :
 
(ii) Let the two vectors P and Q be represented in

B magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides OA
 
A and OB of the parallelogram OACB. Suppose the
angle between the vectors is , i.e.  AOB = . According
Note : Remember 0°    180º
to parallelogram law of vector addition, the diagonal
 
MATHEMATICAL OPERTIONS ON VECTORS represents the resultant R ( OC ) in magnitude and
 
(a) Addition of Vectors: direction. Suppose R makes an angle  with P i.e.
Two or more vectors are added by following laws :  AOC = 
(i) triangle law (ii) parallelogram law
(iii) polygon law
(i) Triangle law of vector addition : If two vectors are

represented both in magnitude and direction by the
two sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then
the resultant of these two vectors is represented in
magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle (C) Magnitude of Resultant :
taken in the opposite order. From C, draw CD perpendicular on OA produced. From
geometry,  DAC = 
Given two vectors a and b , put the tail of b at the In right angled  ODC
(OC)2 = (OD)2 + (CD)2
head of a , then the sum of a and b is defined as the R2 = (OA + AD)2 + (Q sin )2
 [ AD = Q cos , CD = Q sin ]
vector c drawn from the tail of a to the head of b . = P2 + Q2 cos2  + 2 P Q cos  + Q2 sin2 
= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 
 R= P 2  Q 2  2PQcos θ
PAGE # 16
(D) Direction of resultant : 
with the head of C . Then the single vector drawn form
From right angled triangle ODC

CD CD Q sin  the tail of A to head of 
D
tan  = = =
OD OA  AD P  Q cos 
Qsinθ S
 tan  =
P  Qcosθ
D D C
C
Different cases :
)
T
B+C
Q
(i) When the vectors act along the same direction i.e. 
(A +
= 0º : B R
B
R= P 2  Q 2  2PQ cos 0º
A O P
A
R= 2
(P  Q )
R=P+Q
   
Q sin 0º will thus, it is clear it the vectors A B C and D are
tan = =0
P  Q cos 0º represented in magnitude and direction by the sides
 = 0º    
OP , PQ , QS and ST of an open polygon taken in the
(ii) When vectors are at right angle to each other i.e.  =
90º :
same order, then their resultant vector 
R
will be rep-
R= 2 2
P  Q  2PQ cos 90º resented in magnitude and direction by the closing
R= P2  Q 2  of the polygon taken in opposite order. This
side OT
Q sin 90º Q(1) Q method of finding the resultant is called polygon law of
tan = = =
P  Q cos 90º P  Q(0) P vectors.
Q Polygon law of vectors is an extension of the triangle

tan =
P law of vectors, which is explained below.
According to polygon law of vectors :
(iii) When vectors act along opposite direction :
 = 180º
     
A + B + C +D = R , where R is the resultant
R= 2 2
P  Q  2PQ cos 180 º    
vector of A , B , C and D .
= (P  Q)2
         
R=P–Q In A = OP  , B = PQ  , C = QS  , D = ST  and R = OT  .
Q sin180 º Join O to Q and O to S, with straight lines.

tan  =
P  Q cos180 º
From triangle law of vectors :
 = 0º or 180º
    
In OPQ , A + B = OP  + PQ  = OQ
(iii) Polygon Law of Vector Addition :
     
If a number of vectors are represented both in
In OQS, ( A + B ) + C = OQ + QS  = OS 
magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon
taken in the same order, then the resultant vector is        
represented both in magnitude and direction by the In OST, ( A + B + C + D ) = OS  + ST  = OT  = R
closing side of the polygon taken in the opposite order.
    
   Here , is the resultant vector of A + B + C and D
Let the number of vectors A , B , C and  D etc. be
R
acting in different directions as shown in figure. If number of vectors acting on an object at the same
time are represented in magnitude and direction by

To find their resultant vector, coincide the tail of B with the various sides of a closed polygon taken in the same
order, their resultant vector is zero and the object is in
  
the head of A , tail of C with the head of B and tail 
D
equilibrium.
PAGE # 17
     (b) Subtraction of Vectors :
In given figure F + F + F + F + F = 0
1 2 3 4 5
The negative of a vector is defined as a vector of same
magnitude but opposite direction.
F2 S
F3
F4 F3
T Q
F1
F5  
F2 The Subtraction of a vector b from another vector a is
F4
O  
F5 F1 defined as the addition of – b to a , as shown in
figure.
Properties of Vector Addition :
(i) Vector addition is commutative : a

b
It makes no difference whether vector b is added to a –b
–b
a –b
or vector a is added to b . a
This is, a  b  b  a
Resolution of A Vector :
It is the process of splitting a single vector into two or

b
more vectors in different directions which together
a+b
b produce the same effect as is produced by the single
a vector alone. The vectors into which the given single
a+b a vector is splited are called component vectors.
Infect, the resolution of a vector is just opposite to
(ii) Vector addition is Associative :
composition of vectors.
The addition of three vectors follows the associative
A vector can have infinite component vectors but for
property.
simplicity a vector is resolved into two or three mutually
         perpendicular components
That is ,  a  b   c  a   b  c 
    (i) Resolution into mutually Perpendicular Vectors in
a plane (2D Resolution) :
b

The figure shows resolution of a vector
A into two
b b+ c
a c
a+  
oblique vectors A and A y . Using the elementary
x
(a + b) + c
 NOTE :  
In general, the order of addition does not effect the knowledge of trigonometry the vectors A and Ay
x
vector addition.
   
are given by A  A cos  , A y  A sin 
x
Y
Ax
Ay A Ay
      
g =a +b +c +d +e+ f X
Ax
      
g = d + f + b +a+e +c
Resolution of a vector into mutually
perpendicular components
PAGE # 18
(ii) Resolution into mutually Perpendicular Vectors means,
in three dimensions : 
The figure show a right-handed Cartesian coordinate

c  (a x î  a y ĵ  a zk̂ )  (b x î  b y ĵ  b z k̂ )

system in which a vector a is located. If the origin is 
or c  (a x  b x ) î  (a y  b y ) ĵ  ( a z  b z )k̂
assumed to be located at the tail of the vector, then its

components along the x, y and z axes are given by a x , 
thus, c  c x î  c y ĵ  c zk̂
 
a y and a z respectively.. where c X = ax + bx ; cy =ay + by
and cz = az + bz
  
Z Also d  a  b
means

  
d  a x î  a y ĵ  a zk̂  b x î  b y ĵ  b zk̂ 
 
ay
Q
or  
d  a x  b x î  a y  b y ĵ  a z  b z k̂

 thus d  dx î  dy ĵ  dzk̂
a
O  X where dx =ax – bx; dy = ay – by
ax R
and dz = az– bz

az
S (c) Multiplication of Vector :
P (i) By A scalar :
Y 
The multiplication of a vector b by a scalar k is defined

The components of a vector along the as a vector of magnitude k| b | which is oriented in a
three mutually perpendicular axis
direction

From  law of vector addition • same as that of b if k > 0
........(i) 
OQ  OP  PQ • opposite to that of b if k < 0
Now from parallelogram law it is expressed as new vector
OS  OR  OP ........(ii)  
i.e. a = k b
From equation (i) and (ii), we have  
where b has magnitude | b |
OQ  OS  OR  PQ
(A) Application in Physics :
a  î a x  ĵ a y  k̂a z
The practical examples from physics in which a vector
From OPQ is multiplied by a scalar are force and momentum.
a2 = (OP)2 + ay2 ........(iii)

and from OSP • When the acceleration vector a is multiplied by the
(OP)2 = az2 + ax2 ........(iv)
scalar quantity mass m, we obtain the force vector
from equation (iii) and (iv), we have
a2 = ax2 + ay2 + az2  
F ma
thus, magnitude | a | a2x  a 2y  a 2z 
• In momentum the velocity vector v is multiplied by
(iii) Algebraic form of addition and subtraction of  

vectors : the scalar quantity mass m, i.e., p  m v
(B) The Distributive Law :

The addition or subtraction of two vectors is equivalent
to the addition or subtraction of corresponding    
components of the two vectors,

 b  c    b   c
 
  
For example, c  a  b
PAGE # 19
It implies that multiplying the sum of two vectors by a  Special points :
scalar gives the same result as separately multiplying
the two vectors by the scalar first, and then adding the (i) The scalar product of two parallel vectors,
two vectors. It is illustrated in figure.  
If a is parallel to b then  = 0º
   
a . b = | a | | b | cos 0 = ab
(ii) The scalar product of two perpendicular vector is
b zero.
b+c 

If a is perpendicular to b then  = 90º
c
   
a . b = | a | | b | cos 90º = 0
Distributive property of vectors
(iii) The scalar product of two similar unit vector is one.
Algebraic form of Multiplication of a Vector by a
î.î = 1 × 1 × cos0 = 1
Scalar:
similarly, ĵ. ĵ = k̂.k̂ = 1

When a vector b is multiplied by a scalar k then each (iv) The scalar product of two perpendicular unit vector
component of the vector is multiplied by k. That is is zero. î. ĵ = 1 × 1 × cos90 = 0

 

a  k b  k b x î  b y ĵ  b zk̂  similarly, ĵ.î = î.k̂ = k̂. î = ĵ.k̂ = k̂. ĵ = 0
 NOTE :

or a  kb x î  kb y ĵ  kb zk̂ Unlike the product of two numbers , the scalar product
of two vectors may be equal to zero even if either of the
two vectors is not a zero vector or null vector. It happens
 when both the vectors are perpendicular (or orthogonal)
or a  a x î  a y ĵ  a zk̂
 
where ax = kbx ; ay = kby ;az = kbz 47. If a = a x î  a y ĵ  a zk̂ and b  b x î  b y ĵ  b zk̂
   
46. If a  2 î  4 ĵ  2k̂ and b  3 î  ĵ  2k̂ then find then find a . b ?
 
2a 3b . Sol. In the algebraic form the scalar product of two vectors
 
  a and b may be expressed as
Sol. 2a 3b = 2( 2 î  4 ĵ  2k̂ ) – 3( 3 î  ĵ  2k̂ )
= ( 4 î  8 ĵ  4k̂ ) – ( 9 î  3 ĵ  6k̂ ) a  b = (a x î  a y ĵ  a zk̂ )  (b x î  b y ĵ  b zk̂ )
or a  b = axbx +ayby + azbz

=  5 î  5 ĵ  10k̂
(ii) Scalar Product : because î.î = ĵ. ĵ = k̂.k̂ = 1
The multiplication of two vector is a scalar quantity then î. ĵ = ĵ.î = î.k̂ = k̂. î = ĵ.k̂ = k̂. ĵ = 0
such type of product is called scalar or dot product.
  (A) Properties of scalar product :
The scalar product of two a vectors and b is defined
as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors by The scalar product is commutative that is, a  b = b . a
the cosine of the angle  between the vectors. That is,
The scalar product is distributive that is, a.( b  c )
   
a . b | a | | b | cos  .
= a  b + a .c
 
Because of the notation, a . b is also known as the (B) Application of scalar product :
(i) In physics, the examples of scalar product of two
dot product and is spoken as “a dot b”.
vectors are work and power.
PAGE # 20
Thus, the two vectors are anti-parallel
Work is defined as the dot product of force F and the
displacement s of its point of application. (iv) Let c  a  b , then magnitude of c in terms of the
That is, W = F . s angle  between the two vectors is given by

c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos
Power is defined as the dot product of force F and the
here a = 3 units, b = 4 units, c = 5 units.
velocity v of its point of application.
 52 = 32 + 42 + 2(3)(4) cos
That is, P = F . v 
or cos = 0 =
2
(ii) The scalar product can be used to determine the
49. Using the dot product between two vectors, determine
angle  between the two vectors a and b as
the angle between a = 3 î  3 3 ĵ and b
a.b a x b x  a y b y  a zb z = 5 3 î  5 ĵ .
cos = =
|a||b| a 2x  a 2y  a 2z b 2x  b 2y  b 2z
Sol. Using equation a  b = axbx +ayby + azbz, we have
If the vectors a and b are perpendicular, then axbx +ayby  

a  b = 3 î  3 3 ĵ . 5 3 î  5 ĵ 
+ azbz = 0
or a  b = (3) (5 3 ) + (3 3 ) (5) = 30 3
48. Two vectors a and b have magnitudes of 3 unitss By the definition of dot product, we have
and 4 units, respectively. Determine the angle
a.b
cos =
between the directions of a and b if |a||b|
(i) a . b = 0 here | a | = | 3 î  3 3 ĵ | = (3 )2  (3 3 ) 2 = 6
(ii) a . b = 12 units | b | = | 5 3 î  5 ĵ | = (5 3 )2  (5)2 = 10
(iii) a . b = – 12 units 30 3 3
 cos = =
( 6)(10 ) 2
(iv) a + b = 5 units
Sol. (i) By the definition of dot product of two vectors, we  3 
 
or  = cos–1   = 6.
know  2 
(iii) Vector Product :
a . b = ab cos
The multiplication of two vector is a vector then such
type of product is called vector product.
Since a  0 ; b  0, therefore, a . b = 0 implies that cos = 0  
The vector product of two vectors a and b is defined

 to be a vector c
Thus, the angle between the two vectors is .
2 • which is oriented in a direction perpendicular to the
 
plane formed by a and b .
a .b
(ii) We know that cos = • its magnitude is given by the product of the magnitudes
ab
of two vectors and sine of the angle between them.
12 That is,
For a . b = 12, we have cos = =1
(3)(4) c = ab sin 
 =0 the vector product is represented as
Thus, the two vectors are parallel   
c =a ×b
 12 The vector product is also called the cross product
(iii) For a . b = – 12, we have cos = =–1 and is read as “a cross b”.
(3)(4)
  
 = The direction of the cross product c = a × b is
determined according to the Right Hand Thumb Rule.
PAGE # 21
The name vector product is given because  
multiplication of vectors in this way results into a vector a × b = (aybz – azby) î + (azbx – axbz) ĵ + (axby – aybx) k̂
quantity.
because
Right Hand Thumb rule :
Stretch the fingers of your right hand such that the thumb
points perpendicular to the stretched fingers but lie in
î × î = 0 ĵ × ĵ = 0 k̂ × k̂ = 0
their plane. Align the fingers of your right hand towards

the vector written, first in the order (vector a ) and curl
the fingers inwards toward the vector written second in î × ĵ = k̂ ĵ × k̂ = î k̂ × î = ĵ

the order (vector b ) ; then the direction of the thumb
 ĵ × î = – k̂ k̂ × ĵ = – î î × k̂ = – ĵ
give the direction of the cross product (vector c )
In the determinant form the cross product of the vectors
 
a and b may be expressed as
î ĵ k̂
   ax ay az
c =a ×b =
bx by bz
  
c =a ×b
= (aybz – azby) î + (azbx – axbz) ĵ + (axby – aybx) k̂
 Special points :
   
(i) The vector product of two parallel vectors : 50. a = 2 î  3 ĵ and b = 4 ĵ  k̂ find a × b
 
If a is parallel to b then  = 0º
    î ĵ k̂
a × b = | a | | b | sin 0 = 0 
  2 3 0
(ii) The vector product of two perpendicular vectors : Sol. c = a × b =
0 4 1
 
If a is perpendicular to b then  = 90º
    = (3×1 – 0×4) î + (0×0 – 2×1) ĵ + (2×4 – 3×0) k̂
| a × b | = | a | | b | sin 90º = ab
= 3 î – 2 ĵ + 8 k̂
(iii) The vector product of two similar unit vectors :
The vector product of two similar unit vector is zero.
(B) Properties of vector product :
î  î = 1 × 1 × sin 0 = 0
The vector product is not commutative, that is,
similarly, ĵ  ĵ = k̂  k̂ = 0
a  b  –b  a
(iv) The vector product of two perpendicular unit vectors,
The vector product is distributive that is,
The vector product of two perpendicular unit vector is
unit vector :  
a b  c  ab  ac
î  ĵ  k̂ , ĵ  î  k̂ (C) Physical application of Vector Product :

In physics, the examples of vector product of two vectors
ĵ  k̂  î , k̂  ĵ   î are torque and angular momentum.
k̂  î  ĵ , î  k̂   ĵ The torque  is defined as the cross product of the


(A) Algebraic Form of Vector Product : position vector r and the force vector F .
  
In the algebraic form the vector product of two vectors That is,  = r × F
 
a and b may be expressed as • The angular momentum

L is defined as the cross
 
  
a × b = a x î  a y ĵ  a z k̂ × b x î  b y ĵ  b z k̂  product of position vector

r and the linear momentum

vector p .
PAGE # 22
   Using the definition of cross-product, we have
That is, L  r  p
  ab
• a  b = area of parallelogram having adjacent sides
sin  
 
ab
a and b .
1    a  b   30k̂  30
• a  b area of triangle having adjacent sides a and b .
2
here
a  3 î  3 3 ĵ  36  6
51. Two vectors a and b have magnitude of 3 units and 4
units, respectively. Determine the angle between the
directions of a and b , if b  5 3 î  5 ĵ  5 3  2
 5 2 = 10
(i) | a  b | = 12 units
ab 30 1
 
(ii) | a  b | = 0  sin  = (10 )(6) 2
ab
Sol. (i) By the definition of cross-product of two vectors we
know that
 1 
   sin 1  
| a  b | = | a | | b | sin  2 6
|ab| 53. A man starts at A and walks 10 m along a straight road

or sin  = and then turns left, walks 8 m straight and once again
| a || b |
turns to the left and then walks 4 m to reach a point B.
here | a | = 3 units; | b | = 4 units and | a  b | =12 (i) Assuming that, initially , the man moves along the
positive x-axis, then draw a diagram showing the initial
units.
and final positions of the man.
12  (ii) Find the displacement of man.
 sin  = (3)(4 )  1    2
(iii) Find the total distance traveled by man.
(ii) If | a  b | =0 , then sin  =0    0 Sol. (i) The fig. shows the initial and final positions of man.
Thus, the two vectors are parallel to each other. y
52. Using the cross product between two vectors,

B 4m
determine the angle between a  3 î  3 3 ĵ and
sAB
A 8m
b  5 3 î  5 ĵ . 0
x
10 m
Sol. In the determinent form, the cross product of two vectors (ii) Obviously, from the figure, the displacement vector
is given by
s AB is given by
 
a  b  3 î  3 3 ĵ  5 3 î  5 ĵ 
s AB = 10 î  8 ĵ – 4 î = 6 î  8 ĵ
î ĵ k̂ The magnitude of displacement is

33 3 0
or a  b 
5 3 5 0

= k̂ (3 ) (5)  ( 3 3 )(5 3 )  sAB  62  82  36  64  10m
(iii) The total distance traveled by man is

or a  b  –30 k̂ d =10 +8 +4 =22m
PAGE # 23
 
54. The magnitudes of two vectors a and b are 3 units
EXERCISE-1

are 4 units respectively, and the vector c is defined as TR IGNOME TR Y :
  
c  a b. 1. sin 300º is equal to
(A) 1/2 (B) –1/2

(i) Obtain an expression for the magnitude of c in
3 3
(C)  (D)
  2 2
terms of | a |,| b | and the angle  between the two
2. Value of tan225º is :
 
vectors a and b , as shown in figure. 1
(A) 3 (B)
3
(C) 1 (D) –1
c
b
3. Value of sin15º. cos15º is :
0 (A) 1 (B) 1/2
a
(ii) Find the maximum and minimum value of c.
3
(C) 1/4 (D)
2
Sol. (i) Applying the cosine rule in the triangles as shown in
fig. , we have c2 = a2 +b2 + 2ab cos  4. Value of sin (37°) cos (53°) is -
9 12
(A) (B)
25 25
c
b
16 3
180- 0 (C) (D)
0 25 5
a
(ii) The value of c becomes maximum when  =0, that 1
5. If sin  = , then cos  will be -
 
3
is, when the two vectors a and b are parallel.
8 4
(A)  (B) 
thus 2
c max 2 2
=a + b +2ab cos0º =(a +b) 2 9 3
or Cmax = a + b = 3 + 4 = 7 unit 2 2 3
(C)  (D) 
3 4
and, the minimum value of c occurs when  =  , that
is , when the two vectors are anti-parallel.
6. Which of the following has value zero ?
thus, (A) Sin 0° (B) tan 0°
2
c min  a2  b2  2ab cos180º  (a  b)2 or c min  a  b (C) cos 0° (D) cot 0°
4 – 3 = 1 unit
A LGE B R A :
     
55. If A  B = A  B then prove that A  B . x 1
7. If f(x) = , then the value of f(f(f(x))) is :
x –1
   
Sol. Given A  B = A  B x 1
(A) (B) 1
x 1
So, A 2  B 2  2 ABCOS  = A 2  B 2  2 ABCOS  x 1
(C) (D) x
 x 1
4 ABcos = 0 =
2 
8. If f(x) = tanx , then the value of f ( ):
4
(A) 3 (B) 2
(C) 1 (D) none of these
PAGE # 24
D I F FE R E N T I AT I O N : 20. The displacement of a body at any time t after
dy starting is given by s = 15t – 0.4t 2. The velocity
9. y = x3 + 2x2 + 7x + 8 then will be - of the body will be 7 ms–1 after time :
dx
(A) 3x2 + 2x + 15 (B) 3x2 + 4x + 7
(A) 20 s (B) 15 s
(C) x3 + 2x2 + 15 (D) x3 + 4x + 7 (C) 10 s (D) 5 s
21. A particle is moving in a straight line. Its
10. Differentiation of 2x2 + 3x w.r.t. x is :
(A) 4x + 3 (B) 4x displacement at time t is given by s (in m) = 
(C) 3 (D) 4x + 1 4t 2 + 2t, then its velocity and acceleration at time
11. Equation of straight line is 2x + 3y = 5. Slope of the
straight line is :
t= 1
2 second are
(A) 3/2 (B) 2/3
(A)  2 m/s,  8 m/s2 (B) 2 m/s, 6 m/s2
(C) –2/3 (D) –3/2
(C)  2 m/s , 8 m/s2 (D) 2 m/s, 8 m/s2
dy
12. If y = x l nx then will be
dx
22. A particle moves along a straight line such that
its displacement at any time t is given by :
(A) l nx + x (B) 1 + l n x
(C) l nx (D) 1 s = t 3 – 6t 2 + 3t + 4 metresThe velocity when the
acceleration is zero is :
nx dy
(A) 3 ms–1 (B) – 12 ms–1
13. If y = then will be :
x dx (C) 42 ms –1
(D) – 9 ms–1
1  nx 1  nx
(A) (B) I N T E GR AT I O N :
x x2
3
(C)
1  nx
(D)
nx  1 23.  x dx is equal to :
x2 x2
x4
2 (A) 3x2 (B) C
14. Differentiation of sin(x + 3) w.r.t. x is - 4
(A) cos (x 2 + 3) (B) 2x cos(x 2 + 3) x4

(C) (D) 4x3
(C) (x 2 + 3) cos(x 2 + 3) (D) 2x cos(2x + 3) 4
dy
15. If y = tan x . cos2x then will be -
dx 24.  2 sin( x)dx is equal to :
2 2
(A) 1 + 2sin x (B) 1 – 2sin x (A) –2cos x + C (B) 2 cosx + C
(C) 1 (D) 2 sin 2x (C) –2 cos x (D) 2 cosx
d2 y
16. If y = x3 then
dx 2 is -
25. If x = (6y + 4) (3y2 + 4y + 3) then  x dy will be :
(A) 6x2 (B) 6x 1
(C) 3x2 (D) 3x (A)
3y 2  4 y  3
17. If Q = 4v3 + 3v2 , then the value of 'v' such that, there
(3 y 2  4 y  3)2
exist maxima of 'Q' - (B) +C
2
1
(A) 0 (B)  (C) (3y2 + 4y + 3)
2
(6y  4)
1 (D)
(C) (D) none (3 y 2  4 y  3 )
2
COMPREHENSION (26 to 28) :
d2 y
18. If y = sinx, then will be :
dx 2 If charge flown through a cross section of wire in
(A) cos x (B) sin x one direction during 0 to t is given by q = 3 sin (3t)
(C) – sin x (D) sin x + C then
26. Find out the amount of charge flowing through the
19. Maximum value of f(x) = sin x + cos x is :
(A) 1 (B) 2 
wire till t =   seconds.
6
1 (A) 3 coulombs (B) 6 coulombs
(C) (D) 2
2 (C) 1 coulomb (D) Zero coulomb
PAGE # 25

27. Find out the current flowing through the wire at t =
9 33. Consider the two vectors a and b If a  b , then the
second.
magnitude of their sum :
(A) 4.5 Amp (B) 4.5 3 Amp
(C) 3 /2 Amp (D) 9 Amp. (A) is equal to a  b

28. Find out the area under i – t curve from t = to t
9 (B) Must be equal to a  b

= seconds :
6 (C) cannot be less than a  b
2  3  2  3 
(A) 3   (B) 3  
 2   2  (D) cannot be greater than a  b
2  3 
2  3    34. If two non-parallel vectors a and b are equal in
  
 2 
(C) (D)
 2 
29. The area of region between y = sinx and x–axis in    
magnitude , then the vectors a  b and a  b will be:
  (A) parallel to each other
the interval 0,  will be :
 2 (B) perpendicular to each other
(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) anti-parallel to each other
1 (D) inclined at an angle less than 90º
(C) 2 (D)
2
/2

 
35. The condition under which the vector a  b is parallel
30. The value of
 sin 2 x dx will be : to b is :
0
(A) 1 (B) 0 (A) a || b (B) a  b
 
(C) (D) (C) a  b (D) a  b
4 2
 36. Which of the following relations are wrong ?
VECTOR
  
(A) A  B  C (B) A  B  C
BA SI C P ROP ERTIE S OF VECTORS     
(C) A  B  C (D) A  B  C
31. A vector may change if :
(A) Frame of reference is translated 37. The rectangular components of force of 5 dyne are :
(B) Frame of reference is rotated (A) 1 and 2 dyne (B) 2 and 3 dyne
(C) Vector is translated parallel to itself (C) 3 and 4 dyne (D) 2.5 and 2.5 dyne
(D) Vector is rotated
38. To get a resultant displacement of 10m, two displace-
ment vectors, one of magnitude 6 m and another of
ADDI TI ON A ND S UB IR AT ION OF VECTORS 8 m, should be combined :
(A) Parallel
32. The vector sum of three vectors A,B and C is zero . If (B) Anti-parallel
(C) At an angle 60°
(D) Perpendicular to each
î and ĵ are unit vectors in the directions of A and B
  
respectively , then : 39. If the magnitudes of vectors A, B and C are 12, 5 and
(A) C should be along î   
13 units respectively and A  B  C, the angle be-
(B) C should be along ĵ  
tween vectors A and B is :
(A) 0 (B) 
(C) C should be along k̂
(C) /2 (D) /4
(D) C should be in the plane of î and ĵ
PAGE # 26
40. The resultant of two equal forces is double of either of 49. A truck travelling due north at 50 km/hr turns west and
the forces. The angle between them is :
travels at the same speed. W hat is the change in
(A) 120° (B) 90°
(C) 60° (D) 0° velocity?
(A) 50 km/hr north-west
41. The resultant of two forces acting at an angle of 150° is
10 kg wt, and is perpendicular to the smaller force. (B) 50 2 km/hr north-west
The smaller force is :
(C) 50 km/hr south-east
(A) 10 3 kg wt (B) 20 3 kg wt
(D) 50 2 km/hr south-west
(C) 20 kg wt (D) ( 20 / 3 ) kg wt
      50. I started walking down a road to day-break facing the

42. Two vectors A and B are such that | A  B |  | A  B | . sun. After walking for some time, I turned to my left,
 
then I turned to the right once again. In which direction
The angle between the vectors A and B is : was I going then ?
(A) 0 (B) /3 (A) East (B) North -west
(C) /2 (D) 
(C) North-east (D) South
43. Minimum number of unequal coplanar forces whose
vector sum can be equal to zero is : 51. A person moves 30 m north, then 20 m east, then
(A) Two (B) Three
(C) Four (D) Any 30 2 m south-west His displacement from the
  original position is :
44. Two vectors A and B lie in a plane, a third vector
(A) 14 m south-west (B) 28 m south

C lies outside this plane, then the sum of these vec- (C) 10 m west (D) 15 m east
  
tors A + B + C : 52. The resultant of two forces, one double the other in
(A) Can be zero magnitude, is perpendicular to the smaller of the two
(B) Can never be zero forces. The angle between the two forces is :
  (A) 120º (B) 60º
(C) Lies in a plane containing A  B
(C) 90º (D) 150º
 
(D) Lies in a plane containing A – B VECTOR PR ODUCT
45. Two forces of 4 dyne and 3 dyne act upon a body. The 53. If the vectors A  3 î  2 ĵ  xk̂ and B  2 î  4 ĵ  k̂ are
resultant force on the body can only be :
perpendicular to each other, then the value of x is :
(A) More than 3 dyne
(A) 2 (B) 3
(B) More than 4 dyne
(C) -2 (D) -3
(C) Between 3 and 4 dyne

(D) Between 1 and 7 dyne 54. If A  2 i  3 ĵ  k̂ and B  3 î  ĵ  2k̂ , then the cosine
of the angle between the two vectors is :
    
46. The angle between  A  B and B  A  is : 11 5
    (A) (B)
14 14
(A) Zero (B)  1 1
(C) (D)
(C) /4 (D) /2 14 7
47. Five equal forces of 10 N each are applied at one point 
55. A force F  6 î  8 ĵ  10k̂ newton produces an
and all are lying in one plane. If the angles between
them are equal, the resultant of these forces will be : acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a body. The mass of body
(A) Zero (B) 10 N would be :
(A) 200 kg (B) 20 kg
(C) 20 N (D) 10 2N
(C) 10 2 kg (D) 6 2 kg
48. An aeroplane is moving in a circular path with a speed 

56. The angle that the vector A  2 î  3 ĵ makes with
250 km/hr; what is the change in velocity in half
revolution ? y-axis is :
(A) 500 km/hr (B) 250 km/hr (A) tan–1(3/2) (B) tan–1 (2/3)
(C) 125 km/hr (D) Zero (C) sin–1 (2/3) (D) cos–1(3/2)
PAGE # 27
4. Two nonzero vectors a and b are such that (a + b) is
57. A vector perpendicular to (4î  3ĵ) is :
perpendicular to (a – b). Then,
(A) 4 î  3 ĵ (B) 7k̂ (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
(A) a must be perpendicular to b and |a| must be equal
(C) 6 î (D) 3 î  4 ĵ to |b|
(B) a must be perpendicular to b but |a| may not be
equal to |b|
58. A particle is displaced from position ( 2 î  ĵ  k̂ ) to (C) a may be perpendicular to b and |a| may equal to
|b|
another position (3 î  2 ĵ  2k̂ ) under the action of the (D) a may be perpendicular to b and |a| must be equal
to |b|
force of ( 2 î  ĵ  k̂ ) . The work done by the force in an
arbitrary unit is : 5. Two vectors of equal magnitude are inclined to each
(A) 8 (B) 10 other at an angle  . Keeping the direction of one of
(C) 12 (D) 16 them fixed the other is rotated through an equal angle
 . Now, the resultant of these vectors has the same
magnitude as each of the two vectors.
 (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
59. A force F  a î  b ĵ  ck̂ is acting upon a body of mass
(A) 90º (B) 30º
‘m’ If the body starts from rest and was at the origin (C) 45º (D) 60º
initially, find its new co-ordinates after time t :
at 2 bt 2 ct 2 at 2 2bt 2 ct 2  6 If â and b̂ are unit vectors and  is the angle between

(A) , , (B) , , them, then which of the following statements is / are
2m 2m 2m 2m m 2m
true ? (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2009)
at 2 bt 2 ct 2 (A) If ( â + b̂ ) is a unit vector, then  = 2 / 3

(C) , , (D) None of these
m m 2m (B) If ( â – b̂ ) is a unit vector, then  =  / 3
(C) If ( â + b̂ ) is a unit vector, then  = 3 /4

EXERCISE-2
(D) If ( â – b̂ ) is a unit vector, then  =  / 4
COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS : 
 
7. C is the resultant of A and B . Their respective
1. A quantity m is a scalar where as A is a vector. Then, the magnitudes are C, A and B. Select correct statement :
(IJSO/Stage-II/2014)
meaningful quantity is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) C may be equal to A.
(A) m + A (B) C > A and C > B.
(B) mA but not A/m (C) C = A + B.
(C) Al m but not mA (D) C cannot be smaller than of A and B.
(D) mA as well as A/m
2. a, b and c are three vectors having magnitudes 8, 3 and

5 as shown in the figure. Then, (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
a
b
c
(A) a = b + c (B) a > b + c

(C) a < b + c (D) none of these

3. A vector
A = ax i + ay j + az k has zero magnitude. Then,
(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) ax + ay = – az (B) ax + az = 0, ay = 0
(C) ax + ay = 0, az = 0 (D) ax = ay = az = 0
PAGE # 28
2. UNIT & DIMENSIONS
PHYSICAL QUANTITY TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANITITY
A quantity which can be measured and by which ( a ) R a t i o ( n um e r i c a l v a l u e o nl y :

variou s physical happenings can be exp lained W hen a physical quantity is a ratio of two similar
and expressed in form of laws is called a physical
quantities, it has no unit.
quantity. For example length, mass, time, force
etc. e.g. Relative density = Density of obj ect/Density
of water at 4°C .
On the other hand various happenings in life e.g.,
happiness, sorrow etc. are not physical quantities Refractive index = Velocity of light in air/Velocity
because these can not be measured. of light in medium
Strain = Change in dimension/Original dimension
M e as u r em en t is n ec e ss ar y to d et er m i n e
magnitude of a physical quantity, to compare two  Angle is exceptional physical quantity, which
similar physical quantities and to prove physical though is a ratio of two similar physical quantities
laws or equations. (ang le = arc / radiu s) bu t still req uires a un it
(degrees or radians) to specify it along with its
A physical quantity is represented completely by numerical value.
its magnitude and unit. For example, 10 metre
means a length which is ten tim es the un it of ( b ) S c a l a r ( M a g n i t u d e o nl y ) :
length 1 m. Here 10 represents th e numerical These quantities do not have any direction e.g.
value of the given quantity and metre represents Length, time, work, energy etc.
the unit of quantity under consideration. Thus in Magnitude of a physical quantity can be negative.
expressing a physical quantity we choose a unit In th at c ase n egative sig n ind ic ates th at th e
and then find that how many times that unit is n u m e ri c a l va lu e of th e q u an ti ty u n d er
contained in the given physical quantity, i.e. consideration is negative. It does not specify the
direction.
Physical quantity (Q) = Magnitude × Unit = n × u Scalar quantities can be added or subtracted with
W here, n represents the numerical value and u the help of following ordinary laws of addition or
re p r es en ts t h e u n it . T h u s w h il e exp r es si n g subtraction.
definite amount of physical quantity, it is clear
that as the unit(u) changes, the magnitude(n) will ( c ) Ve c t o r ( m a g n i t u d e a n d d i r e c t i o n ) :
also change but product 'nu' will remain same. e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force
i.e. n u = constant, etc.
Ve c t o r p h ysi c al q u a n t it ie s c an b e ad d e d o r
or n 1u 1 = n 2u 2 = constant ;
subtracted according to vector laws of addition.
1 These laws are different from laws of ordinary
 n ?
u addition.
i.e. magnitude of a physical quantity and units
are inversely proportional to each other. Larger T h er e ar e c er ta in p h ys ic al q u a n ti ti es w h i c h
the unit, smaller will be the magnitude. b eh ave n eith er as s c alar n o r as vec to r. F o r
example, moment of inertia is not a vector as by
changing the sense of rotation its value is not
changed. It is also not a scalar as it has different
values in different directions (i.e. about different
axes ). S u c h p h ysi c a l q u an ti tie s ar e c a ll ed
Tensors.
PAGE # 29
ph ysical quantities m ass, leng th and tim e are
FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED QUATITES choosen for this purpose. So any unit of mass,
le n g th a n d t im e i n m e c h an ic s i s c a ll ed a
fundamental, absolute or base unit. Other units
( a ) F u n d a m e n t a l q u a n tit ie s : O u t o f larg e
which can be expressed in terms of fundamental
n u m b er o f p h ysic al q u a n tities w h ic h exist in
units, are called derived units. For example light
nature, there are only few quantities which are
year or km is a fundamental units as it is a unit of
independent of all other quantities and do not
length while s –1, m 2 or kg/m are derived units as
require the help of any other physical quantity for
these are derived from units of time, mass and
th ei r d e fi n i ti o n , t h e re fo re th es e ar e c a ll ed
length respectively.
absolute quantities. These quantities are also
c alled fu nd am en tal o r b ase q u an tities, as all
System of units : A complete set of units, both
other quantities are b ased upo n and can be
fundamental and derived for all kinds of physical
expressed in terms of these quantities.
quantities is called system of units. The common
systems are given below -
( b ) D e r i v e d q u a nt i t i e s :
All other physical quantities can be derived by
(a) C GS s y s t e m :
su itab le m u ltip lic ation o r d ivisio n o f differen t
The system is also called G aussian system of
p ow ers of fu n dam en tal qu antities. Th ese are
u nits. In it len g th, mass an d tim e h ave b een
therefore called derived quantities.
c h o s en a s th e f u n d a m e n t al q u an ti ti es a n d
corresponding fundamental units are centimetre
If length is defined as a fundamental quantity then
(cm), gram (g) and second (s) respectively.
area and volume are derived from length and
are expressed in term of length with power 2 and
(b) M K S s y s t e m :
3 over the term of length.
The system is also called Giorgi system. In this
system also length, mass and tim e have been
 In mechanics Length , Mass and time are
ta k e n as f u n d am en ta l q u an tit ie s, a n d t h e
arb itrarily c h o sen as fu n dam en tal q u an tities.
c o r resp o n d in g f u n d am e n tal u n its a re m et re,
However this set of fundamental quantities is not
kilogram and second.
a unique choice. In fact any three quantities in
(c) FP S s y s t e m : In this system foo t, po und
mechanics can be termed as fundamental as all
an d se c o n d a re u se d re sp ec ti ve ly for
other quantities in mechanics can be expressed
measurements of length, mass and time. In this
in terms of these. e.g. if speed and time are taken
syste m fo rc e is a d eri ved q u a n ti ty w ith u n it
as fundamental quantities, length will become a
poundal.
d erived q uan tity b ec ause th en len gth w ill b e
expressed as Speed × Time. and if force and (D) S. I. system : It is known as International
ac c e le ra ti o n a re ta k e n as f u n d a m e n t al system of units, and is infact extended system of
quantities, then mass will be defined as Force / units applied to whole physics. There are seven
acc eleration an d w ill b e term ed as a d erived fun d am ental q uan tities in th is system . T h ese
quantity. q u an ti ti es an d th ei r u n i ts a re g i ve n in t h e
following table
FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS
Normally each physical quantity requires a unit

or standard for its specification so it appears that
there must be as many units as there are physical
quantities. However, it is not so. It has been found
that if in mechanics we choose arbitrarily units
of any three physical quantities we can express
th e u n it s o f al l o t h e r p h ysi c a l q u a n t it ie s in
m e c h a n ic s i n t erm s o f th ese . A rb i tra ril y t h e
PAGE # 30
Table
S Units
Base Quantity
Name Symbol Definition
The metre is the length of the path traveled by light in

Length metre m vacuum during a time interval of 1/299, 792, 458 of a second
(1983)
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international

prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder)
Mass kilogram kg
kept at International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at
Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)
The second is the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
Time second s
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom
(1967)
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in

two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible
Electric Current ampere A circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a force equal to
2 x 10-7 Newton per metre of length. (1948)
Thermodynamic The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic

kelvin K
Temperature temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which

Amount of
mole mol contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in
Substance
0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. (1971)
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of

Luminous a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
candela cd
Intensity 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that
direction of 1/683 watt per steradian (1979).
S.No. Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

Besides the above seven fundamental units two 18
supplementary units are also defined - 1. 10 Exa E
15
Radian (rad) for plane angle and Steradian (sr) 2. 10 peta P
for solid angle. 3. 10
12
tera T
 Apart from fundamental and derived units we 4. 109 giga G
also use very frequently practical units.
5. 106 mega M
These may be fundamental or derived units 3
e.g., light year is a practical unit (fundamental) of 6. 10 kilo k
2
distance while horse power is a practical u n i t 7. 10 hecto h
(derived) of power. 1
8. 10 deca da
 Practical units may or may not belong to a –1
9. 10 deci d
system but can be expressed in any system
–2
of units 10. 10 centi c
e.g., 1 mile = 1.6 km = 1.6 × 10 3 m. 11. 10–3 milli m
–6
12. 10 micro 
S.I. PREFIXES –9
13. 10 nano n
In physics we have to deal from very small (micro) –12
14. 10 pico p
to very large (macro) magnitudes as one side we –15
talk about the atom while on the other side of 15. 10 femto f
universe, e.g., the mass of an electron is 9.1 × 16. 10
–18
atto a
10 –31 kg while that of the sun is 2 × 10 30 kg. To
exp r es s su c h l ar g e o r sm al l m a g n it u d es
simultaneously we use the following prefixes :
PAGE # 31
1 Solar year = 365.25 average solar day
STANDARDS OF LENGTH, MASS AND TIME
1
(a) Length : o r 1 average solar day  the part of solar
365.25
Standard metre is defined in terms of wavelength year
of light and is called atomic standard of length. (iv) Sedrial day : It is the time taken by earth to
The metre is the distance containing 1650763.73 complete one rotation about its axis with respect
w a ve le n g th i n va c u u m o f t h e r ad ia ti o n
corresponding to orange red light emitted by an to a distant star.
atom of krypton-86. 1 S o lar year = 3 6 6 .2 5 S ed rial d ay = 3 6 5 .2 5
Now a days metre is defined as length of the path
average solar day
travelled by light in vacuum in
1/ 299,7792, 458 part of a second. Thus 1 Sedrial day is less than 1 solar day.
( b ) M a s s : T h e m ass o f a c ylin d er m ad e o f (v) Shake : It is an obsolete and practical unit of
p l at in u m -i ri d i u m al lo y k e p t at In t er n a ti o n al
Bureau of W eights and Measures is defined as 1 tim e.
kg. On atomic scale, 1 kilogram is equivalent to 1 Shake = 10 –8 sec
the mass of 5.0188 × 10 25 atoms of 6C 12
(an isotope of carbon). DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY
( c ) T i m e : 1 sec o n d is d efin ed a s th e ti m e
interval of 9192631770 vibrations of radiation in W hen a derived quantity is expressed in terms of
Cs-133 atom. This radiation corresponds to the fundamental quantities, it is written as a product
tran sitio n b etw een two hyp erfin e level o f th e
of different powers of the fundamental quantities.
ground state of Cs-133.
T h e po w ers to w h ic h fu n d am en tal q u an tities
PRACTICAL UNITS
m ust be raised in o rd er to exp ress th e given
(a) Length :
physical quantity are called its dimensions.
(i) 1 fermi = 1 fm = 10 –15 m
(ii) 1 X-ray unit = 1XU = 10 –13 m To m ak e it m o re clear, co n sid er th e p h ysical
(i ii ) 1 angstrom = 1Å = 10 –10 m = 10 –8 cm quantity force
(iv) 1 micron = m = 10 –6 m
(v) 1 astronomical unit = 1 A.U. = 1. 49 × 10 11 m mass  velocity
Force = mass × ac celeratio n 
(vi) 1 Light year = 1 ly = 9.46 × 10 15
m time
mass  lenth/time
(vii) 1 Parsec = 1pc = 3.26 light year  = mass × length × (time) –2
time
(b ) Mass :
.... (i)
(i) Chandra Shekhar unit : 1 CSU = 1.4 times
Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1
the mass of sun = 2.8 × 10 30 kg
in length and – 2 in time.
(ii) Metric tonne : 1 Metric tonne = 1000 kg
Here the physical quantity that is expressed in
(i ii ) Quintal : 1 Quintal = 100 kg
te rm s o f t h e b a se q u an ti ti es i s e n c lo se d in
(iv) Atomic mass unit (amu) : amu = 1.67 × 10 –27
square brackets to indicate that the equation is
kg mass of proton or neutron is of the order of 1
am o n g th e d i m e n s io n s a n d n o t a m o n g t h e
am u
magn itu des.
(c) Time : Thus eq. (i) can be written as [force]=[MLT –2].
(i) Year : It is the time taken by earth to complete Su ch an expression for a p hysical qu antity in
1 revolution around the sun in its orbit. terms of the fundamental quantities is called the
(ii) Lunar month : It is the time taken by moon to dim ensional equ atio n. If we con sider on ly the
complete 1 revolution around the earth in it sorbit. R.H.S. of the equation, the expression is termed
1 L.M. = 27.3 days as d imension al form ula.
(i ii ) Solar day : It is the time taken by earth to Thus, dimensional formula for force is, [MLT –2].
complete one rotation about its axis with respect
to sun. Since this time varies from day to day,
average solar day is calculated by taking average
of the duration of all the days in a year and this is
called Average Solar day.
PAGE # 32
IMPORTANT DIMENSIONS OF COMPLETE PHYSICS
MECHANICS :
S.No. Quantity Symbol Unit Dimension
0 1 –1
1 Velocity or speed  m/s [M L T ]
2 0 1 –2
2 Acceleration a m/s [M L T ]
1 1 –1
3 Momentum (p) kg-m/s [M L T ]
1 1 –1
4 Impulse (I) Newton-sec or kg-m/s [M L T ]
1 1 –2
5 Force (F) Newton [M L T ]
1 –1 –2
6 Pressure (P) Pascal [M L T ]
1 2 –2
7 Kinetic energy (KE) Joule [M L T ]
1 2 –3
8 Power (P) Watt or Joule/s [M L T ]
3 1 –3 0
9 Density (d) kg/m [M L T ]
0 0 0
10 Angular displacement  Radian (rad.) [M L T ]
0 0 –1
11 Angular velocity  Radian/sec [M L T ]
2 0 0 –2
12 Angular acceleration  Radian/sec [M L T ]
2 1 2 0
13 Moment of inertia  kg-m [M L T ]
1 2 –2
14 Torque  Newton-meter [M L T ]
1 2 –1
15 Angular momentum (L) Joule-sec [M L T ]
1 0 –2
16 Force constant or spring constant (k) Newton/m [M L T ]
2 2 –1 3 –2
17 Gravitational constant (G) N-m /kg [M L T ]
0 1 –2
18 Intensity of gravitational field (Eg) N/kg [M L T ]
0 2 –2
19 Gravitational potential (Vg) Joule/kg [M L T ]
2 1 0 –2
20 Surface tension (T) N/m or Joule/m [M L T ]
–1 0 0 –1
21 Velocity gradient dv Second [M L T ]
dx
1 –1 –1
22 Coefficient of viscosity () kg/m-s [M L T ]
HEAT :
S. N. Quantity Symbol Unit Dimension

0 0 0 1
1 Temperature (T) Kelvin [M L T K ]
1 2 –2
2 Heat (Q) Joule [M L T ]
0 2 –2 –1
3 Specific Heat (c) Joule/kg-K [M L T K ]
1 2 –2 –1
4 Thermal capacity (C) Joule/K [M L T K ]
0 2 –2
5 Latent heat (L) Joule/kg [M L T ]
1 2 –2 –1
6 Gas constant (R) Joule/mol-K [M L T K ]
1 2 –2 –1
7 Boltzmann constant (k) Joule/K [M L T K ]
1 1 –3 –1
8 Coefficient of thermal conductivity (K) Joule/m-s-K [M L T K ]
2 4 1 0 –3 –4
9 Stefan's constant () Watt/m – K [M L T K ]
0 1 0 1
10 Wien's constant (b) Meter-K [M L T K ]
1 2 –1
11 Planck's constant (h) Joule-s [M L T ]
–1 0 0 0 –1
12 Coefficient of Linear Expansion  Kelvin [M L T K ]
0 0 0
13 Mechanical eq. of Heat (J) Joule/Calorie [M L T ]
4 1 5 –2
14 Vander wall's constant (a) Newton-m [M L T ]
3 0 3 0
15 Vander wall's constant (b) m [M L T ]
PAGE # 33
Electricity :
S. N. Quantity Symbol Unit Dimension

0 0 1 1
1 Electric charge (q) Coulomb [M L T A ]
0 0 0 1
2 Electric current (I) Ampere [M L T A ]
1 2 –3 –1
3 Electric potential (V) Joule/coulomb MLT A
–1 –3 4 2
4 Permittivity of free space (0) (Coulomb)2 [M L T A ]
Newton Meter 2
1 2 –3 –2
5 Resistance (R) Volt [M L T A ]
or ohm
Ampere
1 3 –3 –2
6 Resistivity or Specific resistance () Ohm-meter [M L T A ]
1 2 –2 –2
7 Coefficient of Self-induction (L) Volt - second [M L T A ]
Ampere
1 2 –2 –1
8 Magnetic flux () Volt-second or weberor henery or ohm-second [M L T A ]
1 0 –2 –1
9 Magnetic induction (B) Volt - second Newton [M L T A ]
2
meter amphere - meter
Joule
or Tesla
ampere- meter
1 1 –2 –2
10 Permeability of Free Space () Newton [M L T A ]
amphere2
–1 –1 –2 3 2
11 Conductance (G),(1/R) ohm [M L T A ]
–1 –1 –1 –3 3 2
12 Conductivity (), (1/) ohm meter [M L T A ]
1 1 –3 –1
13 Intensity of electric field (E) Volt Newton MLT A
,
meter coulomb
Quantities Having Same Dimensions
S. N. Dimension Quantity
0 0 –1
1. [M L T ] Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity
1 2 –2
2. [M L T ] Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, torque, moment of
force
1 –1 –2
3. [M L T ] Pressure, energy density
1 1 –1
4. [M L T ] Momentum, impulse
0 1 –2
5. [M L T ] Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field intensity
1 1 –2
6. [M L T ] Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient
1 2 –1
7. [M L T ] Angular momentum and Planck's constant
0 0 0
8. [M L T ] Refractive index, relative density, angle, solid
angle, relative permittivity (dielectric constant),
relative permeability etc.
0 2 –2
9. [M L T ] Latent heat and gravitational potential
–1 2 –2 –1
10. [M L T K ] Thermal capacity, gas constant, Boltzmann
constant and entropy
0 0 1
11. [M L T ] l / g , m / k , R / g , where l = length
g = acceleration due to gravity, m = mass, k = spring constant
PAGE # 34
n u m e ri c a l va lu es in t h e two s ys te m s
APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS respectively, then n 1[u 1]=n 2[u 2 ]
 n1[M1a Lb1C1c ]  n2 [M a2 Lb2 C c2 ]
( a ) To find t he unit of a p hy si c al quant it y a b c
i n a g i v e n s y s t e m o f u ni t s : M  L  T 
 n 2  n1  1   1   1 
W riting the definition or formula for the physical  M 2   L 2   T2 
q u a n tit y w e fin d it s d im en si o n s. N o w in th e
dimensional formula replacing M, L and T by the where M 1 , L 1 and T 1 are fu ndam ental un its of
fundamental units of the required system we get mass, length and time in the first (known) system
the unit of physical quantity. However, sometimes and M 2, L 2 and T 2 are fundamental units of mass,
to this unit we further assign a specific name, length and time in the second (unknown) system.
e.g., W ork = Force × Displacement Thus knowing the values of fundamental units in
So [W ] = [MLT –2] × [L] = [ML 2T –2] two systems and numerical value in one system,
So its un its in C.G.S. system w ill be g c m 2 /s 2 th e n u m eric al valu e in o th er system m ay b e
which is called erg while in M.K.S. system will be evalu ated.
kg m 2/s 2 which is called joule.
Example : (A) conversion of Newton into Dyne.
( b ) To f i n d d i m e n s i o n s o f physical T he N ew to n is th e S.I. u nit o f fo rc e an d has
c on s t a n t o r c o e f f i c i e n t s : dimensional formula [MLT –2 ].
As dimensions of a physical quantity are unique, So 1 N = 1 kg–m/sec 2
we write any formula or equation incorporating
the given constant and then by substituting the
By using
dimensional formulae of all other quantities, we
can find the dimensions of the required constant
or coefficient. a b c
M   L1   T1 
(i) Gravitational constant : According to Newton's n2  n1  1  L  T 
m 1 m2 Fr 2  M2   2  2
law of gravitation F  G or G 
r2 m1m2
1 1 2
S u b s ti tu ti n g th e d i m en si o n s o f al l p h ys ic al  kg   m   sec 
[MLT 2 ][L2 ]  1   
quantities G    [M 1L3T  2 ]  gm   cm   sec 
[M][M]
(ii) Planck constant : According to Planck E = h 1 1 2
E 10 3 gm  10 2 cm   sec  5
or h   1     sec   10
  gm   cm   
S u b s ti tu ti n g th e d i m en si o n s o f al l p h ys ic al
[ML2 T 2 ]  1N = 10 5 dyne
quantities [h ]   [ML2T 1 ] (B) Conversion of gravitational constant (G) from
[T 1 ] C.G.S. to M.K.S. system
(i ii ) C o effi c i en t o f vis c o s it y : A c c o rd in g to The value of G in C.G.S. system is 6.67 × 10 –8
dV pr 4 C .G.S . u n its w h ile its d imen sio n al fo rm u la is
P o is eu il le ' s fo rm u l a  or
dt 8l [M –1L 3T –2 ]
S o G = 6.67 × 10 –8 cm 3/g s 2
pr 4 a b c
  M1   L1   T1 
8l (dV / dt )
By using n 2  n1      
Substituting the dimen sions of all physical  M 2   L 2   T2 
1 3 2
[ML1T 2 ][L4 ]  gm   cm   sec 
quantities [ ]   [ML1T 1 ] = 6.67×10 –8  kg   m   sec 
[L][L3 /T]  
1
 gm   cm  3  sec  2
( c ) To c o n v e r t a p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t y f r o m  3   3  
= 6.67×10 –8 
on e s y s t e m t o t he ot h e r : 10 gm  10 cm   sec 
T h e m easu re o f a ph ysic al q u an tity is n u =
constant
= 6.67×10 –11
If a physical quantity X has dimensional formula
 G = 6.67 × 10 –11 M.K.S. units
[M a L b T c ] and if (derived) units of that physical
q u an ti ty i n tw o s ys te m s a re [M1a Lb1C1c ] an d
[M a2 Lb2 C c2 ] resp ec tively an d n 1 an d n 2 b e th e
PAGE # 35
(d) To check the dimensional c o r r e c t n e s s
of a given physical relation: LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
This is based on the 'principle of homogeneity'.
According to this principle the dimensions of each Although dimensional analysis is very useful it
term on both sides of an equation must be the cannot lead us too far as,
same. (A) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may
If X = A ± (BC) 2 ± DEF not be unique as many physical quantities have
then according to principle of homogeneity [X] = sa m e d im en si o n s. F o r exam p l e if t h e
d im ension al form ula o f a p h ysical q u an tity is
[A] = [(BC) 2] = [ DEF ]
[ML 2T –2] it may be work or energy or torque.
If the dimensions of each term on both sides are (B) Numerical constant having no dimensions [K]
sam e, th e eq u ation is d im ensio n ally c orrec t, such as (1/2), 1 or 2 etc. cannot be deduced by
otherwise not. A dimensionally correct equation the methods of dimensions.
may or may not be physically correct. (C) The method of dimensions can not be used
Example : (A) F = mv2 / r 2 to derive relations other than product of power
B y s u b st itu ti n g d im en s io n o f th e p h ys ic al functions. For example,
quantities in the above relation – s = ut + (1/2)at 2 or y = asint
[MLT –2] = [M] [LT –1] 2 / [L] 2 cannot be derived by using this theory (try if you
i.e. [MLT –2] = [MT –2] can). However, the dimensional correctness of
As in the abo ve eq uatio n dimen sion s o f bo th these can be checked.
sides are not same; this formula is not correct (D) The method of dimensions cannot be applied
dimensionally, so can never be physically. to d erive f o rm u la if in m ec h an ic s a p h ysic al
(B) s = ut – (1/2)at 2 q u an ti ty d ep en d s o n m o r e th a n 3 p h ys ic al
B y s u b st itu ti n g d im en s io n o f th e p h ys ic al quantities as then there will be less number (=
quantities in the above relation – 3) of equations than the unknowns (>3). However
[L] = [LT –1][T] – [LT –2][T 2] st ill w e c an c h e c k c o r re c tn ess o f th e g iven
i.e. [L] = [L] – [L] eq u a ti o n d im en si o n all y. F o r e xa m p le T =
As in the above eq uation dimensio ns o f each
term on both sides are same, so this equation is 2 1 / mgl c a n n o t b e d er ived b y th eo ry o f
dimensionally correct. However, from equations dimensions but its dimensional correctness can
of motion we know that s = ut+(1/2)at 2 be checked.
(E ) Even if a physical qu an tity depend s on 3
(5) As a research tool to derive new relations : physical quantities, out of which two have same
If o n e k n o w s th e d ep e n d en c y o f a p h ys ic al dimensions, the formula can not be derived by
quantity on other quantities and if the dependency th eo ry o f d im en si o n s, e. g . , fo rm u la f o r t h e
is of the product type, then using the method of frequency of a tuning fork f = (d/L 2)v cannot be
d i m e n s io n a l an a lysi s, r el at io n b et w e en t h e d erived b y th eo ry o f d im en sio n s b u t c an b e
quantities can be derived. checked.
Example : (i) Time period of a simple pendulum.
L e t ti m e p e ri o d o f a s im p l e p en d u lu m is a SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
function of mass of the bob (m),effective length
(l), acceleration due to gravity (g) then assuming Significant figures in the measu red value of a
the function to be product of power function of m, physical quantity tell the number of digits in which
l and g w e h ave c o n f id e n c e. L ar g e r t h e n u m b e r o f
i.e., T = K m x l y g z ; w here K = dim ension less significant figures obtained in a measurement,
constant greater is the accuracy of the measurement. The
If the above relation is dimensionally correct then reverse is also true.
by substituting the dimensions of quantities – The following rules are observed in counting the
[T] = [M] x [L] y [LT –2]z n u m b er o f si g n i fi c a n t f ig u re s in a g iven
or [M 0L 0T 1] = [M xL y+zT –2z] measured quantity.
Equating the exponents of similar quantities x = (A) All non-zero digits are significant.
0, y = 1/2 and z = – 1/2 Example : 42.3 has three significant figures.
S o t h e r eq u ir ed p h ysic al r el ati o n b ec o m es 243.4 has four significant figures.
24.123 has five significant figures.
l
T K
g (B) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears
between to non-zero digits.
Th e value of dimensionless constant is fou nd Example : 5.03 has three significant figures.
(2) through experiments so 5.604 has four significant figures.
4.004 has four significant figures.
PAGE # 36
(C) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left (A) The result of an addition or subtraction in the
of the number are never significant. nu mb er having different prec ision s sho uld be
Example : 0.543 has three significant figures. reported to the same number of decimal places
0.045 has two significant figures. as are present in the number having the least
0.006 has one significant figures. number of decimal places. The rule is illustrated
(D) Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right by the following examples :
of the number are significant. (i) 33.3 (has only one decimal place)
Example : 4.330 has four significant figures. 3.11
433.00 has five significant figures. + 0.313
343.000 has six significant figures. –––––––
(E) In exponential notation, the numerical portion 36.723
gives the number of significant figures.                        (answer should be reported to
Example : 1 . 3 2 × 1 0 –2 h as th ree s ig n ifi c a n t one decimal place)
figu res. Answer = 36.7
(ii) 3.1421
0.241
+ 0.09
ROUNDING OFF       (has 2 decimal places)
–––––––
W hile rounding off measurements, we use the 3.4731
following rules by convention:  (a n s w e r sh o u ld b e rep o r te d to 2 d ec im al
(A) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then p lac es)
the preceding digit is left unchanged. Answer = 3.47
Example : x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x = (i ii ) 62.831 (has 3 decimal places)
3.94 is rounded off to 3.9. - 24.5492
(B) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then ––––––––
the preceding digit is raised by one. 38.2818      (a n s w e r s h o u l d b e
Example : x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again reported to 3 decimal places after rounding off)
x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8. Answer = 38.282
(C) If the digit to be dro pped is 5 followed by
digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is (B) The answer to a multiplication or division is
raised by one. rounded off to the same number of significant
Example : x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again figures as is possessed by the least precise term
x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8. used in the calculation. The rule is illustrated by
(D) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by the following examples :
zeros, then preceding digit is left unchanged, if it (i) 142.06
is even. × 0.23
Example : x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding (two significant figures)
off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding –––– –––
off. 32.6738
(5) If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by (answer should have two significant figures)
zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one, Answer = 33
if it is odd. (ii) 51.028
Example : x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, again x × 1.31
= 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2. (three significant figures)
––––––––
66.84668
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATION Answer = 66.8
In most of the experiments, the observations of

va ri o u s m e as u r em en ts ar e to b e c o m b in ed
m a th em at ic al ly, i .e ., a d d ed , s u b tr ac te d , ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT
multiplied or divided as to achieve the final result.
Since, all the observations in measurements do The measuring process is essentially a process
not have the same precision, it is natural that the of comparison. Inspite o f our best effo rts, the
final result cannot be more precise than the least measured value of a quantity is always somewhat
precise measurement. T he following two rules different from its actual value, or true value. This
should be followed to obtain the proper number difference in the true value of a quantity is called
of significant figures in any calculation. error of measurement.
PAGE # 37
(a) A bs olute error :
Absolute error in the measurement of a physical ( a  b )
q u an ti ty i s t h e m ag n it u d e o f t h e d i ff er en c e Percentage error in the value of x  100%
a b
between the true value and the measured value
of the quantity. ( b ) E r r o r i n d i f f e r e n c e of t he q u a nt i t i e s
: Suppose x = a – b
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
the measured valu e be a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , ….. a n. Th e b = absolute error in measurement of b
ar it h m et ic m ea n of th es e va lu e is x = ab solute error in calcu lation of x i.e.
a 1  a 2  .....a n difference of a and b.
am 
n The maximum absolute error in x is x = ±(a +
U su ally, a m is tak en as th e tru e valu e o f th e b )
quantity, if the same is unknown otherwise. Percentage error in the value of
By defin ition, absolute errors in the measured (a  b )
values of the quantity are x  100%
ab
a 1 = a m – a 1 (c ) Error in product of quanti ti es :
a 2 = a m – a 2 Suppose x = a × b
…………. Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
a n = a m – a n b = absolute error in measurement of b
x = ab solute error in calcu lation of x i.e.
The absolute errors may be positive in certain product of a and b.
cases and negative in certain other cases. T h e m a xi m u m fr ac ti o n al e rr o r i n x is
x  a b 
( b ) M e a n a b s ol ut e e r r o r :    
It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of x  a b 
absolute errors in all the measurements of the Percentage error in the value of x = (Percentage
quantity. It is represented by a. Thus error in value of a) + (Percentage error in value of
b)
| a 1 |  | a 2 | ...... | a n |
a 
n ( d ) E r r o r i n d i v i s i o n o f q ua n t i t i e s :
Hence the final result of measurement may be
a
written as a = a m ± a Suppose x 
This implies that any measurement of the quantity
b
Let
is likely to lie between a m  a   and a m 
 a . a = absolute error in measurement of a,
b = absolute error in measurement of b
( c ) R e l a t i v e e r r o r o r F r a c t i o na l e r r or : x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. division
T h e re la tive er ro r o r fr ac ti o n a l er ro r o f of a and b.
measurement is d efin ed as the ratio o f mean T h e m a xi m u m fr ac ti o n al e rr o r i n x is
absolute error to the mean value of the quantity x  a b 
measured. Thus    
x  a b 
R e la ti ve e rr o r or F r ac ti o n al e rr o r
Percentage error in the value of
mean absolut error a x = (Percentage error in value of a) + (Percentage
 
mean value am error in value of b)
( d ) P e r c e nt a g e e r r o r : (5) Error in quantity raised to some power :
W hen the relative/fractional error is expressed in an
percentage, we call it percentage error. Thus Suppose x
bm
a Let a = absolute error in measurement of a,
Percentage error  100%
b = absolute error in measurement of b
am
x = absolute error in calculation of x
PROPAGATION OF ERRORS T h e m a xi m u m fr ac ti o n al e rr o r i n x is
x  a b 
  n m 
(a) E r r or i n s um of t he q ua nt i t i e s : x  a b 
Suppose x = a + b Percentage error in the value of x = n (Percentage
Let a = absolute error in measurement of a error in value of a) + m (Percentage error in value
b = absolute error in measurement of b of b)
x = absolute error in calculation of x i.e. sum of  T he q uantity wh ic h h ave maximu m po wer
a and b. m u st b e m e as u r ed c are fu ll y b e c a u s e it ' s
The maximum absolute error in x is x = ±(a + contribution to error is maximum.
b )
PAGE # 38
EXERCISE 11. If force F = at + bt2 where t denotes time, the
dimensions of a and b shall be -
(A) MLT–3, ML2T4 (B) MLT–3, MLT–4
–1
(C) MLT , MLT 0 (D) MLT–4, MLT1
UNITS
1. If the units M and L are increased three times, 12. A and B are two physical quantities having
then the units of energy will be increased by - different dimensions. Then which of the following
(A) 3 times (B) 6 times operation is dimensionally correct -
(C) 27 times (D) 81 times
A
2. The SI unit of length is the meter. Suppose we (A) A + B (B) log
B
adopt a new unit of length which equals to x
meters. The area 1m2 expressed in terms of the
A
new unit has a magnitude - (C) (D) eA/B
(A) x (B) x2 B
1 1
(C) (D)
x x2 13. For 10 (at + 3) , the dimension of a is -
3. Luminous flux is expressed in - (A) M0 L 0 T 0 (B) M0L0T1
(A) Lux (B) W eber (C) M0L0T–1 (D) none of these
(C) Candela (D) Lumen
14. The velocity of a freely falling body changes as

4. The ratio of S.I. to C.G.S units for Stefan’s
constant is - gphq, where g is acceleration due to gravity and h
1 1 is the height. The value of p and q are-
(A) (B)
100 1000
(C) 100 (D) 1000 1 1 1
(A) 1, (B) ,
2 2 2
5. If the units of ML are doubled then the unit of
kinetic energy will become -
(A) 8 times (B) 16 times
1
(C) ,1 (D) 1, 1
(C) 4 times (D) 2 times 2
D I M EN S I ON S
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE & ERROR
6. Dimensions of Torque are-
(A) M1L2T–2 (B) M2L2T2
15. For a cubical block, error in measurement of sides
(C) M–1LT –1 (D) M–2L–2T–2
is + 1% and error in measurement of mass is +
7. W hich of the following is dimensionless - 2%, then maximum possible error in density is -
(A) universal gravitational constant (A) 1% (B) 5%
(B) relative permittivity
(C) 3% (D) 7%
(C) relative velocity
(D) density
L
16. To estimate ‘g’ (from g = 42 ), error in
8. The physical quantity which has dimensional T2
Energy measurement of L is + 2% and error in
formula as that of mass  length is- measurement of T is + 3%. The error in estimated
(A) Force (B) Power ‘g’ will be -
(C) Pressure (D) Acceleration (A) + 8% (B) + 6%
(C) + 3% (D) + 5%
9. The dimensions of PV are equivalent to those of-
(A) Work (B) force
(C) pressure (D) volume
10. The dimensions of mc2 are -

(A) MLT–1 (B) ML2T–1
2
(C) ML T –2 (D) ML2T2
PAGE # 39
17. An experiment measures quantities x, y, z and then 19. Two resistors R1 (24 ± 0.5)  and R2 (8 ± 0.3) 
are joined in series. The equivalent resistance is
xy2 (A)32 ± 0.33  (B) 32 ± 0.8 
t is calculated from the data as t = . If
z3 (C) 32 ± 0.2  (D) 32 ± 0.5 
percentage errors in x, y and z are respectively
1%, 3%, 2%, then percentage error in t is : 20. The respective number of significant figures for
(A) 10 % (B) 4 % the numbers 23.023, 0.0003 and 2.1 × 10–3 are
(C) 7 % (D) 13 % (A) 5, 1, 2 (B) 5, 1, 5
(C) 5, 5, 2 (D) 4, 4, 2
18. The mass of a ball is 1.76 kg. The mass of 25
such balls is
(A) 0.44 × 103 kg (B) 44.0 kg
(C) 44 kg (D) 44.00 kg

PAGE # 40
3. RECTILINEAR MOTION, PROJECTILE MOTION & RELATIVE MOTION
(b) Uniform and Non-Uniform motion
MECHANICS (i) Uniform Motion :
Mechanics is the branch of physics which deals A body has a uniform motion if it travels equal
with the cause and effects of motion of a particle, distances in equal intervals of time, no matter how
small these time intervals may be. For example, a
rigid objects and deformable bodies etc. Mechanics
car running at a constant speed say, 10 metre per
is classified under two streams namely Statics and second, will cover equal distances of 10 metre
Dynamics. Dynamics is further divided into every second, so its motion will be uniform. Please
Kinematics and Kinetics. note that the distance-time graph for uniform
motion is a straight line (as shown in the figure).
Y
A
n
io
ot
Distance
m
rm
fo
ni
U
X
O Time
(ii) Non-Uniform Motion :
REST AND MOTION A body has a non-uniform motion if it travels

unequal distances in equal intervals of time. For
(a) Definition of Rest and Motion example, if we drop a ball from the roof of a
building, we will find that it covers unequal
Motion is a combined property of the object
distances in equal intervals of time. It covers :
and the observer. There is no meaning of
rest or motion without the observer. Nothing 4.9 metre in the 1st second,
is in absolute rest or in absolute motion. 14.7 metre in the 2nd second,
An object is said to be in motion with respect
to a observer, if its position changes with 24.5 metre in the 3rd second, and so on.
respect to that observer. It may happen by Thus, a freely falling ball covers smaller distance
both ways either observer moves or obj ect in the initial ‘1 second’ interval and larger distance
mo ves. in the later ‘1 second’ interval. From this
Rest : An object is said to be at rest if it does not discussion we conclude that the motion of a freely
change its position w.r.t. its surroundings with the falling body is an example of non-uniform motion.
passage of time. The motion of a train starting from the railway
Eg. : The chair, black board, table in the class room station is also an example of non-uniform motion.
are at rest w.r.t. the students. This is because when the train starts from a station,
it moves a very small distance in the ‘first’ second.
Motion : A body is said to be in motion if its position
changes continuously w.r.t. the surroundings (or The train moves a little more distance in the ‘2nd’
with respect to an observer) with the second and so on. And when the train approaches
passage of time. the next station, the distance travelled by it per
Eg. : A car moving on the road will be in motion second decreases.
w.r.t. to the person standing on the road
Rest and motion are relative terms, there is nothing Y
like absolute motion or rest. A
Eg. : A train is moving on the track, the passengers
n
tio
are seated, will be stationary with respect to each

Distance
mo
other but in moving condition with respect to

m
or
f
station. ni
n-U
Therefore, all the motions are relative. There is No
nothing like absolute motion.
X
O Time
PAGE # 41
Please note that the distance-time graph for a body NOTE : If a body travels in such a way that it comes
having non-uniform motion is a curved line (as back to its starting position, then the displacement
shown in the figure). Thus, in order to find out is zero. However, distance travelled is never zero
whether a body has uniform motion or non- in case of moving body.
uniform motion, we should draw the distance-time
graph for it. If the distance time graph is a straight SOME IMPORTANT POINTS :
line, the motion will be uniform and if the distance-
time graph is a curved line, the motion will be non- (i) When an object moves towards right from origin,
uniform. It should be noted that non-uniform motion its displacement consider as positive.
is also called accelerated motion.
(ii) When an object moves towards left from origin
its displacement consider as negative.
FEATURES OF UNIFORM MOTION
(i) The velocity in uniform motion does not depend (iii) When an object remains stationary or it moves
on the choice of origin. first towards right and then an equal distance
towards left, its displacement is zero.
(ii) The velocity in uniform motion does not depend
on the choice of the time interval. (iv) Shifting origin causes no change in
displacement.
(iii) For uniform motion along a straight line in the
same direction, the magnitude of the
(v) If body moves along the circumference of the
displacement is equal to the actual distance circle of radius r then distance travelled by it is given
covered by the object. by 2pr and displacement is given by zero, for one
complete revolution.
(iv) The velocity is positive if the object is moving
towards the right of the origin and negative if the
object is moving towards the left of the origin . ILLUSTRATIONS
(v) For an object in uniform motion no force is
1. A body starts from A and moves according to given
required to maintain its motion.
figure. (body retraces the path after C then
(vi) In uniform motion, the instantaneous velocity reaches to D)
is equal to the average velocity at all times because
D A 4m B 6m C
velocity remains constant at each instant, at each
point of the path.
5m
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT The distance and displacement are as follows for
different path.
(a) D is ta n c e
It is the actual length of path covered by a moving Sol.
particle . It is a scalar quantity. Its S.I. unit is metre
Path Distance Displacement
(m).
(b) D is p l a c em en t AB 4m 4m
It is the shortest distance between the initial and ABC 10m 10m
final position of the particle. It is a vector quantity.
Its S.I. unit is metre (m). ABCB 16m 4m
Eg. : Consider a body moving from a point A to a
point B along the path shown in figure. Then total
ABCA 20m 0m
length path covered is called distance (path-1). ABCAD 25m –5m
While the length of straight line AB in the direction
from A to B is called displacement(path-2).
path-1
A B
path-2
PAGE # 42
(c) Diff er en ce b etween d is ta nc e an d
disp lac ement : SPEED
Distance Displacement The distance travelled by a body in unit time is

1. Distance is the length of the 1. Displacement is the shortest called its speed. Therefore,
path actually traveled by a distance between the initial and
body in any direction. the final positions of a body in the Dis tan ce d
direction of the point of the final speed = or s = .
position.
Time t
2. Distance between two given 2. Displacement between two S.I. unit of speed or average speed is m/sec. It is
points depends upon the path points is measured by the straight a scalar quantity.
chosen. path between the points.
3. Distance is always positive. 3. Displacement may be positive
as well as negative and even (a) Uniform Speed (or Constant Speed):
zero.
4. Distance is a scalar quantity. 4. Displacement is a vector
quantity. W hen an object covers equal distance in equal
intervals of time, it is said to move with uniform
5. Distance will never 5. Displacement may decrease.
decrease. speed.
Eg. A car moves 10 m in every one second so its
motion is uniform.
2. There are n steps each of dimension l,b & h if a
(b) Variable Speed (Non-Uniform Speed) :
man climbs n steps what is his displacement and
If a body covers unequal distance in equal intervals
distance.
of time, its motion is said to be non-uniform.
Eg. Falling of an apple from a tree, a cyclist moving
on a rough road, an athlete running a race,
vehicle starting from rest, the motion of a freely
falling body etc.
b
Sol. (c) Average Speed
B h
l For an object moving with variable speed, it is the
total distance travelled by the object divided by the
A total time taken to cover that distance.
By Pythagorean theorem AB = b2  h2 total dis tan ce travelled
Similarly for each step Average speed = total time taken
Displacement = b2  h2 (i) Let initial speed of an object is v1, final speed
is v2 and acceleration is constant, then
So that total displacement = n × b2  h2
v1  v 2
Distance = n (h+b) average speed =
2
3. A person moves in a circular path centered at O. (ii) A body covers a distance s1 in time t1, s2 in time
He starts from A and reaches diametrically t2 and s3 in time t3.
opposite point B. Then find :
(i) distance between A and B s1  s2  s3
Then, average speed, Vav =
(ii) displacement between A and B t1  t 2  t 3
Sol.
(iii) A body travels with speed v1 for a time t1 v2 for
time t2 and v3 for the time t3.
N v1t1  v 2 t 2  v 3 t 3
Then, average speed, Vav =
r=1m t1  t 2  t 3
W E
B 0 A  s1 = v1t1, s2 = v2t2 and s3 = v3t3
S
if t1 = t2 = t3 = t
t( v 1  v 2  v 3 )
(i) Distance = Length of actual circular path from A Vav =
3t
to B = Half the circumference
( v1  v 2  v 3 )
2r Vav =
i.e. Distance =  r 3
2
as r = 1m (iv) A body covers a distance s1 with speed v1 , s2
 Distance =  m with speed v2 and s3 with speed v3.
(ii) Displacement = 2r along west. = 2m along
west
PAGE # 43
(i) Types of Velocity :
(s1  s 2  s 3 )
Then, average speed, Vavg=
s1 s 2 s 3 (I) Uniform Velocity (Constant Velocity) :
 
v1 v 2 v 3
If a body covers equal distance in equal intervals
of time in a given direction then it is said to be
s1 s2 s3
 t1 = v , t2 = v , t3 = v moving with constant velocity.
1 2 3
(v) A boy goes from home to school with speed v1 (II) Non-Uniform Velocity :
and come back to home with speed v2.
Here distance covered by the boy is same When a body does not cover equal distances in
time taken by the boy, from home to school, equal intervals of time, in a given direction (in this
s case speed is not constant), then it is known as
t1 = non uniform velocity.
v1
and time taken by the boy, from school to home, In uniform circular motion speed is constant but
velocity is not constant.
s
t2 =
v2
(III Average Velocity :
ss 2s
Then, average speed, Vav = = It is defined as the ratio of total displacement to
t1  t 2 s s
 the total time taken for this displacement. It is
v1 v 2
 
2v1v 2 denoted by v av or v . It is a vector quantity..
Vav =
v1  v 2
Total displaceme nt
1  Average velocity = Total time
(vi) If an object covered rd distance with
3 
 s
i.e. v =
1 t
speed u, next rd with speed V and last It is a vector quantity, and its direction is in the
3
direction of displacement.
1
rd distance with speed w then,
3 NOTE :
(i) If for a straight line motion displacement is
3uvw 
Vavg =
uv  vw  wu positive then v is positive.

(ii) if displacement is negative then v is also
VELOCITY & ACCELERATION negative.
(a) V el o c ity
It is define as the rate of change of displacement. 4. A body starts from A and moves according to given
displaceme nt figure. Time four each interval is :
Therefore, velocity = or it is the
time tAB = 2s, tBC= 3s, tCB=2s, tBA = 3s, tAD= 4s
distance travelled in unit time in a given direction.
distance travelled in a given direction D A 4m B 6m C
velocity =
time taken
S.I. unit of velocity is m/s. It is a vector quantity. 5m
(Magnitude of the velocity is known as speed)
The distance, displacement, speed and velocity
Note : are as follows for different path.
(i) To convert m/s into km/h we multiply by 18/5
(ii) To convert km/h into m/s we multiply by 5/18
PAGE # 44
Sol.
Displacement 360m
Sol. (i) Average velocity = =
time int erval 18
Path Distance Displacement Speed Velocity
= 20 ms–1
AB 4m 4m 4/2 m/s 4/2 m/s
ABC 10m 10m 10/5 m/s 10/5 m/s

path length 360m
Average speed = = = 20 ms–1
time interval 18
ABCB 16m 4m 16/7 m/s 4/7 m/s
ABCA 20m 0m 20/10 m/s 0/10 m/s (ii) From O to P and back to Q
ABCAD 25m –5m 25/14 m/s –5/14 m/s
OQ 240m
Average velocity = = =10 ms–1
18  6 24
(iv) Difference between Speed and Velocity: path length

Average speed = time int erval
Speed Velocity
1. It is rate of change 1. It is rate of OP  PQ 360  120
of position of an change of position = = = 20 ms –1
object. of an object in a 18  6 24
specific direction.
7. A car covers the 1st half of the distance between
dis tan ce travelled 2. Velocity =
2. Speed= two places at a speed of 40 km h–1 and the 2nd
time displaceme nt
half with 60 km h–1. What is the average speed of
time
the car ?
3. It is a scalar quantity. 3. It is a vector
quantity Sol. Suppose the total distance covered is 2S.
4. Speed will always be 4.It will be positive Then time taken to cover the distance ‘S’ with speed
positive or negative 40 km/h,
depending on the
direction of motion S
t1 = h
40
5. For moving body, it will 5.It may be zero
never be zero Time taken to cover the next distance ‘S’ with speed
60 km/hrs,
S
t2 = h
60
5. When the average speed of an object is equal to
the magnitude of its average velocity ? Give total dis tan ce SS
Vav  
reason also. total time  S S 
  
 40 60 
total path length
Sol. As average speed = 2S 2S
time int erval Vav    120
 3S  2S  5S
 
Displacement  120 
also, average velocity = .  Vav  48 km / h
time int erval
When an object moves along a straight line or in
the same direction its total path length is equal to
the magnitude of its displacement. Hence 8. A non-stop bus goes from one station to another
average speed is equal to the magnitude of its station with a speed of 54 km/h, the same bus
average velocity. returns from the second station to the first station
with a speed of 36 km/h. Find the average speed
of the bus for the entire journey.
6. A car is moving along x-axis. As shown in figure it
moves from O to P in 18 s and returns from P
to Q in 6 second. What is the average velocity and Sol. Suppose the distance between the stations is S.
average speed of the car in going from (i) O to Time taken in reaching from one station to another
P and (ii) from O to P and back to Q. station.
S
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 [Metre]
t1 = h
54
O
Q P [Sec.]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Time taken in returning back,
S
t2 = h
36
PAGE # 45
Total time t = t1 + t2 s
Time taken to travel first half =
S S 2S  3S 5S v1
t=    h
54 36 108 108
s
Total distance Time taken to travel illustration half =
Average speed Vav  v2
Total time
Total distance covered
2S 216 A ver ag e s p e ed = =
Vav   108  Vav  = 43.2 km/h Total time taken
5S 5
2s 2v1v2
9. A particle starts from a point A and travels along = (harmonic progression)
the solid curve shown in figure. Find approximately
s s v1  v 2

the position B of the particle such that the average v1 v 2
velocity between the positions A and B has
the same direction as the instantaneous velocity 11. A person travelling on a straight line moves with
at B. a uniform velocity v1 for some time and
with uniform velocity v2 for the illustration equal
time. The average velocity v is given by
v v
Answer : v 1 2
2
Sol.
As shown, the person travels from A to B through

a distance S, where first part S1 is
travelled in time t/2 and illustration S2
Answer x = 5m, y = 3m also in time t/2.
Sol. The given curve shows the path of the particle S1

So, according to the condition : v1 = and
starting at y = 4 m. t/2
displaceme nt S2
Average velocity = ; v2 =
time taken t/2
where displacement is straight line distance Total displaceme nt
between points Average velocity =
Total time taken
Instantaneous velocity at any point is the
tangent drawn to the curve at that point. v1 t v 2 t
S1  S 2 
= = 2 2 = v1  v 2
t t 2
(b) Acc elerat ion
Mostly the velocity of a moving object changes

either in magnitude or in direction or in both when
the object moves. The body is then said to have
acceleration. So it is the rate of change of velocity
i.e. change in velocity in unit time is called
acceleration. It is a vector quantity and
Now, as shown in the graph, line AB shows
displacement as well as the tangent to the given Its S.I unit is m/s2 and c.g.s unit is cm/s2
curve.
Hence, point B is the point at which direction of AB change in velocity
Acceleration =
shows average as well as instantaneous velocity. time
10. A particle travels half of total distance with v – u final velocity – initial velocity
speed v1 and next half with speed v2 along a a= =
t time
straight line. Find out the average speed of
the particle?
Sol. Let total distance travelled by the particle be

2s.
PAGE # 46
(i) Uniform Acceleration (Uniformly Accelerated slope x-t graph gives velocity
Motion) : Slope = tan = tan 0º = 0
Velocity of particle is zero
If a body travels in a straight line and its velocity (ii) Uniform Velocity
increases in equal amounts in equal intervals of
time. Its motion is known as uniformly accelerated
motion.
Eg. Motion of a freely falling body is an example of

uniformly accelerated motion (or motion of a body
under the gravitational pull of the earth).
Eg. Motion of a bicycle going down the slope of a road

Here tan  is constant
when the rider is not pedaling and wind resistance
Slope is constant.
is negligible. so, velocity of particle is constant.
(ii) Non-Uniform Acceleration :
(iii)Non uniform velocity (increasing with
If during motion of a body its velocity increases by tim e)
unequal amounts in equal intervals of time, then In this case;
its motion is known as non uniform accelerated
As time is increasing,  is also increasing.
motion.
Eg. Car moving in a crowded street.
Eg. Motion of a train leaving or entering the platform.
(iii) Types of acceleration
(I) Positive acceleration:
If the velocity of an object increases with respect

to time in the same direction, the object has a
positive acceleration. Slope = tan  is also increasing
Hence, velocity of particle is increasing.
(II) Negative acceleration (retardation):
(iv) Non uniform velocity (decreasing with
If the velocity of a body decreases with respect to
time)
time in the same direction, the body has a negative
In this case;
acceleration or it is said to be retarding.
As time increases,  decreases.
Eg. A train slows down, then its acceleration will be Slope = tan  also decreases.
negative.
Hence, velocity of particle is decreasing.
(a) Position vs Time Graph
( i ) Z e ro Ve l o c i t y
As position of particle is fixed at all the time,

so the body is at rest.
PAGE # 47
(b) Ve l o c i t y v s T i m e G r a p h 12. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity
(i) Zero acceleration of 10m/sec. It strikes the ground after 2 sec. Its
velocity–time graph is as shown in figure below.
Find the displacement travelled by the ball in 2
second.
Velocity
10m/sec A
Velocity is constant. 1 sec 2 sec

Slope of v-t graph gives acceleration O
B D time
Slope = tan  = 0
Hence, acceleration is zero. –10m/sec
Area under v-t graph and time axis gives C
d isp lac em ent.
(ii) Uniform acceleration

Sol. Displacement = area under velocity–time curve
tan  is constant. along time axis
= area of triangle AOB + area of triangle BDC
Hence, it shows constant acceleration.
1 1
= × OB × AO + × BD × CD
2 2
1 1
= × 1 sec × 10 m/sec + × 1 sec × (–10m/
2 2
sec)
= 5m – 5m = 0m
13. Velocity–time curve for a body moving with constant

acceleration is shown in the figure. Calculate the
displacement travelled by the body in 10 sec.
(iii) Uniform retardation
V
A
Since  > 90º 10 m/sec
\ tanq is constant and negative.
Hence, it shows constant retardation.
B
O 10 sec
t
Sol. : Displacement = area under the velocity time curve
along time axis
= area AOB
Now AOB is a triangle with base = 10 sec and
height = 10 m/sec.
(c) Acceleration vs Time Graph
Constant acceleration
1
So area = × Base × height
Hence, acceleration is constant. 2
area un der a-t graph and time axis given 1
change in velocity. = × 10 sec × 10 m/sec
2
= 5 × 10 = 50 m
NOTE : Motion with uniform velocity
Consider a particle moving along x
axis with uniform velocity u starting
from the point x = xi at t = 0.
Equations of x, v, a are : x (t) = x i + ut
; v (t) = u ; a (t) = 0
PAGE # 48
 x t graph is a straight line of slope (a ) 1st Equation of Motion :
u through xi .
 as velocity is constant, v  t graph Consider a body moving with initial velocity u and
is a horizontal line. its velocity changes from u to v in time t. Then
 at graph coincides with time axis
because a = 0 at all time instants. Final velocity  Initial velocity
acceleration =
time taken
v u
 a=
t
So at = v – u and v = u + at
1st equation of motion : v = u + at
(b) 2nd Equation of Motion :

x
xi slo We know
pe
= u Distance covered = (Average velocity) × (Time)
uv
u is negative or s t
2
t
O
But v = u + at
Substituting the value of v in the equation above,
v we have
positive velocity
u  u  at 
u s t
2
 2u  at   at 
t or s t =  u   t
O  2   2
1 2
or s = ut  at
v 2
1 2
t 2nd equation of motion : s = ut + at
O 2
(c ) 3rd Equation of Motion :
negative velocity
u
We know that
v = u + at
v u
or t
a
Distance travelled = (Average velocity) × (time)
v u u v v u
S= t= .
2 2 a
v 2  u2
or s=
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION 2a
AND EQUATIONS OF MOTION or v2 – u2 = 2 as
3rd equation of motion : v2 – u2 = 2 as
If a p article is ac c elerated w ith c o n stan t
acceleration in an interval of time, then the (d) Distance covered in n th second :
motion is termed as u niformly ac celerated
motion in that interval of time. Distance travelled in n th second = Distance
travelled in n sec – Distance travelled in (n –1)
sec.
There are three equation of uniformly accelerated
motion. They show the relation between initial So, Snth = Sn – S(n–1)
velocity u, final velocity v, acceleration a, time t and
displacements 1 2  1
 2
=  un  an  – un  1  an  1 
 2   2 
PAGE # 49
[Putting t = n and t = (n – 1) respectively in equation It can also be derived from v - t graph as shown in
(ii)] figure.
1 2 1 From relation,
= un + an – un + u – a(n2 – 2n + 1)
2 2 Distance covered = Area under v - t graph
a
We have, Snth = u + (2n – 1) s = Area of trapezium OPQS
2 = Area of rectangle OPRS + Area of triangle PQR
NOT E :
 The magnitude of instantaneous velocity
and instantaneous speed are equal. Velocity
v Q
 Instantaneous velocity is always tangential
to the path.
½ at2
P R
u ut
(a ) First Equation : S
O t Time
v = u + at
It can be derived from v – t graph , as shown in
figure
From line PQ, the slope of the line = acceleration RQ  PR
= OP × PR +
2
QR SP
a= = Putting values,
RP RP
1
s=u×t+ (v – u) × t
2
v Q
S ( RQ = v – u & PR = OS = t)
velocity
1
=u×t+ at × t
2
u R ( v – u = at)
P
C 1 2
O t time or s = ut + at
2
(c ) Third Equation :
 SP = v – u
v2 = u2 + 2aS
and RP = t From above graph OP = u, SQ = v, OP + SQ = u + v
QR QR v – u
a= Or PR = 
v u PR a a
So a =
t
OP  SQ
or v = u + at S = Area of trapezium OPQS =  PR
2
On putting the values,
(b) Second Equation :
u  v v – u v 2 – u2
1 2 S= × =
S = ut + at 2 a 2a
2
or v2 = u2 + 2as
PAGE # 50
(iii) Velocity measured away from the surface of
earth (i.e. in upward direction) is taken as positive,
while velocity measured towards the surface of
Since the freely falling bodies fall with uniformly
the earth is taken as negative.
accelerated motion, the three equations of motion
derived earlier for bodies under uniform (b) To Solve numerical problems
acceleration can be applied to the motion of freely
falling bodies. For freely falling bodies, the (i)If a body is dropped from a height then its initial
velocity u = 0 but has acceleration (acting). If a
acceleration due to gravity is ‘g’, so we replace the
body starts from rest its initial velocity u = 0 .
acceleration ‘a’ of the equations by ‘g’ and since
the vertical distance of the freely falling bodies is (ii) If a body comes to rest ,its final velocity v = 0 or, if
known as height ‘h’, we replace the distance ‘s’ in a body reaches the highest point after being thrown
our equations by the height ‘h’. This gives us the upwards its final velocity v = 0 but has acceleration (
following modified equations for the motion of acting).
freely falling bodies.
(iii) If a body moves with uniform velocity, its
acceleration is zero i.e. a = 0.
Equations of motion for freely falling bodies
(i) v = u + at changes to (iv) Motion of a body is called free fall if only force
v = u + gt acting on it is gravity (i.e. earth’s attraction).
(c ) Moti on und er g ra vi ty ( unifor ml y

1 2
(ii) s = ut + at changes to
2 accelerated motion)
1 2 The acceleration with which a body travels under
h = ut + gt
2 gravity is called acceleration due to gravity ‘g’. Its
value is 9.8 m/s2 ( or  10 m /s 2 ). If you have to
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2as changes to take g = 10 m/s2 then it must be mentioned in the
v2 = u2 + 2gh question otherwise take g = 9.8 m/s2.
(i) If a body moves upwards (or thrown up ) g is
W e shall use these modified equations to solve taken negative (i.e. motion is against gravitation
numerical problems. Before we do that, we should of earth). So equation of motion becomes.
remember the following important points for the
motion of freely falling bodies. 1 2 2
(i) When a body is dropped freely from a height, its v = u – gt, s = u t – gt , v = u2– 2 gh.
2
initial velocity ‘u’ becomes zero.
(ii) If a body travels downwards (towards earth)
(ii) When a body is thrown vertically upwards, its then g is taken + ve. So equations of motion
final velocity ‘v’ becomes zero. becomes
(iii) The time taken by a body to rise to the highest 1

point is equal to the time it takes to fall from the v = u + gt , s = ut + gt2 , v2 = u2 + 2 gh.
same height. 2
(iii) If a body is projected vertically upwards with
(iv) The distance travelled by a freely falling body
certain velocity then it returns to the same point of
is directly proportional to the square of time of fall.
projection with the same velocity in the opposite
direction.
(a ) Sign Conventions :
(iv) The time for upward motion is the same as for
(i) g is taken as positive when it is acting in the
same direction as that of motion and g is taken as the downward motion.
negative
when it is opposing the motion. 14. A stone drops from the edge of a roof. It passes a
window 2 metre high in 0.1 second. How far is the
(ii) Distance measured upward from the point of roof above the top of the window ?
projection is taken as positive, while distance
measured downward from the point of projection Sol. Let the distance between the top of the window
is taken as negative. and the roof be h. This problem can be solved in
two stages.
PAGE # 51
(A) For the journey across the window i.e., from B to C v =u–gt
Let, Velocity at B = u m/s So, 0=u–gt
Distance travelled, s = 2 m
Time taken, t = 0.1s u
or t = ....(i)
Acceleration, a = g = 9.8 m/s2 g
Using the relationship, For the return journey, when the body falls vertically
downwards, the equation of motion is
v=u +gt
Since, u = 0
Hence v = 0 + g t
v
A or t= .... (ii)
h g
B From (i) and (ii),
2m Thus, the body falls back to the earth with the same
C velocity with which it was thrown vertically upwards.
1 16. A car is moving at a speed of 50 km/h after two

s = ut + gt2 seconds it is moving at 60 km/h. Calculate the
2
acceleration of the car.
1 5 250
2 = u × 0.1 + × 9.8 × (0.1)2 Sol. Here u = 50 km/h = 50  m/s = m/s
2 18 18
2 = 0.1 u + 4.9 × 10–2 5 300
and v = 60 km/h = 60  = m/s
(2 – 0.049) 18 18
or, u=  19.51 m/s
0.1 300 250
– 50
The velocity of the stone at the top of the window v–u 18 18 50
is 19.51 m/s. Since a = = = 18 =
t 2 36
2
= 1.39 m/s2
(b) For journey from roof to the top of the window
i.e., from A to B 17. A car attains 54km/h in 20 s after it starts. Find the
The velocity at the top of the window is the velocity acceleration of the car.
of the stone at the end of falling through ‘h’. So, for
this part of the journey, Sol. u = 0 (as car starts from rest)
Initial velocity, u = 0 m/s 5
Final velocity, v = 19.51 m/s v = 54 km/h = 54 = 15 m/s
18
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2 v–u 15 – 0
Then by using the equation, v2 – u2 = 2 gh, one As, a = a= = 0.75 m/s2
t 20
gets
(19.51)2 – 0 = 2 × 9.8 × h 18. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of
20 m/s. How high did the ball go ?
(19.51) 2 (take g = 9.8 m/s2).
h= m = 19.42 m
19.6
Sol. u = 20 m/s , a = – g = – 9.8 m/s2 (moving against
Thus, the roof is 19.42 m from the upper end (top)
gravity)
of the window.
s = ? v = 0 ( at highest point)
v2 – u2 = 2as
15. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity (0)2 – (20)2 = 2 (–g) s
‘u’. Calculate the velocity with which it falls to the – 400 = 2 ( – 9.8) s
earth again. – 400 = –19.6 s
Sol. For a ball thrown vertically upwards, 400

Initial velocity = u s= 19.6   s = 20.4 m.
Final velocity = v = 0
For the vertically upward motion, the equation of
motion is
PAGE # 52
PROJECTILE MOTION
let us consider a particle which is projected with initial

velocity u at an angle  with horizontal (called angle of
If an object is given an initial velocity in any direction
projection) The velocity u has two rectangular
and then allowed to travel freely under gravity, then the components :
object is called projectile.
Examples of projectiles are : (i) The horizontal component ux= ucos which remains
constant throughout the motion of particle.
(i) A body dropped from the window of a moving train.
(ii) The vertical component u y= usin, which change
(ii) A bullet fired from a rifle. with time due to the effect of gravity.
(iii) A piece of stone thrown in any direction. y
vy v v =0
(iv) A Javelin or hammer thrown by an athlete. y
ux
vx= ux
u vx= ux
(v) A bomb released from an aeroplane in flight.
vy v
ux
x
The motion of projectile is called projectile motion, It is Fig. : Velocities at different time
instants during projectile motion
a two dimensional motion. It is considered as the
uy u
combination of two simultaneous motion in mutually
perpendicular direction, which are independent from y
each other.
Assumption used in projectile motion :

(i) There is no air resistance on the projectile. g
= g g
(ii) The effect due to curvature of the earth is negligible.

x
(iii) The effect of the earth rotation is negligible. Fig. : Direction of acceleration due to
g gravity in projectile motion g
(iv) For all points of the trajectory, the acceleration due

to gravity is constant both in magnitude and direction.
u
Different case of projection are shown in the figure
below.
Y Y u
u
O
Fig. : Rectangular components
of initial velocity of projectile
X X
Ground to ground Horizontal projection ax = 0
projection from some height
ay = g
PAGE # 53
(a ) Velocity at any time t : which gives
Using first equation of motion in vertical direction, we 2

uy u2 sin 2 
have, H = =
2g 2g
vy = uy – gt
= u sin – gt (e ) Horizontal Range (R) :
 Velocity at any time t Maximum horizontal distance travelled by the projectile
is known as range. Range can be calculated by
v  v x î  v y ĵ multiplying horizontal component of velocity by time of
flight.
or v = ucos î + (usin – gt) ĵ [since vx = ucos]
2u y
( b ) Velocity at any Height : R = ux × T = ux ×
g
At any height h
vx = uy = u cos ....(i)
2u x u y 2u cos u sin 
and vy2 = uy2 – 2gh = =
= (usin)2 – 2gh .....(ii) g g
Squaring (i) and adding with equation (ii), we get
2
v 2x + v y = u2cos2 + u2sin2– 2gh u 2 sin 2
or R=
g
= u2 – 2gh [Since sin2 + cos2 = 1]
 For a given value of u range will be maximum when
 |v| = v 2x  v 2y = u2 – 2gh sin2 is maximum
So for maximum range, sin2 = 1 or 2 = 90º or  = 45º.
 v = u 2  2gh . Thus
(c ) Time of Flight (T) :

u2
Rmax =
The displacement in vertical direction (y-axis) becomes g
zero in whole time of motion (T). So we have
Corresponding maximum height
1
y = uy t – a t2
2 y u2 sin 2 45º u2
H= =
2g 4g
1
or 0 = u yT – gT2 There are two angles of projection for same range :
2
Replacing  by (90º – ) in the formula of range, we get
2u y 2u sin  u2 sin 2(90 º– )
which gives T = = . R' =
g g g
(d) Maximum Height Attained (H) :
u2 sin(180 º  2)
=
g
At the highest point vy = 0, so with the help of third
equation of motion we have :
u 2 sin 2
y R' = =R
g
vy = 0
Thus, for a given velocity of projection, a projectile has

the same range for angles of projection  and (90º – ).
H
Time of flight for angle of projection ,
x y
R
vy2 = uy2 – 2gh

or 0 = uy2 – 2gH
x
Fig. : Trajectory of projectile for
different angles of projection
PAGE # 54
 Note : (i) Between point of projection and highest point :
If t1 is the time taken by projectile to reach a point P at v i = u cos î + u sin ĵ

height h and t2 is the time taken from point P to ground
level, then and v f = u cos î [since at highest point vy = 0]
2u sin 
t1 + t2 = T =  P = m [(u cos î ) – (u cos î + u sin ĵ )]
g
or |P|= mu sin.
g(t 1  t 2 )
or u sin =
2
(ii) For the complete projectile motion :
y
v i = u cos î + u sin ĵ
t2
t1 P v f = u cos î – u sin ĵ
h  P = m [(u cos î – u sin ĵ ) – ( u cos î + u sin ĵ )]

x
The height of point P, or | P | = 2 mu sin
1
h = u sin t1 – gt 2
2 1
g(t 1  t 2 ) 1 2 ( g ) Equation of Trajectory :
= t1 – gt1
2 2
The path followed by a projectile is known as its
1 trajectory.
or h = gt t.
2 1 2 Let x be the displacement along x axis at any instant t
Then, x = u cos.t
19. An object is projected so that it just clears two wall of
height 750 m and with separation 60m from each other.  x 
If the time passing between the walls is 19 s, then find or t =  
 u cos 
range of the projectile.(g=10 m/s2)
Let y be the corresponding displacement along y axis
1
Therefore y = u sint – gt2
2
Sol. 2
 x  1  x 
or y = u sin   – g 
 u cos   2  u cos  
1  x 
h= gt1t2 t  u cos  
2  
1 2
750 = × g×t(t+19) y = x tan  – gx .
2 2 2
150 = t2 + 19t
2u cos θ
Above equation represents a parabola, thus
this gives the possible solution t = 6 s.
ucos× 19 = 57 ucos= 3 trajectory of a projectile is parabolic in nature.
range = ucosT = 3 × 31 = 93 m
Equation of trajectory in terms of range (R)
( f) Change in Momentum :
 x 
y = xtan 1 
Change in momentum between two positions of  R
projectile is given by
For complete motion of object which is projected
P = P f  P i  m( v f  v i )
horizontally ground to ground :
PAGE # 55
(i) Change in speed = zero
2
 1 
Displacement s = | r | = (ut )2   gt 2 
(ii) Magnitude of change in velocity = 2 u sin  2 
(c ) Equation of Trajectory :
(iii) Magnitude of change in momentum = 2mu sin
Let x be the displacement of particle along x axis at any
(iv) Change in kinetic energy = Zero time t then
x
x = ut or t =
(v) Change in potential energy = Zero u
Let y be the corresponding displacement on y axis
then
(vi) Change in direction of motion = 2 ( = angle of
1 2
projection) and y = – gt
2
2
(vii) If velocity of projection is made n times the 1 x
= – g  [since t = x/u]
maximum height attained and range become n2 times 2 u
and the time of flight become n times the initial value. 2
1 x
or y=– g 2
2 u
( d ) Time of Flight (T) :
Let a particle be projected horizontally with initial velocity
We have,
u from height h.
1 2
– h = u yt + at
(a ) Velocity at any time t : 2 y
ux = u x 1
(0, 0) or –h=0– g T2
uy = 0 y vx = u 2
vy 2h
which gives T =
h v g .
(e) Horizontal Range (R) :
R R = ux × T
We have, vx = u
and vy = uy + gt 2h
or = 0 + gt =u
g
 v = u î – gt ĵ  NOTE :
(i) The average velocity in whole time of motion is :
and v = u 2  (gt )2
Displaceme nt
gt vy vav =
Also tan = = time
vx u
h2  R 2
( b ) Position at any time t : =
T
Taking point of projection as the origin, the position
vector at any time t 2u 2h
h2 
g
r = x î – y ĵ =
2h
1 2 g
where x = ut and y = gt
2
(ii) The average acceleration in total time of flight is g
downward.
1 2
 r = ut î – gt ĵ
2
PAGE # 56
Some important points regarding projectile motion :
(i) Vertical component of velocity is zero when particle (b) As T = (2u sin/g), depending on  there are two
moves horizontally, i.e., at the highest point of the times of flight.
trajectory. 2  60
t1 = × sin 30º = 6s
10
(ii) Vertical component of velocity is positive when
particle is moving up and negative when particle is 2  60
coming down. and t2 = × sin 60º = 6 3 = 10.4 s
10
(c) The maximum range of cannon (when  = 45º).
(iii) Resultant velocity of particle at any time instant V =
u2 60  60
Vy Rmax = = = 360 m
2 2 at an angle tan = . g 10
Vx  Vy Vx
And as initially the ship is 180 3 m, so to becomes

out of maximum range of cannon, the ship should be
(iv) Displacement from origin S = x 2  y 2 when x moved away from the harbor from its initial position by
and y are the displacement of particle on x and y axis at least 360 – 180 3 = 48.6 m.
respectively.
21. A gun, kept on a straight horizontal road, is used to hit
a car travelling along the same road away from the
(v) Path of a projectile as seen from another projectile gun with a uniform speed of 72 km/hr. The car is at a
is a straight line. distance of 500 m from the gun, when the gun is fired
at an angle of 45º with the horizontal. Find (a) the
20. At a harbor, enemy ship is at a distance 180 3 m distance of the car from the gun when the shell hits it.
(b) the speed of projection of the shell from the gun.
from the security cannon having a muzzle velocity of 60
(g = 9.8 m/s2)
m/s (a) To what angle must the cannon be elevated to
Sol. The speed of the car v = 72 × (5/18) = 20 m/s
hit the ship ? (b) What is the time of flight? (c) How far
The time of flight of projectile
should the ship be moved away from its initial position
so that it becomes beyond the range of the cannon ? u
(g = 10 m/s2) C
Sol. (a) For hitting the ship the range of cannon must be
G 45º
equal to the distance of ship from cannon, i.e.,
500m vT
60º 2u sin  u 2
30º T = = [as = 45º] ...(i)
g g
ship
Cannon
u 2 sin 2 u2
and range of projectile R = = ...(ii)
g g
According to given problem,
R = 500 + vT
u 2 sin 2 Substituting the value of T and R from equation (i) and
= 180 3 (ii) in the above,
g
u2 u 2
180 3  10 3 = 500 + × 20
or sin 2 = =
g g
60  60 2
i.e., 2 = 60º or 120º or u2 = 20 2 u – 4900 = 0
or  = 30º or 60º
i.e., to hit the ship the cannon must be elevated at an
or u = (1/2) [20 2 ± (800  4  4900 ) ]
angle of 30º or 60º.
or u = 10[ 2 ± 51 ]
As negative sign is physically unacceptable.
u = 10[1.414 + 7.141] = 85.56 m/s
PAGE # 57
Substituting the above value of u in Equation (ii) y
u2 (85.56 )2
R = = = 746.9 m u
g 9.8
19.6 m
22. A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal
0
distance of d. How high above the ground can the X
39.2 m
cricketer throw the same ball ?
R
Sol. Let u is the velocity of projection, then u2 sin 2 

We know that H= .... (i)
2g
u2
Rmax  d
g 2u2 sin  cos 
and R = .... (ii)
g
or u  gd
H tan 
Let h is the height up to which ball rise, then  
R 4
0 =u2 – 2gh
4H 4  19.6
u  gd d or tan    1
or h  = R 78.4
2g 2g 2
or  =45º
23. The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. W hat is the
From equation (ii) ,we have
maximum horizontal distance that a ball thrown with a
speed of 40 m/s can go without hitting the ceiling of the u2 sin(2  45 º )
ball ? R =78.4 =
9.8
On solving , we get
Sol. Given H=25 m,u=40m/s.
u = 27.72 m/s.
If the ball is thrown at an angle  with the horizontal , then
maximum height of flight is given by
25. If any point on the a parabolic path of a projectile the
  velocity be u and the direction of motion be at with the
u sin 
H= horizontal, show that the particle is moving at right angle
2g
u
40  sin   to its former direction after an interval of time t =  .
or 25 = g sin 
2  9 .8
Sol. Supposing at t= 0, the particle velocity is u at an angle
Which on solving gives sin = 0.554 and
cos =0.833. with the horizontal, then u =u cos î +u sin ĵ The
The maximum horizontal distance is given by
velocity at any time t
 2
u sin 2 2u sin  cos 
R=  v  u cos  î  (u sin   gt ) ĵ
g g
v to be perpendicular to u , v. u  0
2 y
2  40  0.554  0.833
= 90º
9.8
= 150.7 m
u V
24. A boy stands at 39.2 m from a building and throws a ball

which just passes through a window 19.6 m above the
0
ground. Calculate the velocity of projection of the ball. x
Sol. Given, H = 19.6 m or [ucos î +(u sin– gt) ĵ ] . (ucos î +u sin ĵ ) =0

R = 39.2 +39.2 or u2 cos2u2 sin2  –u g t sin=0
= 78.4 m or u2 (cos2+ sin2 ) – u g t sin = 0
u
 t .
g sin 
PAGE # 58
26. Two particles are projected simultaneously from the
level ground as shown in figure. What will be time after RELATIVE MOTION
which both will collide?
Motion is a combined property of the object under

study as well as the observer. It is always relative
; there is no such thing like absolute motion or
absolute rest. Motion is always defined with
respect to an observer or reference frame.
Sol. After time t, Reference frame :
1 2 1 2 Reference frame is an axis system from which
u1sin1t – gt = u2sin2t – gt motion is observed along with a clock attached to
2 2
the axis, to measure time. Reference frame can
So, u1sin1 = u2sin2 be stationary or moving.
u1 sin  2
= ... (i) Suppose there are two persons A and B sitting in
u2 sin 1 a car moving at constant speed. Two stationary
Now persons C and D observe them from the ground.
u1cos1t = u2cos2t + x
x = t((u1cos1 – u2cos2) B A
x D C
t
 u 
u1 cos 1 – 2 cos  2 
 u1 
x sin  2 Here B appears to be moving for C and D, but at

t rest for A. Similarly C appears to be at rest for D
u1 sin( 2 – 1 )
but moving backward for A and B.
27. Let R and H be the horizontal range and the maximum
height reached in case of a projectile If a constant
g
horizontal acceleration of is imparted to the projectile
2
(a ) Relative Position :
due to wind then what will be its range and the It is the position of a particle w.r.t. observer.
maximum height in terms of R & H. In general if position of A w.r.t. to origin is xA and
that of B w.r.t. origin is xB then “Position of
A w.r.t. B” xAB is
g
Sol. ax = , u = ucos xAB = xA – xB
2 x xB xAB
ay = –g, uy = usin xA
Origin B A
maximum height will not change because, ay=–g
28. See the figure (take +ve direction towards right
u2 sin 2  and –ve towards left)
i.e. H = Find xBA , xCA , xCB , xAB and xAC .
2g
2u sin
Time of flight , T = A B C
g
4m 6m
1
So, horizontal range, R = uxT + a xT 2
2
10m
2 2
2u sin 1 g 4u sin  origin
R = ucos× + × ×
g 2 2 g2
Solution : Here, Position of B w.r.t. A is 4 m
towards right . (xBA = +4m)
R = R + 2H Position of C w.r.t. A is 10 m towards right .
(xCA = +10m)
Position of C w.r.t. B is 6 m towards right
(xCB = +6m)
PAGE # 59
Position of A w.r.t. B is 4 m towards left.
(xAB = –4 m)
Position of A w.r.t. C is 10 m towards left.
(xAC = –10m)
(b) Relative Velocity (i) Find the velocity of A with respect to B.

Definition : Relative velocity of a particle A with
respect to B is defined as the velocity with which A (ii) Find the velocity of B with respect to A
appears to move if B is considered to be at rest. In
Solution : vA = +10 , vB = – 12
other words, it is the velocity with which A appears
to move as seen by B considering itself to be at (i) vAB = vA – vB = (10) – (–12) = 22 m/s.
rest.
(ii) vBA = vB – vA = (–12) – (10) = –22 m/s.
NOTE 1 : All velocities are relative & have no significance
unless observer is specified. However, when we
(c ) Relative Acceleration
say “velocity of A”, what we mean is , velocity of A
w.r.t. ground which is assumed to be at rest. It is the rate at which relative velocity is changing.
Relative velocity in one dimension -
If xA is the position of A w.r.t. ground, xB is position d v AB dv A dv B
aAB = = – = aA – aB
of B w.r.t. ground and xAB is position of A w.r.t. B then dt dt dt
dx A
we can say vA = velocity of A w.r.t. ground = Equations of motion when relative acceleration
dt is constant.
dx B
vB = velocity of B w.r.t. ground = vrel = urel + arel t
dt
1
dx AB srel = urel t + a t2
and vAB = velocity of A w.r.t. B = 2 rel
dt
v2rel = u2rel + 2arel srel
d
= ( x A  xB )
dt
dx A dx B (d) Velocity of Approach / Separation
= –
dt dt It is the component of relative velocity of one
Thus
particle w.r.t. another, along the line joining them.
vAB = vA – vB If the separation is decreasing, we say it is velocity
of approach and if separation is increasing, then
we say it is velocity of separation.
NOTE 2. : Velocity of an object w.r.t. itself is always zero.
29. An object A is moving with 5 m/s and B is moving In one dimension, since relative velocity is along
the line joining A and B, hence velocity of approach
with 20 m/s in the same direction. (Positive x-axis) / separation is simply equal to magnitude of relative
velocity of A w.r.t. B.
(i) Find velocity of B with respect to A.
31. A particle A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s
(ii) Find velocity of A with respect to B towards right and another particle B is moving at
speed of 12 m/s towards left. Find their velocity
Solution : (i) vB = +20 m/s of approach.
vA = +5 m/s vBA = vB – vA = +15 m/s
(ii) vB = +20 m/s, vA = +15 m/s ;

vAB = vA – vB = – 15 m/s
Note : vBA = – vAB Solution : VA = +10 , VB = – 12  VAB = VA – VB

30. Two objects A and B are moving towards each  10 – (–12) = 22 m/s
other with velocities 10 m/s and 12 m/s respectively since separation is decreasing hence Vapp =
|VAB| = 22 m/s
as shown.
Ans. : 22 m/s
PAGE # 60
32. A particle A is moving with a speed of 20 m/s Solution : S1 = 20 t + 5 t2
towards right and another particle B is moving at
a speed of 5 m/s towards right. Find their S2 = 30 t – 5 t2
velocity of approach. S1 + S2 = 150
 150 = 50 t
 t=3s
Aliter :
Solution : VA = +20 , VB = +5
Relative acceleration of both is zero since both
VAB = VA – VB have same acceleration in downward direction
20 – (+5) = 15 m/s   
a AB = a A – aB =g–g=0
since separation is decreasing hence
Vapp = |VAB| = 15 m/s
Ans. : 15 m/s
33. A particle A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s

towards right, particle B is moving at a speed of
10 m/s towards right and another particle C is
moving at speed of 10 m/s towards left. The
separation between A and B is 100 m. Find the
time interval between C meeting B and C meeting
A.

v BA = 30 – (–20) = 50
100m
sBA = vBA × t
10m/s 10m/s
B
sBA 150
A t= = =3s
10m/s v BA 50
seperation between A and C

Solution ; t=
Vapp of A and C
100 RELATIVE MOTION IN T WO DIMENSION

= = 5 sec.
10 – ( 10 )

Ans. : 5 sec. rA = position of A with respect to O

d d rB = position of B with respect to O
Note : aapp =  v app , asep = v sep
 dt  dt

rAB = position of A with respect to B.
vapp =  aapp dt , vsep =  asep dt
34. A ball is thrown downwards with a speed of 20 m/

s from the top of a building 150 m high and
simultaneously another ball is thrown vertically
upwards with a speed of 30 m/s from the foot of
the building. Find the time after which both the
    
rAB  rA  rB (The vector sum rA  rB can be
done by  law of addition or resolution method)
  
d ( rAB ) d ( rA ) d ( rB )
 = – .
dt dt dt
balls will meet. (g = 10 m/s2)
PAGE # 61
  
 v AB  v A  v B
   Relative Motion in Lift

d ( v AB ) d ( v A ) d (v B )
= –
dt dt dt Projectile motion in a lift moving with acceleration
a upwards
  
 a AB  a A  aB
(1) In the reference frame of lift, acceleration of a
freely falling object is g + a
35. Object A and B both have speed of 10 m/s. A is

(2) Velocity at maximum height = u cos 
moving towards East while B is moving towards
North starting from the same point as shown. Find
 2u sin 
velocity of A relative to B ( v AB ) (3) T=
ga
Solution : Method 1
u 2 sin 2 
(4) Maximum height (H) =
2(g  a)
u 2 sin 2
(5) Range =
ga
   36. A lift is moving up with acceleration a. A person

v AB = v A – v B
inside the lift throws the ball upwards with a velocity
u relative to hand.

 v AB = 102 (a) What is the time of flight of the ball?
(b) What is the maximum height reached by the

Method 2
ball in the lift?
 
v A = 10 î , v B = 10 ĵ
  
v AB = v A – v B = 10 î – 10 ĵ

 v AB = 102
 
NOTE : v A  vB = v 2A  v B2  2v A v B cos  ,
 
where  is angle between v A and v B
Solution :
  
(a) aBL = a B – aL =g+a
PAGE # 62
  1 
s = u t + aBL t2 (v - u)
2
u
1 37. A swimmer capable of swimming with velocity ‘v’

0 = uT – (g + a)T2
2 relative to water jumps in a flowing river having
velocity ‘u’ . The man swims a distance d down
stream and returns back to the original position.
2u Find out the time taken in complete motion.
 T =
( g  a) Solution : Total time = time of swimming downstream +
time of swimming upstream
(b) v2 – u2 = 2 as d d 2dv
t = tdown + tup = + = 2
0 – u2 = –2(g + a) H vu v u v  u2
Ans.
2
u (b) Motion of Man Swimming in a River
H=
2(g  a)
Consider a man swimming in a river with a velocity

of v MR relative to river at an angle of  with the
river flow

If a man can swim relative to water with velocity The velocity of river is VR .

v mR and water is flowing relative to ground with Let there be two observers  and  , observer  is
  on ground and observer  is on a raft floating along
velocity v R , velocity of man relative to ground v m with the river and hence moving with the same
will be given by : velocity as the river. Hence motion w.r.t. observer 
   is same as motion w.r.t. river. i.e. the man will
v mR = v m – v R or appear to swim at an angle  with the river flow for
   observer  .
v m = v mR + v R 
   For observer  the velocity of swimmer will be v M
If v R = 0, then v m = v mR
 
in words, velocity of man in still water = velocity of = v MR + v R ,
man w.r.t. river Hence the swimmer will appear to move at an
angle ’ with the river flow.
(a ) River Problem in One Dimension :
x
Velocity of river is u & velocity of man in still water

is v.
Observer  vMR
Case - 1 d
Man swimming downstream (along the direction -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
of river flow)
In this case velocity of river vR = + u
velocity of man w.r.t. river vmR = +v
  Observer 
now = v mR + v R = u + v
 : Motion of swimmer for observer 
(u + v)  : Motion of swimmer for observer 
u (c ) R iv er p robl em in tw o di me ns ion
(crossing river) :
Case - 2
Man swimming upstream (opposite to the Consider a man swimming in a river with a velocity

direction of river flow) of v MR relative to river at an angle of  with the

In this case velocity of river vR = – u river flow
 The velocity of river is VR and the width of the river
velocity of man w.r.t. river v mR = +v is d
     
now v m = v mR + v R = (v – u) v M = v MR + v R
PAGE # 63
x vR
Where sin  =
v MR
y
d VMR 1 v 
R  R v
VM
 = cos    v <1 i.e. vR < vMR
x v
 MR  MR
 i.e. minimum drift is zero if and only if velocity of
VR man in still water is greater than or equal to the
velocity of river.
 Time to cross the river along the shortest path

 v M = (vMRcos î + vMRsin ĵ ) +vR î
d d
t= =
 v MR sin  2
v MR  VR2
 v M = (vMRcos + vR) î + vMRsin ĵ
Here vMRsin  is the component of velocity of

man in the direction perpendicular to the VR
river flow.
This component of velocity is responsible for the VMR
man crossing the river. Hence if the time to cross VM
the river is t , then 

d d
t= =
vy v sin 
DRIFT : It is defined as the displacement of man in the
direction of river flow. (see the figure). NOTE :
It is simply the displacement along x-axis, during If vR > vMR then it is not possible to have zero
the period the man crosses the river. (vMRcos + drift. In this case the minimum drift
vR) is the component of velocity of man in the (corresponding to shortest possible path is non
direction of river flow and this component of velocity
zero and the condition for minimum drift can
is responsible for drift along the river flow. If drift is
x then, v MR
Drift = vx × t be proved to be cos = – or sin  =
vR
d
x = (vMRcos + vR)×
v MR sin  vR
for minimum but non zero drift.
v MR
(d) Crossing the river in shortest time
d WIND AIRPLANE PR OBLEMS
As we know that t = . Clearly t will be This is very similar to boat river flow problems.
v MR sin 
The only difference is that boat is replaced by
minimum when  = 90° i.e. time to cross the river aeroplane and river is replaced by wind.
will be minimum if man swims perpendicular to Thus,
d velocity of aeroplane with respect to wind
the river flow. Which is equal to .   
v MR v aw  v a  v w
(e) Crossing the river in shortest path, Minimum
  
or v a  v aw  v w
Drif t 
The minimum possible drift is zero. In this case where, v a = velocity of aeroplane w.r.t.
the man swims in the direction perpendicular to ground
the river flow as seen from the ground. This path 
is known as shortest path and, v w = velocity of wind.
here xmin = 0  (vMRcos + vR) = 0
vR
or cos = –
v MR
RAIN PROBLEM

since cos  is – ve,  > 90° , i.e. for minimum drift If rain is falling vertically with a velocity v R and an
the man must swim at some angle  with the 
perpendicular in backward direction. observer is moving horizontally with velocity v m ,
the velocity of rain relative to observer will be :
PAGE # 64
   
v Rm = v R – v m or  vR = 5 5
vRm = v R2  v m
2
mv 
and direction  = tan–1   with the vertical as
 vR 
shown in figure.
–vm

vRm 1 1
vR tan  = ,  = tan–1 .
2 2
V ELOCIT Y OF APP ROACH / SE PARATI ON I N

TWO DIM ENSI ON
It is the component of relative velocity of one
38. Rain is falling vertically with 10m/s and a man is particle w.r.t. another, along the line joining them.
moving with velocity 6 m/s. Find the angle at which If the separation is decreasing, we say it is velocity
the man should hold his umbrella to avoid getting of approach and if separation is increasing, then
wet. we say it is velocity of separation.
Solution :
40. Particle A is at rest and particle B is moving with

constant velocity v as shown in the diagram at
t = 0. Find their velocity of separation
 
v rain = –10 ĵ  v man = 6 ĵ

B v

v r.w.r.t. man = –10 ĵ – 6 î A
6 3
tan  =   = tan–1   Solution : vBA = vB – vA = v
10 5 vsep = component of vBA along line AB = vcos
Where  is angle with vertical
41. Two particles A and B are moving with constant
39. A man moving with 5m/s observes rain falling velocities v1 and v2 . At t = 0, v1 makes an angle 1
vertically at the rate of 10 m/s. Find the speed and with the line joining A and B and v2 makes an angle
direction of the rain with respect to ground. 2 with the line joining A and B. Find their velocityof
approach.
v1
1 2 v2
A B
d
Solution : Velocity of approach is relative velocity along line

AB
Solution : vRM = 10 m/s, vM = 5 m/s vAPP = v1cos1 + v2cos2
  
v RM = v Ru – v M
  
 v Ru = v RM – v M
PAGE # 65
EXERCISE-1 5. W hich of the acceleration - time graph is not
possible?
1. The velocity-time graph of a body moving in a

straight line is shown in figure. The displacement
and distance travelled by the body in 6 seconds
are respectively : a a
(A) (B)
t t
a a
(C) (D)
(A) 8 m, 16 m (B) 16 m, 8 m
(C) 16 m, 16 m (D) 8 m, 8 m t t
2. For the velocity time graph shown in figure,what

fraction is the distance covered by the body in the 6. Which of the followin==g is correct for uniformly
last two seconds of the total distance covered in accelerated motion ?
all the seven seconds ?
displacement
displacement
10
Velocity (m/s)
8
6 (A) (B)
4
2 t t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (s)
displacement
(A) 1/2 (B) 1/4

(C) 1/3 (D) 2/3
(C) (D) All are correct
3. In figure BC represents a body moving :
t
7. Velocity - time graph shows that the body has
constant velocity for part :
A B
D
v C
(A) Backward with uniform velocity
(B) Forward with uniform velocity
(C) Backward with non-uniform velocity t
(D) Forward with non-uniform velocity
(A) AB
(B) BC
4. Area of acceleration time graph gives :
(A) Rate of change of velocity with the time (C) CD
(B) Rate of change of acceleration with time (D) Both (A) and (C)
(C) Change in velocity
(D) Change in acceleration 8. In the above question acceleration is non-zero for
which part of the graph :
(A) AB
(B) BC
(C) CD
(D) Both (A) and (C)
PAGE # 66
9. Which of the figure corresponds to a cast when 14. A ball is thrown upward and reaches a height of
body travels for a certain time with uniform 64 feet, its initial velocity should be (g = 32 ft/sec2)
acceleration and then with a uniform velocity for
(A) 64 ft/sec (B) 72 ft/sec
the rest of the time ?
(C) 32 ft/sec (D) 4096 ft/sec
15. A body starting from rest and has uniform

acceleration 8 m/sec2. The distance travelled by
v it in 5th second will be
(A)
(A) 36 m (B) 40 m (C) 100 m
(D) 200 m
t
16. A body starts from rest, the ratio of distances

travelled by the body during 3rd and 4th seconds
is
(A) 7/5 (B) 5/7
v v
(B) (C) (C) 7/3 (D) 3/7
t t 17. A runner completes one round of a circular path of

radius r in 40 seconds. His displacement after 2
minutes 20 seconds will be
(A) zero (B) 2 r
v (C) 2r (D) 7 r
(D)
18. A body covered a distance of L m along a curved
t path of a quarter circle. The ratio of distance to
displacement is
10. B etween two statio ns a train ac celerates
uniformly at first, then moves with constant  2 2
speed and finally retards uniformly to come to (A) (B)
rest. If the ratios of time taken are 1 : 8 : 1
2 2 
and the greatest speed is 60 km/hour. Then
the average speed over the whole journey  2
(A) 45 km/hr (B) 54 km/hr (C) (D)
2 
(C) 35 km/hr (D) 53 km/hr
11. A ball is th row n vertic ally up ward s with a
velocity of 30 m/s. If the acceleration due to 19. A particle moves with constant acceleration for 6
gravity is 10 m/s2, what will be the distance seconds after starting from rest. The distance
travelled by it in the last second of motion travelled during the consecutive 2 seconds interval
before again come to his hand : are in the ratio
(A) 1 : 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 : 3
(A) 5 m (B) 10 m (C) 1 : 3 : 5 (D) 1 : 5 : 9
(C) 25 m (D) 30 m
12. Two bodies are thrown vertically upward, with PR OJ ECTI LE M OT ION
the same initial velocity of 98 m/s but 4 sec
apart. How long after the first one is thrown GR OU ND T O GR OU ND P ROJE CT ILE
when they meet ?
(A) 10 sec (B) 11 sec 20. A ball is thrown upwards and returns to the ground
(C) 12 sec (D) 13 sec describing a parabolic path. W hich of the following
quantities remains constant?
(A) Kinetic energy of the ball
13. Juggler keeps on moving four balls in the air (B) The speed of the ball
continuously such that each ball attains 20 m (C) The vertical component of velocity
height. W hen the first ball leaves his hand, (D) The horizontal component of velocity
the position of the other balls ( in metre height)
will be 21. If a body A of mass M is thrown with velocity v at an
angle 30° to the horizontal and another body B of same
(A) 10, 20, 10 (B) 15, 20, 15
mass is thrown at an angle of 60° to the horizontal, the
(C) 5, 51, 20 (D) 5, 10, 20 ratio of range of A and B will be:
(A) 1: 3 (B) 3 :1
(C) 1 : 3 (D) 1 : 1
PAGE # 67
30. A particle is thrown with the speed u at an angle  with
22. It was calculated that a shell when fired from a gun the horizontal. W hen the particle makes an angle 
with a certain velocity and at an angle of elevation with the horizontal, its speed will be:
5/36 radians should strike a given target. In actual (A) u cos  (B) u cos  sec 
practice it was found that a hill just intervened in the (C) u cos  cos  (D) u sec  cos 
trajectory. At what angle of elevation should the gun be
fired to hit the target ? 31. A body is projected vertically up from the ground. Taking
5 7 ari resistance into account, if t1 is the time taken in
(A) radian (B) radian going up while t2 in coming down to starting point,
36 36
then:
11 13 (A) t1 > t2
(C) radian (D) radian (B) t1 = t2
36 36
23. A ball of mass M is thrown vertically upwards. Another (C) t1 < t2
ball of mass 2M is thrown at angle  to vertical. Both of (D) t1 can be greater or smaller depending upon the
them stay in air for the same period of time. The height initial velocity of the body
attained by the two are in the ratio :
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1
(C) 1 : 1 (D) 1 : cos   
32. you throw a ball with a launch velocity of v = 3 î  4 ĵ
m/s towards a wall, where it hits at height h1. Suppose
24. An object is thrown along a direction inclined at an
angle of 45° with the horizontal. The horizontal range  
that the launch velocity is v  5 î  4 ĵ m/s. If h2 is
of the particle : corresponding height(h > h1 & h2), then
(A) Is equal to vertical height
(B) Is equal to twice the vertical height.
(C) Is equal to thrice the vertical height
(D) Is equal to four times the vertical height.
h
25. At what angle to the horizontal should an object be
projected so that the maximum height reached is equal
to the horizontal range ?
(A) tan  = 2 (B) tan  = 4 (A) h2 = h1 (B)h2 < h1
(C) tan  = 2/3 (D) tan = 3 (C) h2 > h1 (D) unanswerable
26. Two projectiles, one fired from the surface of the earth 33. A boy throws a ball with a velocity u at an angle with
with speed 5 m/s and the other fired from the surface the horizontal. At the same instant he starts running
of a planet with initial speed 3 m/s, trace identical with uniform velocity to catch the ball before it hits the
trajectories. Neglecting friction effect the value of ground. To achieve this he should run with a velocity of:
acceleration due to gravity on the planet is: (A) u cos  u sin
(A) 5.9 m/s2 (B) 3.5 m/s2
(C) 16.3 m/s2 (D) 8.5 m/s2 (C) u tan (D) u2 tan 
27. A cricket ball is hit for a six leaving the bat at an angle of
34. The height y and the distance x along the horizontal
45° to the horizontal with kinetic energy K. At the top of
plane, of a projectile on a certain planet [with
its trajectory kinetic energy of the ball is:
surrounding atmosphere] are given by y =[5t –8t2]
(A) Zero (B) K
metre and x =12t metre where t is the time in second.
(C) K/2 (D) K / 2 The velocity with which the projectile is projected, is :
(A) 5 m/s
28. An object is projected so that it just clears two wall of (B) 12m/s
height 7.5 m and with separation 50m from each other. (C) 13 m/s
If the time passing between the walls is 2.5 s, the (D) not obtainable from the data
range of the projectile will be (g= 10 m/s2)
(A) 35 m (B) 70 m 35. A particle is projected from the ground with a velocity of
(C) 140 m (D) 57.5 m 25m/s. After 2 second, it just clears a wall 5m height.
Then the angle of projection of particle is [g =10 m/s2]:
29. A particle is projected from point A with velocity u at an (A) 30º (B) 45º
angle  with horizontal. In its parabolic path, at point P (C) 60º (D) 75º
the particle is moving at right angles to its initial
direction of projection. Its velocity at P is: 36. A cricket ball is hit at angle 60º with the horizontal with
(A) u tan  (B) u cot  kinetic energy k. What will be the kinetic energy at the
(C) u cos  (D) u cosec  highest point of its trajectory ?
k
(A) zero (B)
4
k 3k
(C) (D)
2 4
PAGE # 68
37. What determines the nature of the path followed by the 46. A bullet is dropped from the same height when another
particle ? bullet is fired horizontally. They will hit the ground :
(A) speed (A) One after the other (B) Simultaneously
(B) velocity (C) Depends on the observer
(C) acceleration (D) None of the above
(D) initial velocity and acceleration
47. A ball is rolled off the edge of a horizontal table at a
38. The horizontal and vertical components of the velocity speed of 4 m/s. It hits the ground after 0.4 second.
of a projectile are 10 m/s and 20 m/s, respectively . Which statement given below is true ?
The horizontal range of the projectile will be : (A) It hits the ground at a horizontal distance 1.6 m
[g =10m/s2] from the edge of the table
(A) 5m (B) 10m (B) The speed with which it hits the ground is 4.0 m/
(C) 20m (D) 40m second
39. A large number of bullets are fired in all directions with (C) Height of the table is 0.8 m
same speed u. W hat is the maximum area on the (D) It hits the ground at an angle of 60º to the horizontal
ground on which these bullets will spread ?
48. A body is thrown horizontally from the top of a tower of
u2 u4 height 5m. It touches the ground at a distance of 10 m
(A)  (B)  2 from the foot of the tower. The initial velocity of the body
g g
is : (g =10ms–2)
(A) 2.5 ms–1 (B) 5 ms–1
2 u4 2 u2
(C)  (D)  (C) 10 ms–1 (D) 20ms–1
g2 g2
RE LATI VE M OT ION
40. A projectile fired with initial velocity u at some angle 
has a range R. If the initial velocity be doubled at the RELATIVE MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
same angle of projection, then the range will be : 49. A motorcycle is moving with a velocity 80 km/hr
(A) 2R (B) R/2 ahead of a car moving with a velocity of 65 km/hr in
(C) R (D) 4R
the same direction. What is the relative velocity of
the motorcycle with respect to the car-
41. In the motion of a projectile freely under gravity, its :
(A) Total energy is conserved (A) 15 km/hr (B) 20 km/hr
(B) Momentum is conserved (C) 25 km/hr (D) 145 km/hr
C) Energy and momentum both are conserved
(D) None is conserved 50. 50 m long trains are crossing each other in
opposite direction with velocity of 10 m/s and
42. At the top of the trajectory of a projectile , the directions 15 m/s. respectively Then time-taken by trains to
of its velocity and acceleration are : cross each other will be-
(A) Perpendicular to each other (A) 2 sec. (B) 4 sec.
(B) Parallel to each other (C) 6 sec. (D) 8 sec.
(C) Inclined to each other at an angle of 45º
(D) Antiparallel to each other
51. Theif's car is moving with a speed of 10 m/s. A
police van chasing this car with a speed of
43. Galileo writes that for angles of projection of a projectile 5 m/s fires a bullet at the theif's car with muzzle
at angles (45 +) and (45 –) ,their horizontal ranges velocity 72 km/h. Find the speed with which the
described by the projectile are in the ratio of : (if   45) bullet will hit the car-
(A) 10 m/s (B) 20 m/s
(A) 2 :1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 15 m/s (D) 25 m/s
(C) 1 : 1 (D) 2 : 3
52. A person standing on the floor of an elevator drops
44. A projectile thrown with a speed  at an angle  has a a coin. The coin reaches the floor of the elevator
in a time t1 if the elevator is stationary and in time
range R on the surface of earth . For same  and , its
t2 if it is moving with constant velocity. Then-
range on the surface of moon will be : (A) t1 = t2 (B) t1 < t2
(A) R/6 (B) 6R (C) t1 > t2 (D) t1 < t2 or t1 > t2
(C) R/36 (D) 36R
RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
H EI GH T OT GROUN DP ROJE CT ILE
53. The motion of a projectile as seen from other
45. A stone is just released from the window of a train projectile is-
moving along a horizontal straight track. The stone will (A) Accelerated motion
hit the ground following : (B) Uniform motion
(A) Straight path (B) Circular path (C) Motion with uniform distance
(C) Parabolic path (D) Hyperbolic path (D) None of these
PAGE # 69
54. A body is thrown up in a lift with a velocity U relative 60. A man holding a flag is running in North-East
to the lift and the time of flight is found to be ‘t’. direction with speed 10 m/s. W ind is blowing in
The acceleration with which the lift is moving up
east direction with speed 5 2 m/s. Find the
will be-
direction in which flag will flutter.
U  gt (A) South (B) North
(A) (C) East (D) West
t
U  gt
(B|)
t
EXERCISE-2
2U  gt
(C)
t COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS :
2U  gt
(D) 1. A bouncing tennis ball rebounds each time to a height
t one half that of the previous one. If it is dropped from a
RELATIVE MOTION IN RIVER FLOW & AIR FLOW height of 3 m, the total distance traveled by the ball
before coming to rest will be (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
55. The speed of a boat is 5 km/hr in still water. If it (A) 9m (B) 12 m
crosses a river of width 1 km along the shortest
(C) 20m (D) 30m
possible path in 15 min., then velocity of the river
is-
2. A particle moves along a straight line with constant
(A) 4 km/hr (B) 3 km/hr
(C) 2 km/hr (D) 1 km/hr acceleration a. Let u be the speed at t = 0. The average
speed for first t second is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
56. A boat P is moving at 40 km/hr and another boat (A) u/2 (B) u + at
Q is moving at 20 km/hr. W hich one of the following (C) u + at/2 (D) (u + at)2
is not a possible value for their relative velocity-
(A) 10 km/hr (B) 20 km/hr 3. A body is moving with constant acceleration from A to B
(C) 30 km/hr (D) 40 km/hr in a straight line. C is the mid-point of AB. If u and v are
the speeds at A and B respectively. The speed at C is :
57. A river is flowing from west to east at a speed of 5 (KVPY/2007)
m./min. A man on the south bank of the river,
capable of swimming at 10 m./min. in still water, uv v–u
(A) (B)
wants to swim across the river in shortest time. 2 2
He should swim in a direction-
(A) Due north
º
(B) 30º east of north u2  v 2 v 2 – u2
(C) (D)
(C) 30º west of north 2 2
(D) 60º east of north
RELATIVE MOTION IN RAIN AND WIND  4. During a cycle race, two boys happen to cross a point
X simultaneously with speeds 16m/s and 12 m/s
respectively. In order to win the race, they increase their
58. It is raining vertically downwards with a velocity speeds at the rates 1 m/s2 and 2m/s2 respectively.
of 3 km h–1 . A man walks in the rain with a Unfortunately both reach the final point Y at the same
velocity of 4 kmh–1. The rain drops will fall on instant of time. If the time required to cover the distance
the man with a relative velocity of ; XY is t, then : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) 1 kmh–1 (B) 3 kmh–1 (A) XY = 120 m (B) XY = 160 m
(C) 4 kmh–1 (D) 5 kmh–1 (C) t = 4s (D) t = 8s
59. Raindrops are falling vertically with a velocity of 5. Let R and H be the horizontal range and the maximum
10 m/s. To a cyclist moving on a straight road height reached in case of a projectile If a constant
the rain drops appear to be comin g with a horizontal acceleration of g /4 is imparted to the
velocity of 20 m/s. The velocity of cyclist is : projectile due to wind then its range and the maximum
height will be : (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) 10 m/s (B) 10 3 m/s (A) (R+ 2H), 2H (B) (R+ H/2), H
(C) (R+H), H (D)(R+ 2H), H
(C) 20 m/s (D) 20 3 m/s
PAGE # 70
6. A man throws a ball making an angle of 60º with the 10. Velocity-time graph for the motion of a particle is as
horizontal . He runs on a level ground and catches
shown below, Maximum value of acceleration is during
the ball. If he had thrown the ball with speed v, then
his speed must be (IJSO/Stage-I/2007) the interval : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
(A) v (B) v/2
(C) 2v (D) velocity
v
D E
7. A car starts from point A. travels on a straight road and
stops at its destination B. The distance - time graph of B
this journey has nature. (IJSO/Stage-I/2008)
time
C
d
d
(A) BC (B) CD
(C) DE (D) EF
(A) (B)
t t 11. According to the quantum theory, a photon of

electromagnetic radiation of frequency v has energy
E = hv where h is known as planck’s constant.
According to the theory of relativity, a particle of mass
m has equivalent energy E = mc2, where c is speed of
light. Thus a photon can be treated as a particle having
d
d hv
effective mass m = . If a flash of light is sent
c2
horizontally in earth’s gravitational field, then photons
while traveling a horizontal distance d would fall through
(C) (D)
a distance given by : (KVPY/2008)
t t gd2 h
(A) (B)
2c 2 mc
8. A body is released from rest from the top of a tower of

mcd2
height 3H. The ratio of times it takes to fall through (C) (D) zero
h
equal height H is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
(A) 1 : ( 2 –1) : ( 3 – 2)
(B) 1 : ( 2 –1) : ( 3 + 2) 12. An observer in a car P moving towards north with speed
(C) 1 : 1 : 1 v observes that another car Q is moving towards east
(D) 9 : 4 : 1 with the same speed v. The true velocity of Q is :
9. Acceleration (a) – time (t) graph for a particle starting (IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
rest at t = 0 is as given below. The particle has (A) v towards east
maximum speed at : (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
(B) 2 v towards north-east
a
(C) v towards south-east
1 2 3 4
(D) v 2 towards south-west
t
O
(A) 1s (B) 2s
(C) 3s (D) 4s
PAGE # 71
13. A body describes uniform. accelerated motion along a  15. A body traveling along a straight line with a uniform
straight line. Which of the following displacement time acceleration has velocities 5m/s at a point A and 15 m/s
graphs shown represent the motion correctly ? at a point B respectively. If M is the midpoint of AB, then:
(IJSO/Stage-I/2009) (IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
(A) the ratio of times taken by the body to cover distance
S S  5 – 1
MB and AM is  .
 2 
(B) the velocity at M is 5 5 m/s
(I) (II)
(C) average velocity over AM is

5 5 –1
m/s

t t 2
(D) the product of the acceleration and the distance AB
is 100 m2/s2
S S 16. An arrow shot vertically upwards loses its initial speed
by 60% in 3 seconds. The maximum height reached
by the arrow is (g = 9.8 ms–2 )
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(III) (IV) (A) 122.5 m (B) 44.1 m
(C) 100 m (D) 45 m
t t
17. A ball is dropped from a height of 7.2 m. It bounces
(A) (I) only back to 3.2 m after striking the floor. the ball remains in
(B) (I) and (IV) only contact with the floor for 20 ms. Given that g = 10 ms–2,
(C) (I), (III) and (IV) only the average acceleration of the ball during the contact
(D) (I), (II), (III) and (IV) all is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) 100 ms–2 (B) 200 ms–2
14. A body moves along a straight line. The graphs drawn (C) 600 ms–2 (D) 1000 ms–2
below show variation of three quantities Q1. Q2 and
18. A vibrator is generating a wave on the surface of water.
Q3 of this body with time. These quantities can be
An object x is floating on the surface. Which of the
respectively. (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009) following graphs, of the floating object is/are correct ?
Q1 Q2
O O
t t
Q3
O
t
(A) displacement, velocity, acceleration

(B) displacement, acceleration, velocity (A) i, ii and iv (B) only ii
(C) only iii (D) ii and iii
(C) velocity, acceleration, displacement
(D) acceleration, velocity, displacement
PAGE # 72
19. A juggler tosses a ball up in the air with initial speed u. 22. A 100 m sprinter increases her speed from rest
At the instant it reaches its maximum height H, he uniformly at the rate of 1 m/s2 upto 40 m and
tosses up a second ball with the same initial speed.
covers the remaining distance with uniform speed.
The two balls will collide at a height. (KVPY/2011)
The sprinter covers the first half of the run in t1 s
H H and the second half in t2 s. Then :
(A) (B)
4 2 (A) t1 > t2
3H (B) t1 < t2
3
(C) (D) H (C) t1 = t2
4 4
(D) information given is incomplete
20. A ball is released from rest above a horizontal surface.

23. A ball is projected at an angle of 45° with horizontal. In
The graph shows the variation with time of its velocity the absence of air resistance, the ball follows
(not to scale). The scale on this graph is changed at
(IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
every impact. A, B, C, D and E represent areas. Which
(A) Elliptical orbit (B) sinusoidal path
of the following are correct ? (IJSO/Stage-II/2011) (C) parabolic path (D) linear path
24. Diagram shows trajectory of a cricket ball. The set of

arrows which show the direction of the acceleration of
ball at points P and Q respectively is :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2013)
Q
P
Y
(A) A = B & B = C (B) A = C & C = E
(C) B = C & D = E (D) all of the above
21. A ball is thrown up vertically in still air with a velocity of

x
20ms–1. It comes back to ground. The velocity - Time
graph is (g = 10ms–2). (IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
(A) (B)
25. A particle starting from rest is moving with uniform

acceleration in a straight line. The percentage
increase of the displacement of the particle in 9th
second compared to that in the immediate
previous second is about : (IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) 8.3% (B) 20.6%
(C) 13.3% (D) 24.5%
(C) (D)
PAGE # 73
26. A particle is moving along a straight line. Its velocity 30. A particle is moving on the real line, and its position
time graph is as shown in the adjacent figure.
is observed at four different time stamps. At time
Then Match the following :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2014) t = 0, the particle is at x = 0, at time t = 20 seconds, we
have x = 40, at time t = 40 seconds, x = 60 and at
Physical quantity Remarks time t = 60 seconds, we have x = 90. Show that at
(i) Acceleration at 4 second (p) Positive
some point of time between 0 and 60 seconds,
(ii) Velocity at 4 second (q) Negative
(iii) Direction of motion at 2 second (r) Zero the acceleration of the particle was zero.
(IJSO/Stage-II/2014/Subjective)
v(ms–1)
4 31. There is a regular bus service between Pune and
Mumbai (180 Km apart) at every hour from both
2
t(s) the cities. First bus leaves (Both Mumbai as well
1 2 3 45 6 as pune) at 4 am while the last leaves at 11 pm.
These busses run at an average speed of 45 km/
hr. Taxies also run on the same route at 60 km/hr
(A) (i, is (p); (ii) is (q) and (iii) is (r) with regular interval of 30 min. First taxi leaves
(B) (i) is (r) ; (ii) is (r) and (iii) is (p) (Both Mumbai as well as Pune) at 4 am while the
(C) (i) is (q) ; (ii) is (r) and (iii) is (p) last leaves at 10 pm. Following statements are
(D) (i) is (q), (ii) is (p) and (iii) is (r) based upon the number of taxies or buses crossed
(not overtaken) only during travelling i.e. excluding
27. Consider the following two statemens.
Statement-1 : The direction of acceleration of a instance of arrival and departure. Consider
particle must be always same as that of velocity. following statements. (IJSO/Stage-II/2016)
Statement-2 : Acceleration is the rate of change of (1) Taxi left at 8 pm crosses 10 taxis.
velocity. (2) Last taxi crosses 5 buses.
Choose the correct option (IJSO/Stage-I/2014) (3) Last bus crosses 5 taxies.
(A) Statement-1 is correct while statement -2 is (A) Statement 1 & 2 are only correct.
wrong (B) Statement 2 & 3 are only correct.
(B) Statement-1 and 2 are correct. (C) Statement 1 & 3 are only correct.
(C) Statement-1 and 2 are wrong . (D) All the statements are correct
(D) Statement-1 is wrong while statement (2) is
correct.
32. At t = 0, Prashant is at x = 0 when he sees milind at
x = 6 m. Prashant now begins to run towards milind
 28. A particle moves along the x-axis according to the with 5 m/s, while milind begins to run towards
equation x = 6t2 where x is displacement in meters prashant with a = 2m/s2
and t is time in seconds. Therefore : (I) When and where will they cross ? Also plot their
displacement - Time plots together.
(IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
(II) Prove that prashant will cross (meet) Milind
(A) the acceleration of the particle is 6 ms–2 twice if Milind accelerates aways from prashant
(B) the particle follows a parabolic path (from his original position, at t = 0) with a = 2 m/s2.
(C) each second the velocity of the particle Also plot their displacement time plots together.
(IJSO/Stage-II/2016/Sub.)
changes by 9.8 ms–1
(D) the velocity of the particle is 6 ms–1 at t = 0.5 s 33. Two proj ectile are fired simultaneously from
ground level with same initial speed (u). Both cover
29. A stone is thrown horizontally and follows the XYZ same horizontal distance of 160m on reaching
path as shown in the adjacent figure. The direction the ground level. One of them reaches 6 sec. prior
of the acceleration of the stone at point Y is : to the other. Only gravitational acceleration g = 10
(IJSO/Stage-I/2015) m/s2 governs the motion of both the projectile.
Calculate (u). (IJSO/Stage-II/20016/Sub.)
(A)  (B) 
(C) (D)
PAGE # 74
4. FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION(NLM)
FORCE moving down : speed increases moving up : speed

decreases moving horizontal : speed remains constant
(a) Definition of Force :
Experiments 2 :
Force is an external effort in the form of push and pull
which : W hen a ball is released on the inner surface of a
(i) produces or tries to produce motion in a body at rest smooth hemisphere, it will move to the other side and
or reach the same height before coming to rest
momentarily. f the hemisphere is replaced by a surface
(ii) stops or tries to stop a moving body
shown in figure(b) in order to reach the same height
or
the ball will have to move a larger distance.
(iii) changes or tries to change the shape and size and
the direction of motion of the body.
“Force is the cause which can produce or tries to
produces acceleration in the body on which it acts.” h h
(b) Effects of Force :
A force can produce the following effects : (a) (b)
(i) A force can move a stationary body.

(ii) A force can stop a moving body.
(iii) A force can change the speed of a moving body.
(iv) A force can change the direction of a moving body.
(v) A force can change the shape (and size) of a body.
v v
(C) Ther e ar e Four Funda me nt al For ce i n (c)

Nature :
If the other side is made horizontal, the ball will never
(i) Gravitational force
stop because it will never be able to reach the same
(ii) Electromagnetic force
height, it means its speed will not decrease. It will
(iii) The strong nuclear force
have uniform velocity on the horizontal surface. Thus, if
(iv) Weak force
unbalanced forces do not act on a body, the body will
either remain at rest or will move with a uniform velocity.
GALILEO’S EXPERIMENTS
It will remain unaccelerated.
Experiment 1 :  Newton concluded the idea suggested by Galileo and
It was observed by Galileo that when a ball is rolled was formulated in the laws by Newton.
down on an inclined frictionless plane its speed
increases, whereas if it is rolled up an inclined NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
frictionless plane its speed decreases .If it is rolled on
Every body remain in its state of rest or uniform motion
a horizontal frictionless plane the result must be
in a straight line unless it is compelled by some external
between the cases describe above i.e. the speed
force.
should remain constant. It can be explain as :
It means a body remain unaccelerated if and only if,
the resultant force on it is zero.
In such a case the body is said to be in equilibrium.
INERTIA
(a) Definition of Inertia :
The tendency of the body to oppose the change its

v v’
states of rest or uniform motion in a straight line is
called inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is also called
v’ = v law of inertia.
PAGE # 75
(b) Description : (b) Inertia of Motion :
It follows from first law of motion that in absence of any The tendency of the body to oppose its state of motion
external force, a body continues to be in its state of rest when some unbalance forces are applied on it, is
or in uniform motion along a straight line. In other called the inertia of motion.
words, the body cannot change by itself its position of Example based on Inertia of motion :
rest or of uniform motion.
(i) A man carelessly getting down a moving bus falls
(c) Inertia Depends upon Mass : forward, the reason being that his feet come to rest
suddenly, whereas the upper part of his body retains
We know that it is difficult to move a heavier body than
the lighter one. Similarly it is difficult to stop a moving the forward motion.
heavier body than a lighter body moving with the same
velocity. Thus, we conclude that mass of the body is
the measure of inertia, more the mass, more the
inertia.
TYPES OF INERTIA
There are three types of Inertia which are :

(a) Inertia of Rest :
The tendency of the body to oppose the change in its
state of rest when some external unbalance force is
applied on it, is called the inertia of rest.
Example based on Inertia of rest :
(i) A person sitting in a bus falls backwards when the
bus suddenly starts. The reason is that lower part of
his body begins to move along with the bus but the
upper part of his body tends to remain at rest due to (ii) An athlete runs a certain distance before taking a
inertia of rest. leap so that the inertia of motion of his body at the time
of leaping may help him in his muscular efforts.
(ii) If a coin is placed on a thick card over the mouth of
a tumbler and the card is given a sudden jerk, the coin (iii) We remove snow or mud from our shoes by striking
will drop into the tumbler. The reason is that the motion them against wall. On striking the wall, the feet comes
of the card is very quick and it cannot be imparted to to rest whereas the snow which is still in motion
the coin due to inertia of rest. separates from the shoes.
(c) Inertia of Direction :
The tendency of a body to oppose any change in its
direction of motion is known as inertia of direction.
Example based on Inertia of direction :
(i) If a car takes a turn along a curved track, the
passengers experience a force acting away from the
centre of the curved track. This is the result of tendency
of the passenger to continue moving along a straight
path.
(iii) W e beat a carpet with a stick to remove dust (ii) Tie a stone to one end of a string and holding other
particles. W hen the carpet is beaten, it is suddenly end of the string in hand, rotate the stone in a horizontal
set into motion. The dust particles tend to remain at circle. If during rotation, the string breaks at certain
rest due to inertia of rest and hence fall off. stage, the stone is found to fly off tangentially at that
point of the circle.
(iv) When a branch of a tree is shaken, the fruits get
separated from the tree due to inertia of rest.
(v) A bullet fired from a gun makes a small hole in String
Breaks
glass of window while passing through it but stone
breaks it into pieces.
String breaks, stone goes away
(vi) A pile of carrom coins remain intact when the lowest tangentially
coin is struck by a striker forcely.
PAGE # 76
Thus, the force required to stop a moving body is
proportional to
(i) its mass
(ii) its linear velocity.
Thus, mass and velocity together increase the motion

of the body. The product of two quantities, the mass
and velocity which measures the motion of the body, is
called momentum.
ILLUSTRATIONS
1. A ball of mass 100 gm. is moving with a velocity of 15

(iii) The water drops sticking to cycle tyre are found to m/s. Calculate the momentum associated with the ball.
fly off tangentially.
Sol .
(iv) The sparks produced during sharpening of a knife 100
or a razor against a grinding wheel, leave Mass of the ball = 100 gm. = kg.
1000
the rim of the wheel tangentially.
= 0.1 kg.
Definition of force from first law of motion : Velocity of the ball = 15 m/s
So, momentum = mass of the ball × velocity of
According to first law of motion, if there is no force, there the ball
is no change in state of rest or of uniform motion. In = 0.1 kg. × 15 m/s
other words, if a force is applied, it may change the state
= 1.5 kg. m/s
of rest or of uniform motion. If the force is not sufficient,
it may not produce a change but only try to do so. Hence
force is that which changes or tries to change the state NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
of rest or of uniform motion of a body in straight line.
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied unbalanced forces i.e. Rate
MOMENTUM of change of momentum  Force applied
(a) Definition : Let a body is moving with initial velocity u and after applying
Momentum of a particle may be defined as the quantity a force F on it, its velocity becomes v in time t.
of motion possessed by it and it is measured by the Initial momentum of the body p1 = mu
product of mass of the particle and its velocity. Final momentum of the body p2 = mv
Change in momentum in time t is mv – mu
Momentum is a vector quantity and it is represented
 mv – mu
by p So rate of change of momentum =
t
 
 p mv mv – mu
But according to Newton’s second law, F
t
Unit of momentum :
m( v – u) v–u
(In C.G.S. system)  p = mv  gram × cm/s = dyne × s or F Here, = a (acceleration)
t t
(In M.K.S. system)  p = mv  kg × m/s = Newton × s
So Fma
or F = kma (Here k is proportionality constant.
(b) Description :
If 1N force is applied on a body of mass 1 kg and the
Suppose a cricket ball is rolling along the ground.
acceleration produced in the body is 1 m/s 2 , then
Some force will be required to stop it. If, however it is
1 = k × 1 × 1 or k = 1
rolling with larger velocity, a greater force is required to
Hence, F = ma
stop it. Again, if a cricket ball and an iron ball of the
same size are made to roll with equal velocities, much So the magnitude of the resultant force acting on a
greater force is required to stop the iron ball than cricket body is equal to the product of mass of the body and
ball because the mass of iron ball is greater than that the acceleration produced. Direction of the force is
of cricket ball. same as that of the acceleration.
PAGE # 77
2. What force would be needed to produce an acceleration so. Hence force is that which changes or tries to
of 4.0 m/s2 in a ball of mass 6 kg.? change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body
in straight line.
Sol. Acceleration of the ball (a) = 4.0 m/s2
Hence we get the definition of force from Newton’s first
Mass of the ball (m) = 6 kg. law of motion.
So, Force (F) = mass (m) × Acceleration (a) Newton’s first law of motion can be deduced from
F = 6 kg. × 4.0 m/s2 Newton’s second law of motion.
F = 24 kg. m/s2 According to second law of motion,
F = 24 N.
p 2  p1 mv  mu
 F= =
t t
UNITS OF FORCE if applied force is zero
(a) In C.G.S. System :

mv  mu
0
t
 F = ma  gm × cm/s2 = Dyne mv – mu = 0
Definition of one dyne : mv = mu
v=u  it shows inertia of motion
If m = 1 gm, a = 1 cm/s2, then F = 1 dyne. If u = 0, v = 0
Then, v = u  show the inertia of rest
When a force is applied on a body of mass 1 gram and  
v u
the acceleration produced in the body is 1 cm/s2, then  show the inertia of direction, it means if applied
the force acting on the body will be one dyne. force is zero direction remains the same.
(b) In S.I. System : Thus, it follows that a body will continue to be in the
state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line if
F = ma  kg × m/s2 = Newton
no external force acts on it and this is the first law.
Definition of one Newton : Thus, first law can be deduced from second law of
If m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s2 then by, F = ma motion.
F = 1 × 1 = 1 kg × m/s2 = 1 N. 3. A force F 1 acting on a body of 2 kg produces an
If a force is applied on a body of mass 1 kg and
acceleration of 2.5 m/s2. An other force F2 acting on the
acceleration produced in the body is 1 m/s2, then the
another body of mass 5 kg produces an acceleration
force acting on the body will be one Newton.
F2
(c) Kilogram Force (kgf) : of 2 m/s2. Find the ratio .
F1
Kilogram force (kgf) or Kilogram weight (kg. wt.) is force
Sol. For first body F = ma
with which a mass of 1 kg is attracted by the
F1 = 2 × 2.5 = 5N
earth towards its centre.
1kgwt = 1kgf = 9.8 N For second body F2 = 5 × 2 = 10N
(d) Gram Force (gf) : F2 10

So = = 2.
Gram force or gram weight is the force with which a F1 5
mass of 1 gram is attracted by the earth towards
its centre. 4. A force of 20N acting on a mass m 1 produces an
1gwt = 1gf = 981 dyne acceleration of 4 ms–2. The same force is applied on
mass m2 then the acceleration produced is 0.5 ms–2.
About both the units are called gravitational unit of force. What acceleration would the same force produce, when
Relation between Newton and dyne. both masses are tied together ?
We know : Sol. For mass m1: F = 20N, a = 4 ms–2
1 N = 1kg × 1ms-2
or 1 N = 1000 g × 100 cms-2 F 20
then m1 = = = 5 kg
or 1 N = 105 g cms-2 = 105 dyne a 4
 1 N = 105 dyne
For mass m2 : F = 20N, a = 0.5 ms–2
FIRST LAW OF MOTION BY SECOND
LAW OF MOTION F 20
then m2 = = = 40 kg
a 0.5
Description :
When m1 and m2 are tied together :
According to first law of motion, if there is no force,
there is no change in state of rest or of uniform motion. Total mass = m1 + m2 = 45 kg, F = 20N
In other words, if a force is applied, it may change the
F 20
state of rest or of uniform motion. If the force is not then a= = = 0.44 ms–2
sufficient, it may not produce a change but only try to do (m1  m 2 ) 45
PAGE # 78
IMPULSE OF FORCE
A large force acting for a short time to produce a finite p1=mv p2=–mv
system
change in momentum is called impulsive force.
The product of force and time is called impulse of force.
i.e., Impulse = Force × Time
 Total momentum of the system = momentum of
or I = Ft 1st ball + Momentum of 2nd = mv + (–mv) = 0
The S.I. unit of impulse is Newton-second (N-s) and  Total momentum of the system = 0
the C.G.S unit is dyne- second (dyne-s)
8. When a moving car suddenly collides with a stationary
truck which suffers greater damage the stationary car
Impulse and Momentum :
or the moving car ?
From Newton’s second law of motion
Sol. W hen a fast moving car suddenly collides with a
p 2  p1 stationary car, there is a large change in the momentum
Force, F = or Ft = p2 – p1
t of the moving car. This large change in momentum of
i.e., Impulse = Change in momentum the moving car is brought about in a very short interval
of time. Hence a large retarding force acts on the car.
This relation is called impulse equation or momentum- Due to this large force, acts on moving car and huge
impulse theorem. It has an important application in damage to the moving car takes place.
our everyday life.
5. A car of mass 1000 kg moving with a velocity of 36 km/ APPLICATIONS OF IMPULSE EQUATION IN DAILY LIFE
h hits a wall and comes to rest in 5 s. Find the force
exerted by the car on the wall. (i) Catching the ball by a cricketer :
Sol. Here, m = 1000 kg W hile catching a fast moving cricket ball, the player
Initial velocity, u = 36 km/h moves his hands backward after catching the ball. By
moving his hands, the cricketer increases the time. As
5 5
= 36  ms–1 = 10 ms–1 ( 1 km/h = ms–1) a result he has to apply a small force on the ball. In
18 18 reaction, the ball also applies lesser force and the
Final velocity, v = 0 hands of the player are not injured.
Time, t = 5 s.
F=?
Using, F = ma, we get
 v u  0  10 
F= m   1000  = – 2000N
  t   5 
Thus, force exerted by the car on the wall = 2000 N.
6. When a ball of mass m kg strikes a wall with a speed

‘u’ m/s. and rebound at the same speed them find the
charge in momentum.
Sol. Change in momentum = final momentum – initial (ii) Jumping on a heap of sand :
momentum p1=mu If someone jumps from a height on a heap of sand
then, his feet move inside the sand very slowly. His
momentum changes slowly requiring a lesser force of
p2=–mu action from the sand and the man is not injured.
after rebund
(iii) Jumping down of a passenger from a moving
Change in momentum = (–mu) – (mu) = (–2mu) kgm/ train or bus :
s A passenger sitting in a moving train or bus has
momentum. W hen he jumps down and stands on
7. Two balls of some mass ‘m’ kg and velocity ‘v’ m/s platform or road, his momentum becomes zero.
are moving towards each other. What is the total If he jumps down suddenly from the moving train or
momentum of the system ? bus and tries to stand on his feet, his body will fall
Sol. Two balls moving towards each other are moving in forward due to inertia of motion. He will be injured.
opposite direction. He is advised to run over some distance on the platform
or road along with (in direction of) the train or bus. This
PAGE # 79
will slow down his rate of change of momentum and
lesser force will be involved.
(iv) Springs in vehicles :
faction
The vehicles are fitted with springs to reduce the
hardness of the shocks. When vehicles move over an
uneven road, they experience impulses exerted by the ball
road. The springs increase the duration of impulse
and hence reduce the force.
Faction = action force = force exerted by the ball on the
(v) Springs in seats : wall.
The seats are also fitted with springs to reduce their
hardness. When we sit on them all of a sudden, the
seats are compressed. The compression increases
duration of our coming to rest on the seat. The reaction
freaction
force of seats becomes negligible.
(vi) Soft material packing : ball

China and glass wares are packed with soft material
when transported. They collide during transportation
but soft packing material slows down their rate of Freaction = reaction force = force exerted by the wall on
change of momentum. The force of impact is reduced the ball due to reaction force, the ball bounces back.
and the items are not broken.
(vii) Athletes : (ii) Two similar spring balances A and B joined by hook
as shown in the figure. The other end of the spring
Athletes are advised to come to stop slowly after
balance B is attached to a hook rigidly fixed in a rigid
finishing a fast race. In general, all changes of
wall.
momentum must be brought slowly to involve lesser
forces of action and reaction to avoid injury.
IMPULSE DURING AN IMPACT OR COLLISION
The impulsive force acting on the body produces a Demonstration- Newton’s third law of motion
change in momentum of the body on which it acts. We
know, Ft = mv – mu, therefore the maximum force The other end of the spring balance A is pulled out to
needed to produce a given impulse depends upon the left. Both balances show the same reading (20 N)
time. If time is short, the force required in a given for the force.
impulse or the change in momentum is large and vice-
The pulled balance A exerts a force of 20N on the
versa. balance B. It acts as action, B pulls the balance A in
opposite direction with a force of 20 N. This force is
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
known as reaction.
We conclude that action-reaction forces are equal and
Newton’s third law states that every action is opposite and act on two different bodies.
associated with an equal and opposite reaction. Thus
in nature force always occur between pairs of bodies. (b) Explanation :
An one of them called the action and the other reaction. It may be noted that action and reaction occur
It is clear from third law that a single force can never simultaneously. Action and reaction never act on same
exist. body. Since action and reaction occur in pairs and act
So, according to newton’s third law for every action on two different bodies, it is impossible to have a single
there is an equal and opposite reaction. isolated force.
Faction= –Freaction  negative sign indicates that the
(c) Examples :
reaction force is opposite to the direction of force.
(i) Swimming of a man : The man swims because he
(a) Practical Demonstration : pushes water behind (action), water pushes man
(i) when a ball strikes a wall, the following happens : forward (reaction).
(ii) Walking of a man : Man pushes the earth behind
from right foot (action). Earth pushes the man
forward (reaction). Then the man walks.
PAGE # 80
(iii) A hanging piece of paper cannot be cut by blade.
(iv) Writing on a hanging page is impossible.
(v) Hitting on a piece of sponge does not produce

reaction. You do not enjoy hitting.
ACTION AND REACTION ARE NOT BALANCED
Action and reaction, though equal and opposite are

not balanced because they act on two different bodies.
In case when they act on two different bodies forming
a single system, they become balanced.
(iii) Flight of jet or rocket : The burnt gases are
exhausted from behind with high speed giving the
gases backward momentum (action). The exhausted INTERACTION BETWEEN BODIES AT A DISTANCE
gases impart the jet or rocket a forward momentum
(reaction). Then jet or rocket moves. We have up till now considered examples where the
(iv) Gun and bullet : A loaded gun has a bullet inside it. two bodies are in direct contact with each other. But
When the gun’s trigger is pressed, the powder inside interaction takes place even when the two bodies are
cartage explodes. A force of action acts on the bullet and not in actual contact with each other. For example, a
makes the light bullet come out of the barrel with a high comb rubbed with dry hair can interact with a piece of
velocity. The heavy gun moves behind (recoils) with a paper from a distance. Similarly a magnet can interact
small velocity due to force of reaction. This is also an
with an iron piece from a distance. Interaction between
example of law of conservation of linear momentum.
a falling stone and the earth also takes place although
(v) Man and boat : A man in a boat near a river bank is
these are not in actual contact with each other. Thus
at rest. To reach the bank, the man pushes the boat
when one body influences another body by applying
behind (action), the boat pushes the man forward
(reaction). Then man lands on the bank. force with or without contact, we say that the first body
is interacting with the second body.
Water
ion
eact
R
on
Water
Reacti
Re
act
ion Water
Body Lawn Sprayer

S
(vi) Hose pipe : Water rushes out of the hose pipe with
a large velocity due to force of action of the compressor N
from behind. The rushing out jet of water pushes the
hose pipe behind due to force of reaction. Then pipe
has to be held tightly.
Iron
NO ACTION IS POSSIBLE WITHOUT REACTION Earth
Examples :
(a) (b)
(i) A nail cannot be fixed on a suspended wooden ball.
(ii) A paper cannot be cut by scissors of single blade. Earth attracts a body Magnet attracts iron
at a distance at a distance
PAGE # 81
ANY PAIR OF EQUAL AND OPPOSITE FORCES IS  NOTE : If only internal forces are acting on the system
NOT AN ACTION–REACTION PAIR then its linear momentum will be conserved.
The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum
Consider a book kept on a table. We have seen that
by Third Law of Motion :
the table pushes the book in the upward direction. Then
why does not the book fly up? It does not fly up because Suppose A and B are two objects of masses m1 and
there is another force on the book pulling it down. This m2 are moving in the same direction with velocity u 1
is the force exerted by the earth on the book, which we and u2 respectively (u1 > u2). Object A collides with object
call the weight of the book. So, there are two forces on B and after time t both move in their original direction
the book– the normal force, N acting upwards, applied with velocity v1 and v2 respectively.
by the table and the force, W acting downwards, The change in momentum of object A = m1v1 – m1u1
applied by the earth. As the book does not accelerate,
m1 m2
we conclude that these two forces are balanced. In u1 u2
other words, they have equal magnitudes but opposite before collision (u1 > u2)
directions.
Change in momentum
The force on B by A is F1 =
time
N
m1v 1 – m1u1
N=W F1 = .............(1)
V t
V V
The change in momentum of object B = m2v2 – m2u2
Change in momentum
The force on A by B is F2 =
time
Can we call N the action and W the reaction ? W e m 2 v 2 – m 2u 2

= .............(2)
cannot. This is because, although they are equal and t
opposite, they are not forces applied by two bodies on
each other. The force N is applied by the table on the m1 m2
book, its reaction will be the force applied by the book v1 v2
on the table. Weight W is the force applied by the earth after collision
on the book, its reaction will be the force applied by the
By Newtons third law, F1 = –F2
book on the earth.
So, although N and W are equal and opposite, they do m1v 1 – m1u1  m v – m 2u 2 
= – 2 2   m1v1 – m1u1
not form an action–reaction pair. t  t 
= –m2v2 + m2u2
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
or m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
By Newton’s second law, the rate of change of or Initial momentum = Final momentum
momentum is equal to the applied force.
Change in momentum SOME ILLUSTRATIONS ON CONSERVATION

= Force
time OF MOMENTUM
Change in momentum = F × t
(a) Recoil of Gun :
If F = 0 then,
A loaded gun (rifle) having bullet inside it forming one
Change in momentum = 0 system is initially at rest. The system has zero
initial momentum.
If the force applied on the body is zero then its
momentum will be conserved, this law is also
V v
applicable on the system. If in a system the momentum
of the objects present in the system are P1, P2, P3...........
and external force on the system is zero, then–
P1 + P2 + P3 +................. = Constant
When the trigger (T) is pressed, the bullet is fired due to
internal force of explosion of powder in cartidge inside.
The bullet moves forward with a high velocity and the gun
move behind (recoils) with a lesser velocity.
PAGE # 82
Let the bullet and the gun have masses m and M P2 = 45 V + 5 V + 0.1 × 500
respectively. Let the bullet move forward with velocity v (Here V is the recoil velocity of gun with hunter.)
and the gun recoils with velocity V. P2 = 50 V + 50 ........(2)
Then final momentum of the gun and bullet is MV + mv By the conservation of momentum
By the law of conservation of momentum– P1 = P2
Initial momentum of the system = Final momentum of 0 = 50 V + 50
the system. or V = –1 m/s.
0 = MV + mv The recoil velocity of gun with hunter is 1 m/s.
mv
or V = – 11. A machine gun has a mass of 30 kg. The machine gun
M
fires 35 g bullets at the rate of 400 bullets per minute
mv with a speed of 400 m/s. What force must be applied
Hence the recoil velocity of gun =
M to the gun so that the gun is kept in position.
mv
and the velocity of the gun is = – Sol.
M
Mass of the gun, M = 30 kg.
(b) The Working of a Rocket : Mass of each bullet, m= 35 g.
the momentum of a rocket before it is fired is zero. = 35 × 10–3 kg.
When the rocket is fired, gases are produced. These Velocity of each bullet, v = 400 m/s
gases come out of the rear of the rocket with high speed.
The direction of the momentum of the gases coming Let n be the number of bullets fired per second
out of the rocket is in the downward direction. Thus, to
conserve the momentum of the system i.e., (rocket + 400 20
n= 
gases), the rocket moves upward with a momentum 60 3
equal to the momentum of the gases. So, the rocket
continues to move upward as long as the gases are Required force = rate of change of linear momentum
ejected out of the rocket. Thus a rocket works on the of bullets.
basis of the law of conservation of momentum. n(mv )
or F =
9. A field gun of mass 1.5 tonne fires a shell of mass 15 t
kg with a velocity of 150 m/s. Calculate the velocity of 20 35  10 –3  400
the recoil of the gun. = 
3 1
Sol. Mass of gun = 1.5 tonne = 1.5 × 1000 kg = 1500 kg F = 93.3 N.
Mass of shell = 15 kg
Velocity of shell = 150 m/s.
FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
Velocity of recoil of the gun = ?
Momentum of gun = Mass of gun × velocity of recoil of All forces observed in nature such as muscular force,
the gun = 1500 V kg m/s
tension, reaction, friction, weight, electric, magnetic,
Momentum of shell = Mass of shell × velocity of shell
nuclear, etc., can be explained in terms of only following
= 15 × 150 kg m/s.
four basic interactions.
By the law of conservation of momentum :
Momentum of gun = Momentum of shell (a) Gravitational Force :
1500 V = 15 × 150
The force of interaction which exists between two
15  150 particles of masses m1 and m2, due to their masses is
or V = = 1.5 m/s.
1500 called gravitational force. The gravitational force acts
The recoil velocity of gun = 1.5 m/s. over long distances and does not need, any intervening
medium. Gravitational force is the weakest force of
10. A hunter of 45 kg is standing on ice fires a bullet of 100 nature.
gram with a velocity of 500 ms–1 by a gun of 5 kg. Find
(b) Electromagnetic Force :
the recoil velocity of the hunter.
Sol. The initial momentum of the system, P1 = Momentum Force exerted by one particle on the other because of
of hunter + momentum of gun + momentum of the electric charge on the particles is called
bullet electromagnetic force. Following are the main
or P1 = 45 × 0 + 5 × 0 + 0.1 × 0 = 0 ........(1) characteristics of electromagnetic force
Final momentum of the system, P 2 = Momentum of
(i) These can be attractive or repulsive.
hunter + momentum of gun + momentum of bullet
(ii) These are long range forces.
PAGE # 83
(iii) These depend on the nature of medium between
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF CONTACT FORCE
the charged particles.
(iv) All macroscopic forces (except gravitational) which (a ) Normal force (N) :
we experience as push or pull or by contact are
It is the component of contact force perpendicular to
electromagnetic, i.e., tension in a rope, the force
the surface. It measures how strongly the surfaces in
of friction, normal reaction, muscular force, and
contact are pressed against each other. It is the
force experienced by a deformed spring are
electromagnetic force.
electromagnetic forces. These are manifestations
e.g.1 A table is placed on Earth as shown in figure
of the electromagnetic attractions and repulsions
between atoms/molecules.
(c ) Nuclear Force :
It is the strongest force. It keeps nucleons (neutrons

and protons) together inside the nucleus inspite of
large electric repulsion between protons. Radioactivity,
fission, and fusion, etc. results because of unbalancing Here table presses the earth so normal force exerted
of nuclear forces. It acts within the nucleus that too by four legs of table on earth are as shown in figure.
upto a very small distance. It does not depends on
charge and acts equally between a proton and proton,
a neutron and neutron, and proton and neutron,
electrons does not experience this force. It acts for very
short distance order of 10–15 m. e.g.2 A boy pushes a block kept on a frictionless
surface.
(d) Weak Force :
It acts between any two elementary particles. Under its

action a neutron can change into a proton emitting an
electron and a particle called antineutrino. The range
of weak force is very small, in fact much smaller than
size of a proton or a neutron.
It has been found that for two protons at a distance of 1
fermi :
FN:FEM:FW:FG::1:10–2:10–7:10–38
A block is kept on inclined surface. Component of its

weight presses the surface perpendicularly due to
which contact force acts between surface and block.
On the basis of contact forces are classified into two

categories
(i) Contact forces
(ii) Non contact or field forces

Normal force exerted by block on the surface of inclined
(a) Contact force :
plane is shown in figure. Here normal force is a
Forces which are transmitted between bodies by short component of weight of the body perpendicular to the
range atomic molecular interactions are called contact inclined surface i.e. N = mgcos
forces. When two objects come in contact they exert
contact forces on each other. e.g. Normal, Tension etc.
( b ) Field force or Non Contact Force :
Force which acts on an object at a distance by the

interaction of the object with the field produced by other
object is called field force. e.g. Gravitational force, Force acts perpendicular to the surface
Electro magnetic force etc.
PAGE # 84
12. Two blocks are kept in contact on a smooth surface as
shown in figure. Draw normal force exerted by
A on B. F = 0 spring in natural
length does not exerts
any force on its ends
x
Fext
Sol. In above problem, block A does not push block B, so F F
there is no molecular interaction between A and B. F = – kx ;k = spring
constant or stiffness
Hence normal force exerted by A on B is zero. constant (unit = N/m)
x = extension in spring
 Note :
x
• Normal is a dependent force it comes in role when F
one surface presses the other. F Fext
(b) Tension : F = – kx
x = compression in spring
Tension is the magnitude of pulling force exerted by a
 Note : Spring force is also electromagnetic in nature :
string, cable, chain, rope etc. W hen a string is
connected to a body and pulled out, the string said to (d) Friction force :
be under tension. It pulls the body with a force T, whose
direction is away from the body and along the length of When a body is moving on a rough surface resistance
the string. Usually strings are regarded to be massless to the motion occurs because of the interaction
and unstretchable, known as ideal string.
between the body and its surroundings. We call such
resistance as force of friction. Friction is also
considered as component of contact force which acts
parallel to the surfaces in contact.
(i) Origin of friction : The frictional force arises due to

molecular interactions between the surfaces at the
points of actual contact. When two bodies are placed
 Note : (i) Tension in a string is an electromagnetic
one over other, the actual area of contact is much
force and it arises only when string is pulled. If a
massless string is not pulled, tension in it is zero. smaller than the total surface areas of bodies. The
(ii) String can not push a body in direct contact. molecular forces starts operating at the actual points
of contact of the surfaces. Molecular bonds are formed
(c) Force Exerted by spring :
at these contact points. When one body is pulled over
A spring is made of a coiled metallic wire having a
the other, these bonds are broken, and the material
definite length. W hen it is neither pushed nor pulled
get deformed and new bonds are formed. The local
then its length is called natural length.
At natural length the spring does not exert any force on deformation sends vibrations into the bodies. These
the objects attached to its ends. f the spring is pulled Vibrations ultimately dumps out and energy of
at the ends, its length becomes larger than its natural vibrations appears as heat. Hence to start or carry on
length, it is known as stretched or extended spring. the motion, there is a need of force.
Extended spring pulls objects attached to its ends.
A B
Normal spring Body 1
Spring force on A Spring force on B

Body 2
A B
Stretched spring
Spring force on A Spring force on B Actual area of contact
A B
(ii) Statics and Kinetic Frictions :
Compressed spring
• Experiment :
If the spring is pushed at the ends, its length becomes
(A) Consider a block placed on a table, and a small
less than natural length. It is known as compressed
spring. A compressed spring pushes the objects force F 1 is acted on it. The block does not move. It
attached to its ends. indicates that the frictional force f s starts acting in
opposite direction of applied force and its magnitude
is equal of F1(figure b). That is for the equilibrium of
PAGE # 85
the block, we have
flim
F1 – fs = 0 or F1 = fs  We can write, s =
N
The force of friction when body is in state of rest over
the surface is called static friction (fs). (B) About kinetic friction :
1. The kinetic friction depends on the materials
(B) As the applied force increases the frictional force of the surface in contact.
also increases. W hen the applied force is increased
2. It is also independent of apparent area of
up to a certain limit (F2) such that the block is on the contact as long as the magnitude of normal
verge of motion. The value of frictional force at this reaction remains the same.
stage is called limiting friction flim (figure c). 3. Kinetic friction is almost independent of the
Fext = 0 velocity, provided the velocity is not too large
V= 0
not too small.
M f3 M F1
4. The kinetic friction is directly proportional to
Fs = 0 fs = F1 the magnitude of the normal reaction
(a) (b) between the surfaces.
fk = k N. Here k is coefficient of kinetic friction.
V=0 V=constant
M M fk
flim F2 fk F3  We can write, k =
N
flim = F2 fk = F3
(c) (d) • There are two types of kinetic frictions:
a (i) Sliding friction : The force of friction when one

body slides over the surface of the another body is
fk M F4
f4 – fk called sliding friction.
a=
M
(e)
(C) Once the motion started, the smaller force is now
necessary to continue the motion (F 3) and thus
frictional force decreases. The force of friction
when body is in state of motion over the surface is
called kinetic or dynamic friction fk (figure d). (ii) Rolling friction : W hen a wheel rolls without
slipping over a horizontal surface, there is no
relative motion of the point of contact of the wheel
with respect to the plane. Theoretically for a rolling
wheel the frictional force is zero. This can only
possible when bodies in contact are perfectly rigid
and contact of wheel with the surface is made
only at a point. But in practice no material body is
perfectly rigid and therefore bodies get deformed
when they pressed each other. The actual area of
their contact no longer remains a point, and thus
(iii) More about frictional force : a small amount of friction starts acting between
(A) About static friction the body and the surface. Here frictional force is
called rolling friction. It is clear from above
1. The limiting friction depends on the materials
discussion that rolling friction is very much smaller
of the surfaces in contact and their state of
than sliding friction.
polish.
2. The magnitude of static friction is
independent of the apparent area of contact
so long as the normal reaction remains the
same.
flim > fkinetic > frolling.
3. The limiting friction is directly proportional to
the magnitude of the normal reaction  Note :  s and k are dimensionless quantities and
between the two surfaces i.e. flim= SN. Here independent of shape and area of contact . It is a
s is coefficient of static friction. property of two contact surfaces. s will always be
greater than k .Theoretical value of  can be o to  but
practical value is 0 <   1.6
PAGE # 86
SYSTEM
(a ) Conservative Force : Two or more than two objects which interact with each
other form a system.
A force is said to be conservative if the amount of work
Classification of forces on the basis of boundary of
done in moving an obj ect against that force is
system :
independent on the path. One important example of
conservative force is the gravitational force. It means (a) Internal Forces : Forces acting with in a system
that amount of work done in moving a body against among its constituents.
gravity from location A to location B is the same
(b) External Forces : Forces exerted on the
whichever path we may follow in going from A to B. This
constituents of a system by the outside
is illustrated in figure.
surroundings are called as external forces.
FREE BODY DIAGRAM

A force is conservative if the total work done by the A free body diagram consists of a diagrammatic
force on an object in one complete round is zero, representations of single body or a subsystem of
i.e. when the object moves around any closed path bodies isolated from surroundings showing all the
(returning to its initial position). forces acting on it.
A force is conservative if there is no change in kinetic  Steps for F.B.D.

energy in one complete round. KE = 0
Step 1 : Identify the object or system and isolate it from
This definition illuminates an important aspect of a other objects, clearly specify its boundary.
conservative force viz. W ork done by a conservative Step 2 : First draw non-contact external force in the
force is recoverable. Thus in figure, we shall have to diagram, generally it is weight.
do mgh amount of work in taking the body from A to B. Step 3 : Draw contact forces which acts at the boundary
However, when body is released from B, we recover of the object of system. Contact forces are normal ,
mgh of work. friction, tension and applied force. In F.B.D, internal
Other examples of conservative forces are spring force, forces are not drawn only external are drawn.
electrostatic force etc. 13. A block of mass ‘m’ is kept on the ground as shown in
(b) Non-Conservative Force : figure.
A force is non-conservative if the work done by that force

on a particle moving between two points depends on
the path taken between the points.
(i) Draw F.B.D. of block.
The force of friction is an example of non-conservative
force. Let us illustrate this with an instructive example. (ii) Are forces acting on block forms action- reaction
pair.
Suppose we were to displace a book between two points
on a rough horizontal surface (such as a table). If the (iii) If answer is no, draw action reaction pair.
book is displaced in a straight line between the two
Sol. (i) F.B.D. of block
points, the work done by friction is simply FS where :
F = force of friction ;
S = distance between the points.
However, if the book is moved along any other path

between the two points (such as a semicircular path),
the work done by friction would be greater than FS. (ii) ‘N’ and mg are not action -reaction pair. Since pair
Finally, if the book is moved through any closed path, act on different bodies, and they are of same
the work done by friction is never zero, it is always nature.
negative. Thus the work done by a non-conservative
(iii) Pair of ‘mg’ of block acts on earth in opposite
force is not recoverable, as it is for a conservative force.
direction.
PAGE # 87
earth
mg
and pair of ‘N’ acts on surface as shown in figure.
N TRANSLATORY EQUILIBRIUM
When several forces acts on a body simultaneously in
such a way that resultant force on the body is zero, i.e.,
  
14. Two sphere A and B are placed between two vertical
walls as shown in figure. Draw the free body diagrams
F = 0 with F =  Fi the body is said to be in translatory
equilibrium. Here it is important to note that :
of both the spheres.
(i) As if a vector is zero all its components must vanish
i.e. in equilibrium as -
B
A   
F = 0
F = 0 with F = i
Sol. F.B.D. of sphere ‘A’ : F = 0 ;  F = 0 ; F

x y z
=0
So in equilibrium forces along x axes must balance

each other and the same is true for other directions.
If a body is in translatory equilibrium it will be either at
rest or in uniform motion. If it is at rest, equilibrium is
called static, otherwise dynamic.
Static equilibrium can be divided into following three
types :
F.B.D. of sphere ‘B’ : (a) Stable equilibrium :
If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a
body has a tendency to regain its original position it is
said to be in stable equilibrium. In case of stable
equilibrium potential energy is minimum and so center
(exerted by A) of gravity is lowest.
 Note : Here NAB and NBA are the action - reaction pair
(Newton’s third law). O
15. Draw F.B.D. for systems shown in figure below. (b) Unstable equilibrium : If on slight displacement
from equilibrium position a body moves in the direction
of displacement, the equilibrium is said to be unstable.
In this situation potential energy of body is maximum
and so center of gravity is highest.
O
(c) Neutral equilibrium : If on slight displacement from

Sol. equilibrium position a body has no tendency to come
pair back to its original position or to move in the direction
ion
act
Re
M n- of displacement, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
N Actio
In this situation potential energy of body is constant
Mg N
and so center of gravity remains at constant height.
M'g
F.B.D. for A
PAGE # 88
16. The system shown in figure is in equilibrium. Find the
. magnitude of tension in each string ; T1 , T2, T3 and T4.
(a ) Newtons 2 nd law of motion : (g = 10 m/s2).
The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is

directly proportional to the applied force and the change
takes place in the direction of the applied force.
  
In relation F = ma the force F stands for the net
external force. Any internal force in the system is not to

be included in F .
In S.I. the absolute unit of force is newton (N) and Sol.F.B.D. of 10 kg block
gravitational unit of force is kilogram weight or kilogram For equilibrium of block along Y axis.
T0
force (kgf.)
 Note : The absolute unit of force remains the same F y 0
everywhere, but the gravitational unit of force varies T0 = 10 g

from place to place because it depends on the value of g. T0 = 100 N 10g
F.B.D. of point ‘A’
( b ) Applications of Newton’s 2 nd Law y
(i) When objects are in equilibrium :  Fy  0

30º
T2
Steps to solve problem involving obj ects in T2 cos 30º = T0 = 100 N x

T1
A
equilibrium :
200
Step 1 : Make a sketch of the problem.  T2 = N
3
T0
Step 2 : Isolate a single object and then draw the free-
body diagram for the object. Label all external forces
acting on it.
F x 0
Step 3 : Choose a convenient coordinate system and T1 = T2 . sin 30º

resolve all forces into rectangular components along x
200 1 100
and Y direction. = . = N.
3 2 3
Step 4 : Apply the equations F x  0 and Fy  0.
F.B.D. of point of ‘B’
Step 5 : Step 4 will give you two equations with several
y
unknown quantities. If you have only two unknown
T4
quantities at this point, you can solve the two equations 60º
for those unknown quantities. T3 x
B
Step 6 : If step 5 produces two equations with more 30º
than two unknowns, go back to step 2 and select T2
another object and repeat these steps. Eventually at
step 5 you will have enough equations to solve for all F y = 0  T4 cos 60º = T2 cos 30º
unknown quantities.  T4 = 200 N
and F x = 0  T3 + T2 sin30º = T4 sin 60º

15. A ‘block’ of mass 10 kg is
200
suspended with string as T3 = N
3
shown in figure.
Find tension in the string. 17. Two blocks are kept in contact as shown in figure. Find :-
2
(g = 10 m/s ). (a) forces exerted by surfaces (floor and wall) on
Sol.F.B.D. of block blocks.
For equilibrium of block along Y axis (b) contact force between two blocks.
F y 0
T – 10 g = 0
 T = 100 N
PAGE # 89
acting on it. Be sure to include all the forces acting on
SolA : F.B.D. of 10 kg block
the chosen body, but be equally careful not to include
any force exerted by the body on some other body.
Some of the forces may be unknown , label them with
algebraic symbols.
Step 3 : Choose a convenient coordinate system, show
N1 = 10 g = 100 N .......(1) location of coordinate axis explicitly in the free - body
N2 = 100 N .........(2) diagram, and then determine components of forces
F.B.D. of 20 kg block with reference to these axis and resolve all forces into
x and y components.
Step 4 : Apply the equations F x = max & F
y = may.
Step 5 : Step 4 will give two equations with several
unknown quantities. If you have only two unknown
quantities at this point, you can solve the two equations
N2 = 50 sin 30º + N3 for those unknown quantities.
N3 = 100 – 25 = 75 N Step 6 : If step 5 produces two equations with more
& N4 = 50 cos 30º + 20 g than two unknowns, go back to step 2 and select
N4 = 243.30 N
another object and repeat these steps. Eventually at
18. Find magnitude of force exerted by string on pulley. step 5 you will have enough equations to solve for all
unknown quantities.
19. A force F is applied horizontally on mass m1 as shown

in figure. Find the contact force between m1 and m2.
Sol B. F.B.D. of 10 kg block :
Sol. Considering both blocks as a system to find the

common acceleration.
Common acceleration
T = 10 g = 100 N
F.B.D. of pulley : F
a=
m1  m2  .......(1)
F m1 m2 a
Since string is massless, so tension in both sides

To find the contact force between ‘A’ and ‘B’ we draw
of string is same.
F.B.D. of mass m2.
So magnitude of force exerted by string on pulley
F.B.D. of mass m2
= 100 2  100 2 = 100 2 N
 Note : Since pulley is in equilibrium position, so net

forces on it is zero.
(ii) Accelerating Objects :
Steps to solve problems involving objects that are in

F x = max
accelerated motion : N = m2 . a
Step 1 : Make a sketch of the problem. m2F  F 

N= sin ce a  
Step 2 : Isolate a single object and then draw the free m1  m2   m1  m2 
- body diagram for that object. Label all external forces
PAGE # 90
20. A 5 kg block has a rope of mass 2 kg attached to its (b) F.B.D. of 1 kg block :
underside and a 3 kg block is suspended from the other
N1 N2
end of the rope. The whole system is accelerated
upward at 2 m/s2 by an external force F0. 10 N
(a) What is F0 ? 1g
(b) What is the net force on rope ? along horizontal direction

10 = 1 aA.
(c) What is the tension at middle point of the rope ?
(g = 10 m/s2) aA = 10 m/s2
along vertical direction
N1 = N2 + 1g
= 500 + 10 = 510 N
22. One end of string which passes through pulley and
connected to 10 kg mass at other end is pulled by 100
N force. Find out the acceleration of 10 kg mass. (g
Sol. For calculating the value of F0.
F.B.D of whole system =9.8 m/s2)
F0
2
(a) 2m/s
10 g = 100 N
F0 –100 = 10 × 2
Sol.Since string is pulled by 100 N force. So tension in the
F0 = 120 N ...........(1)
string is 100 N
(b) According to Newton’s second law, net force on
rope.
F.B.D. of 10 kg block
F = ma = 2 × 2
= 4N ............(2)
(c) For calculating tension at the middle point we draw
F.B.D. of 3 kg block with half of the rope (mass 1
kg) as shown.
T–4g=4×2 100 – 10 g = 10 a
100 – 10 × 9.8 = 10 a
T = 48 N a = 0.2 m/s2.
21. A block of mass 50 kg is kept on another block of mass
1 kg as shown in figure. A horizontal force of 10 N is WEIGHING MACHINE
applied on the 1Kg block. (All surface are smooth).
Find : (g = 10 m/s2) A weighing machine does not measure the weight but
(a) Acceleration of blocks A and B. measures the force exerted by object on its upper
(b) Force exerted by B on A.
surface.
B 50 kg
A 1 kg 23. A man of mass 60 Kg is
standing on a weighing
Sol. (a) F.B.D. of 50 kg
machine placed on ground.
Calculate the reading of
weighing machine
machine (g = 10 m/s2).
N2 = 50 g = 500 N
Sol. For calculating the reading of weighing machine, we
along horizontal direction, there is no force aB = 0
draw F.B.D. of man and machine separately.
F.B.D of man
PAGE # 91
Sol.For calculating the reading, first we draw F.B.D.of 20 kg
block.
F.B.D of man taking F.B.D. of weighing machine
mass of man as M F.B.D. 20 kg
N N
weighing machine
T
N1 Mg
N = Mg
Mg
20 g
Here force exerted by object on upper surface is N

Reading of weighing machine
N = Mg
mg – T = 0
= 60 × 10
T = 20 g = 200 N
N = 600 N. Since both the balances are light so, both the scales
SPRING BALANCE will read 200 N.
25. (i) A 10 kg block is supported by a cord that runs to a
It does not measure the weight. It measures the force
spring scale, which is supported by another cord
exerted by the object at the hook. Symbolically, it is
from the ceiling figure (a). What is the reading on
represented as shown in figure. the scale ?
A block of mass ‘m’ is suspended at hook. When spring
(ii) In figure (b) the block is supported by a cord that
balance is in equilibrium, we draw the F.B.D. of mass
runs around a pulley and to a scale. The opposite
m for calculating the reading of balance. end of the scale is attached by cord to a wall. What
is the reading of the scale.
(iii) In figure (c) the wall has been replaced with a
second 10 kg block on the left, and the assembly is
stationary. What is the reading on the scale now ?
spring balance
hook
T
m
F.B.D. of ‘m’.
spring balance
T
mg – T = 0 hook
T = mg 10 kg
Magnitude of T gives the reading of spring balance. (a)

24. A block of mass 20 kg is suspended through two light T T
spring balances as shown in figure . Calculate the :
T
10kg
(b)
T T
T T
10kg 10kg
(c)
(1) reading of spring balance (1). Sol. In all the three cases the spring balance reads 10 kg.
To understand this let us cut a section inside the spring
(2) reading of spring balance (2). as shown;
PAGE # 92
Sol. (i) Consider a man walks slowly without acceleration,
and both the legs are touching the ground as
As each part of the spring is at rest, so F= T. As the shown in figure (a). The frictional force on rear leg
block is stationary, so T= 10g = 100N. is in forward direction and on front leg will be on
26. Show that Pull is easier than push. backward direction of motion.
 Push : Consider a block of mass m placed on As a = 0,
rough horizontal surface. The coefficient of static  Fnet = 0 or f1 – f2 = 0
friction between the block and surface is  . Let a  f1 = f2 & N1 = N2.
push force F is applied at an angle  with the
horizontal.
N1 N2
f1 f1 f2 f2
Ground
N1 N2
As the block is in equilibrium along y-axis, so we have (b)
F y  0;
(ii) When man is gaining the speed : The frictional
or N = mg + F sin 
force on rear leg f1 will be greater than frictional
To just move the block along x-axis, we have force on front leg f2 (fig. b).
F cos = N = (mg + F sin ) f1  f2
 acceleration of the man, a = .
m
mg
or F= .......(i) (iii) When cycle is gaining speed : In this case torque
cos  –  sin 
is applied on the rear wheel of the cycle by the
 Pull : Along y-axis we have ; chain-gear system. Because of this the slipping
tendency of the point of contact of the rear wheel is
backward and so friction acts in forward direction.
The slipping tendency of point of contact of front
wheel is forward and so friction acts in backward
direction. If f1 and f2 are the frictional forces on rear
and front wheel, then acceleration of the cycle a =
F y  0; f1 – f2
, where M is the mass of the cycle together
M
 N = mg – F sin  with rider (fig. a).
To just move the block along x-axis, we have
F cos = N =  (mg – F sin )
N1 N2 N1 N2
 mg 
or F =   . .......(ii)
 cos    sin  
It is clear from above discussion that pull force is

smaller than push force. f1 f2
f1 f2
(a) (b)
27. Discuss the direction of friction in the following cases :
(iv) When cycle is slowing down : When torque is not
(i) A man walks slowly, without change in speed. applied (cycle stops pedaling), the slipping
(ii) A man is going with increasing speed. tendency of points of contact of both the wheels
are forward, and so friction acts in backward
(iii) When cycle is gaining speed. direction (fig. b). If f1 and f2 are the frictional forces
(iv) When cycle is slowing down . on rear and front wheel, then retardation
f1  f2
a=
M
PAGE # 93
28. A block of mass 25 kg is raised by a 50 kg man in two Answer the following questions. Assume that the
different ways as shown in fig.. What is the action on weighing machine can measure weight by having
negligible deformation due to block, while the spring
the floor by the man in the two cases ? If the floor yields
balance requires larger expansion. (take g = 10 m/s2)
to a normal force of 700 N, which mode should the
man adopt to lift the block without the floor yielding. (i) Find the mass of the object in kg and the normal
force acting on the block due to weighing machine?
(ii) Find the acceleration of the lift such that weighing

machine shows its true weight ?
50g
Sol. (i)
50g
T + N – Mg = Ma
Sol. The FBD for the two cases are shown in figure. 45 g + 15 g = M(g + a)
In Ist case, let the force exerted by the man on the floor is 450 + 150 = M(10 + 5)
N1. Consider the forces inside the dotted box, we have M = 40 kg
N1 = T + 50 g. Normal force is the reaction applied by weighing
Block is to be raised without acceleration, so machine i.e. 15 × 10 = 150 N.
T = 25 g.
 N1 = 25 g + 50 g
= 75 g = 75 × 9.8 = 735 N
nd (ii)
In II case, let the force exerted by the man on the floor
in N2 . Consider the forces inside the dotted box, we
have
T + N – Mg = Ma
N2 = 50 g – T
45 g + 40 g = 40(g + a)
and T = 25 g 450 + 400 = 400 +40 a
N2 = 50 g – 25 g
450 45
= 25 g = 25 × 9.8 = 245 N. a= = m/s2
40 4
As the floor yields to a downward force of 700 N, so the
man should adopt mode .
29. Figure shows a weighing machine kept in a lift is

moving upwards with acceleration of 5 m/s2. A block is
kept on the weighing machine. Upper surface of block
is attached with a spring balance. Reading shown by
weighing machine and spring balance is 15 kg and 45
kg respectively.
PAGE # 94
6. A constant force F is applied in horizontal direction as
shown. Contact force between M and m is N and
EXERCISE-1 between m and M’ is N’ then
N OR MA L FORCE
1. Two blocks are in contact on a frictionless table. One

has mass m and the other 2m.A force F is applied on (A) N= N’ (B) N > N’
2m as shown in the figure. Now the same force F is (C) N’> N
applied from the right on m. In the two cases (D) cannot be determined
respectively, the ratio of force of contact between the
two blocks will be : • ASSERTION / REASON
7. STATEMENT-1 : Block A is moving on horizontal surface

towards right under action of force. All surface are
smooth. At the instant shown the force exerted by block
(A) Same (B) 1 : 2 A on block B is equal to net force on block B.
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 3
2. Two forces of 6N and 3N are acting on the two blocks of
2kg and 1kg kept on frictionless floor. What is the force
exerted on 2kg block by 1kg block ?:
6N STATEMENT-2 : From Newtons’s third law, the force

3N exerted by block A on B is equal in magnitude to force
2kg 1kg
exerted block B on A
(A) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-2
(A)1N (B) 2N is correct explanation for statement-1.
(C) 4N (D) 5N (B) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-2
is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1.
3. There are two forces on the 2.0 kg box in the overhead (C) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is false
view of figure but only one is shown. The second force
(D) statement-1 is False, Statement 2 is True
is nearly :
y
8. W hich figure represents the correct F.B.D. of rod of
mass m as shown in figure :
F1 = 20 N
x
30º
2
a = 12 m/s
(A) –20 ĵ N (B) – 20 î + 20 ĵ N
(C) –32 î – 12 3 ĵ N (D) –21 î – 16 ĵ N

4. A dish of mass 10 g is kept horizontally in air by firing (A) (B)
bullets of mass 5 g each at the rate of 100 per second.
If the bullets rebound with the same speed, what is the
velocity with which the bullets are fired :
(A) 0.49 m/s (B) 0.098 m/s
(C) 1.47 m/s (D) 1.96 m/s (C) (D) None of these
5. A block of metal weighing 2 kg is resting on a

frictionless plank. If struck by a jet releasing water at a 9. N bullets each of mass m are fired with a velocity v m/
rate of 1 kg/s and at a speed of 5 m/s. The initial
s at the rate of n bullets per sec., upon a wall. If the
acceleration of the block will be :
(A) 2.5 m/s2 (B) 5.0 m/s2 bullets are completely stopped by the wall, the reaction
(C) 10 m /s2 (D) none of the above offered by the wall to the bullets is :
(A) N m v / n (B) n m v
(C) n N v / m (D) n v m / N
PAGE # 95
T E N S I ON 14. Three masses of 1 kg, 6 kg and 3 kg are connected to
each other by threads and are placed on table as
10. A mass M is suspended by a rope from a rigid support
shown in figure. W hat is the acceleration with which
at A as shown in figure. Another rope is tied at the end
the system is moving ? Take g = 10 m s–2:
B, and it is pulled horizontally with a force F. If the rope
AB makes an angle  with the vertical in
equilibrium,then the tension in the string AB is :
(A) Zero (B) 1 ms–2

(A) F sin  (B) F /sin  (C) 2 m s–2 (D) 3 m s–2
(C) F cos  (D) F / cos 
15. The pulley arrangements shown in figure are identical
11. In the system shown in the figure, the acceleration of the mass of the rope being negligible. In case I, the
the 1kg mass and the tension in the string connecting mass m is lifted by attaching a mass 2m to the other
between A and B is : end of the rope. In case II, the mass m is lifted by
pulling the other end of the rope with a constant
downward force F= 2 mg, where g is acceleration due
to gravity. The acceleration of mass in case I is :
g 8g g g
(A) downward, (B) upward,
4 7 4 7
g 6 g
(C) downward, g (D) upward, g
7 7 2
12. A body of mass 8 kg is hanging from another body of
mass 12 kg. The combination is being pulled by a
string with an acceleration of 2.2 m s–2. The tension T1
and T2 will be respectively :(Use g =9.8 m/s2) (A) Zero
(B) More than that in case II
(C) Less than that in case II
(D) Equal to that in case II
16. A 50 kg person stands on a 25 kg platform. He pulls

massless rope which is attached to the platform via
(A) 200 N, 80 N (B) 220 N, 90 N the frictionless, massless pulleys as shown in the
(C) 240 N, 96 N (D) 260 N, 96 N figure. The platform moves upwards at a steady velocity
13. Two masses M1 and M2 are attached to the ends of a if the force with which the person pulls the rope is :
light string which passes over a massless pulley
attached to the top of a double inclined smooth plane
of angles of inclination  and . If M2 > M1 then the
acceleration of block M2 down the inclined will be :
M2 (sin ) M1g(sin  )
(A) g (B)
M1  M2 M1  M2
 M2 sin   M1 sin   (A) 500 N (B) 250 N
(C)   g (D) Zero (C) 25 N (D) 50 N
 M1  M2 
PAGE # 96
17. Figure shows four blocks that are being pulled along a 21. One end of a massless rope, which passes over a
smooth horizontal surface. The mssses of the blocks massless and frictionless pulley P is tied to a hook C
while the other end is free. Maximum tension that rope
and tension in one cord are given. The pulling force F is :
can bear is 360 N, with what minimum safe
F acceleration (in m/s2) can a monkey of 60 kg move
30N down on the rope :
60º 4kg 3kg 2kg 1kg
P
(A) 50 N (B) 100 N
(C) 125 N (D) 200 N
18. A10 kg monkey climbs up a massless rope that runs
over a frictionless tree limb and back down to a 15 kg
package on the ground. The magnitude of the least
C
acceleration the monkey must have if it is to lift the
package off the ground is : (A) 16 (B) 6
(C) 4 (D) 8
22. Two persons are holding a rope of negligible weight

tightly at its ends so that it is horizontal. A 15 kg weight
is attached to the rope at the mid point which now no
longer remains horizontal. The minimum tension
required to completely straighten the rope is :
(A) 15 kg
15
(B) kg
2
(C) 5 kg
(A) 4.9 m/s2 (B) 5.5 m/s2 (D) Infinitely large (or not possible)
(C) 9.8 m/s2 (D) none of these 23. In the figure, the blocks A, B and C of mass each have
19. Two blocks, each of mass M, are connected by a acceleration a1 , a2 and a3 respectively . F1 and F2 are
massless string, which passes over a smooth external forces of magnitudes 2 mg and mg

massless pulley. Forces F act on the blocks as shown. respectively then which of the following relations is
The tension in the string is : correct :
(A) Mg (B) 2 Mg (A) a1 = a2 = a3 (B) a1 > a2 > a3

(C) Mg + F (D) none of these
(C) a1 = a2 , a2 > a3 (D) a1 > a2 , a2= a3
20. Two blocks of mass m each is connected with the
string which passes over fixed pulley, as shown in figure. FORCE EXERTED BY SPRI NG
The force exerted by the string on the pulley P is :
P 24. In the given figure. What is the reading of the spring

60º 60º balance:
m m
(A) mg (B) 2 mg
(C) 2 mg (D) 4 mg
(A) 10 N (B) 20 N
(C) 5 N (D) Zero
PAGE # 97
25. Two bodies of masses M 1 and M 2 are connected to 31. A block is placed at an inclined plane making angle
each other through a light spring as shown in figure. If of 60° with horizontal. The coefficient of friction
we push mass M1 with force F and cause acceleration 2
between block and plane is 0.25. If g = 10 m/s
a1 in mass M1 what will be the acceleration in M2 ?
then the acceleration of block will be-
2 2
(A) 8.66 m/s (B) 5 m/s
2 2
(C) 7.41 m/s (D) 2.5 m/s
32. Minimum force required to pull the lower block is (take
(A) F/M2 (B) F/(M1 + M2) g = 10 m/s2) :
(C) a1 (D) (F–M1a1)/M2
26. A spring balance is attached to 2 kg trolley and is used

to pull the trolly along a flat surface as shown in the fig.
The reading on the spring balance remains at 10 kg
during the motion. The acceleration of the trolly is (Use
g= 9.8 m–2) :
(A) 1 N (B) 5 N
(C) 7 N (D) 10 N
(A) 4.9 ms–2 (B) 9.8 ms–2
–2
(C) 49 ms (D) 98 ms–2
27. A body of mass 32 kg is suspended by a spring balance 33. A vehicle of mass m is moving on a rough horizontal
from the roof of a vertically operating lift and going road with momentum P. If the coefficient of friction
downward from rest. At the instants the lift has covered between the tyres and the road be , then the stopping
20 m and 50 m, the spring balance showed 30 kg & 36
distance is :
kg respectively. The velocity of the lift is :
(A) Decreasing at 20 m & increasing at 50 m P P2
(A) (B)
(B) Increasing at 20 m & decreasing at 50 m 2 mg 2 mg
(C) Continuously decreasing at a constant rate
P P2
throughout the journey (C) (D)
(D) Continuously increasing at constant rate throughout 2 m 2g 2 m2g
the journey
34. A block of mass 20 kg is acted upon by a force F = 30 N
FRI CT ION FORCE
at an angle 53° with the horizontal in downward direction
28. A ship of mass 3 × 107 kg initially at rest is pulled by a as shown. The coefficient of friction between the block
force of 5 × 104 N through a distance of 3m. Assume and the horizontal surface is 0.2. The friction force
that the resistance due to water is negligible, the speed acting on the block by the ground is (g = 10 m/s2)
of the ship is :
(A) 1.5 m/s (B) 60 m/s
(C) 0.1 m/s (D) 5 m/s F
53°
29. When a horse pulls a cart, the force needed to move
the horse in forward direction is the force exerted by :
(A) 40.0 N (B) 30.0 N
(A) The cart on the horse
(C) 18.0 N (D) 44.8 N
(B) The ground on the horse
(C) The ground on the cart
(D) The horse on the ground 35. A bock of mass 5 kg is held against wall by applying a
horizontal force of 100N. If the coefficient of friction
30. A 2.5 kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. between the block and the wall is 0.5, the frictional

A 6.0 N horizontal force and a vertical force P are applied force acting on the block is : (g =9.8 m/s2)
to the block as shown in figure. The coefficient of static
friction for the block and surface is 0.4. The magnitude
of friction force when P = 9N : (g = 10 m/s2)
100N 5kg
(A)100 N (B) 50 N
(C) 49 N (D) 24.9 N
(A) 6.0 N (B) 6.4 N
(C) 9.0 N (D) zero
PAGE # 98
W EI GH IN G MA CH IN E 42. A 2 kg toy car can move along x axis. Graph shows force
36. The ratio of the weight of a man in a stationary lift and Fx, acting on the car which begins to rest at time t = 0. The
when it is moving downward with uniform acceleration velocity of the car at t = 10 s is :
‘a’ 3:2. The value of ‘a’ is : (g = acceleration, due to
gravity)
(A) (3/2)g (B) g
(C) (2/3) g (D) g/3
37. A person standing on the floor of an elevator drops a

coin. The coin reaches the floor of the elevator in time
t1 when elevator is stationary and in time t2 if it is moving
uniformly. Then
(A) t1 = t2
(B) t1 > t2 (A) – î m/s (B) – 1.5 î m/s
(C) t1 < t2
(D) t1 < t2 or t1 > t2 depending (C) 6.5 î m/s (D) 13 î m/s
• ASSERTION / REASON
 43. Figure shows the displacement of a particle going
38. STATEMENT-1 : A man standing in a lift which is moving
upward, will feel his weight to be greater than when along the x-axis as a function of time :
the lift was at rest.
STATEMENT-2 : If the acceleration of the lift is ‘a’ upward
then the man of mass m shall feel his weight to be
equal to normal reaction (N) exerted by the lift given N
= m(g+a) (where g is acceleration due to gravity
(A) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-
2 is correct explanation for statement 1. (A) The force acting on the particle is zero in the region AB
(B) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement- (B) The force acting on the particle is zero in the region BC
2 is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1. (C) The force acting on the particle is zero in the region CD
(C) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is false (D) The force is zero no where
44. A force of magnitude F 1 acts on a particle so as to
MI SCE LLA NE OUS : accelerate if from rest to velocity v. The force F1 is then
replaced by another force of magnitude F 2 which
39. An object will continue accelerating until :
(A) Resultant force on it begins to decreases decelerates it to rest.
(B) Its velocity changes direction (A) F1 must be the equal to F2
(C) The resultant force on it is zero (B) F1 may be equal to F2
(D) The resultant force is at right angles to its direction
(C) F1 must be unequal to F2
of motion
(D) None of these
40. In which of the following cases the net force is not zero ?
(A) A kite skillfully held stationary in the sky 45. In a imaginary atmosphere, the air exerts a small force
(B) A ball freely falling from a height
F on any particle in the direction of the particle’s motion.
(C) An aeroplane rising upward at an angle of 45° with
A particle of mass m projected upward takes a time t1
the horizontal with a constant speed
(D) A cork floating on the surface of water. in reaching the maximum height and t2 in the return
journey to the original point. Then
 41. Figure shows the displacement of a particle going (A) t1 < t2
along the X-axis as a function of time. The force acting (B) t1 > t2
on the particle is zero in the region. (C) t1 = t2
(D) The relation between t1 and t2 depends on the mass
of the particle
46. A single force F of constant magnitude begins to act on

a stone that is moving along x axis. The stone continues
to move along that axis. W hich of the following
represents the stone’s position ?
(A) AB (B) BC (A) x = 5t – 3 (B) x = 5t2 + 8t – 3
(C) CD (D) DE 2
(C) x = –5t + 5t – 3 (D) x = 5t3 + 4t2 – 3
PAGE # 99
47. Three forces act on a particle that moves with
 EXERCISE-2
unchanging velocity v = (3 î – 4 ĵ ) m/s. Two of the
 
forces are F1 = (3 î + 2 ĵ – 4 k̂ ) N and F2 = (–5 î + 8 ĵ
+ 3 k̂ ) N. The third force is : COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIO US YEARS’ QUESTIONS :
(A) (–2 î + 10 ĵ – 7 k̂ ) N
(B) (2 î – 10 ĵ + k̂ ) N 1. A weight is supported by two strings 1.3 and 2.0 m
(C) (7 î – 2 k̂ + 10 ĵ ) N long fastened to two points on a horizontal beam 2.0
m apart. The depth of this weight below the beam is :
(D) none of these
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
48. An 80 kg person is parachuting and experiencing a (A) 1.0 m (B) 1.23 m
downward acceleration of 2.5 m/s2 . The mass of the
parachute is 5.0 kg. The upward force on the open (C) 0.77 m (D) 0.89 m
2
parachute from the air is : (g = 9.8 m/s ) 2. A heavy roller is being pulled along a rough road as
(A) 620.50 N (B) 740 N shown in the figure. The frictional force at the point of
contact is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(C) 800 N (D) 920 N
F
49. A block of mass m is pulled on the smooth horizontal

(A) parallel to F (B) opposite to F
surface with the help of two ropes, each of mass m, (C) perpendicular to F (D) zero
connected to the opposite faces of the block. The
forces on the ropes are F and 2F. The pulling force on
3. A fully loaded elevator has a mass of 6000 kg. The
the block is :
tension in the cable as the elevator is accelerated
downward with an acceleration of 2ms–2 is (Take g = I0
ms –2 ) (KVPY/2007)
(A) F (B) 2F (A) 7·2 × 104 N (B) 4.8 × 104 N

(C) F/3 (D) 3F/2 (C) 6 × 104 N (D) 1.2 × 104 N
50. A body of mass 5 kg starts from the origin with an initial

 4. A body of mass 10 g moves with constant speed 2 m/
velocity u = 30 î + 40 ĵ ms–1 . If a constant force
 s along a regular hexagon. The magnitude of change
F = –( î + 5 ĵ ) N acts on the body, the time in which the in momentum when the body crosses a corner is :
y-component of the velocity becomes zero is :
(A) 5 s (B) 20 s
(A) 0.04 kg-m/s (B) zero
(C) 40 s (D) 80 s
(C) 0.02 kg-m / s (D) 0.4 kg-m/s
51. STATEMENT-1 :According to the newton’s third law of
motion, the magnitude of the action and reaction force
is an action reaction pair is same only in an inertial  5. Four blocks are kept in a row on a smooth horizontal
table with their centres of mass collinear as shown in
frame of reference.
the figure. An external force of 60 N is applied from left
on the 7 kg block to push all of them along the table.
STATEMENT-2 : Newton’s laws of motion are The forces exerted by them are :(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
applicable in every inertial reference frame.
P Q R S
(A) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement- 60N
7 kg 5 kg 2 kg 1 kg
2 is correct explanation for statement 1.
(B) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is true, statement-
2 is NOT a correct explanation for statement-1.
(A) 32 N by P on Q (B) 28 N by Q on P
(C) statement-1 is true, Statement 2 is false (C) 12 N by Q on R (D) 4 N by S on R
PAGE # 100
 6. In the two cases shown below, the coefficient of kinetic 11. A block of mass M rests on a rough horizontal table. A
steadily increasing horizontal force is applied such that
friction between the block and the surface is the same,
the block starts to slide on the table without toppling.
and both the blocks are moving with the same uniform The force is continued even after sliding has started.
speed. Then, (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008) Assume the coefficients of static and kinetic friction
between the table and the block to be equal. The cor-
F1 F2 rect representation of the variation of the frictional
forces, ƒ, exerted by the table on the block with time t is
given by : (KVPY/2010)
(A) F1 = F2
(B) F1 < F2 (A) (B)
(C) F1 > F2
(D) F1 = 2F2 if sin = Mg/4F2
7. A light string goes over a frictionless pulley. At its one

end hangs a mass of 2 kg and at the other end hangs
a mass of 6 kg. Both the masses are supported by (C) (D)
hands to keep them at rest. W hen the masses are
released, they being to move and the string gets taut.
(Take g = 10 ms–2) The tension in the string during the 12. A soldier with a machine gun, falling from an airplane
motion of the masses is : (KVPY/2008) gets detached from his parachute. He is able to resist
(A) 60 N (B) 30 N the downward acceleration if he shoots 40 bullets a
second at the speed of 500 m/s. If the mass of a bullet
(C) 20 N (D) 40 N
is 49 gm, what is the mass of the man with the gun ?
Ignore resistance due to air and assume the
8. When a motor car of mass 1500 kg is pushed on a acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2 . (KVPY/2010)
road by two persons, it moves with a small uniform (A) 50 kg (B) 75 kg
(C) 100 kg (D) 125 kg
velocity. On the other hand if this car is pushed on the
same road by three persons, it moves with an 13. A certain force applied to a body A gives it an acceleration
acceleration of 0.2 m/s2. Assume that each person is of 10 ms–2 . The same force applied to body B gives it
producing the same muscular force. Then, the force of an acceleration of 15 ms–2 . If the two bodies are joined
together and same force is applied to the combination,
friction between the tyres of the car and the surface of
the acceleration will be :
the road is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009) (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) 6 ms–2 (B) 25 ms–2
(A) 300 N (B) 600 N (C) 12.5 ms–2 (D) 9 ms–2
(C) 900 N (D) 100 N
14. A small child tries to move a large rubber toy placed on
9. A block of mass M is at rest on a plane surface inclined the ground. The toy does not move but gets deformed
at an angle  to the horizontal The magnitude of force 
under her pushing force (F ) which is obliquely upward
exerted by the plane on the block is : (KVPY/2009) as shown . Then (KVPY/2011)
(A) Mg cos (B) Mg sin 
(C) Mg tan (D) Mg
10. A beaker containing water is placed on the platform of

a digital weighing machine. It reads 900 g. A wooden

block of mass 300 g is now made to float in water in (A) The resultant of the pushing force (F) , weight of
the beaker (without touching walls of the beaker). Half the toy, normal force by the ground on the toy and the
the wooden block is submerged inside water. Now, frictional force is zero.
(B) The normal force by the ground is equal and oppo-
the reading of weighing machine will be :
site to the weight of the toy.
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009) 
(C) The pushing force (F) of the child is balanced by
(A) 750 g (B) 900 g the equal and opposite frictional force
(C) 1050 g (D) 1200 g 
(D) The pushing force (F) of the child is balanced by
the total internal force in the toy generated due to
deformation
PAGE # 101
15. On a horizontal frictional frozen lake, a girl (36 kg) and 18. A body of 0.5 kg moves along the positive x - axis under
a box (9kg) are connected to each other by means of a the influence of a varying force F (in Newtons) as shown
rope. Initially they are 20 m apart. The girl exerts a below : (KVPY/2011)
horizontal force on the box, pulling it towards her. How
far has the girl travelled when she meets the box ?
(KVPY/2011) 3
(A) 10 m
(B) Since there is no friction, the girl will not move
(C) 16 m 2
F (N)
(D) 4m
16. Which of the following does NOT involve friction ? 1

(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) Writing on a paper using a pencil
(B) Turning a car to the left on a horizontal road.
(C) A car at rest parked on a sloping ground 0,0 2 4 6 8 10
(D) Motion of a satellite around the earth. x(m)
If the speed of the object at x = 4m is 3.16 ms–1 then its
17. An object with uniform density  is attached to a spring speed at x = 8 m is :
that is known to stretch linearly with applied force as (A) 3.16 ms–1 (B) 9.3 ms–1
shown below (C) 8 ms–1 (D) 6.8 ms–1
19. When a car turns on a curved road, you are pushed

against one of the doors of the car because of :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
(A) inertia
(B) the centripetal force
(C) the centrifugal force
(D) the frictionaI force
20. What is the reading of the spring balance shown in the

figure below? (IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
W hen the spring object system is immersed in a T T

liquid of density 1 as shown in the figure, the spring
T
stretches by an amount x1 ( > 1). When the experiment
is repeated in a liquid of density 2 < 1 . the spring is 0.2kg
stretched by an amount x2. Neglecting any buoyant force

on the spring, the density of the object is:
(KVPY/2011) (A) 0 (B) 2N
(C) 4N (D) 6N
1x1  2 x 2 1x 2  2 x1
(A)   x  x (B)   x  x
1 2 2 1 21. A truck and a car moving with the same kinetic
energy are brought to rest by application of brakes
1x 2  2 x1 1x1  2 x 2 which provide equal total retarding force for both.
(C)   x  x (D)   x  x The truck has 8 tyres, and weighs 4 times more
1 2 1 2
than the car which has 4 tyres. What can you say
about the distance in which the two vehicles stop?
(A) The car will stop at a shorter distance.
(B) The truck will stop at a shorter distance.
(C) They will stop at the same distance.
(D) Not enough information is given.
PAGE # 102
22. A ball falls from rest through air and eventually 24. A smooth flat horizontal turntable 4.0 m in
reaches a constant velocity. For this fall, force X diameter is rotating at 0.050 revs per second. A
and Y vary with time as shown. (IJSO/Stage-II/2014) student at the centre of the turntable, and
rotating with it, Places a smooth flat puck on
the turntable 0.50 m from the edge. Which of
the following figures describes the motion of the
puck as seen by a stationary observer who is
standing at the side of the turntable and above
the turntable? (IJSO/Stage-II/2014)
(A) (B)
Which of the following should be force X and Force

Y? (C) (D)
Force X Force Y
(A) Air Resistance Resultant Force
(B) Air Resistance Weight
25. A rectangular parallelepiped with sides a, b and c
(C) Up thrust Resultant Force
in the ration 3 : 2 : 1 is kept on a uniformly rough
(D) Up thrust Weight
horizontal surface as shown in thefigures below.
The value of limiting friction is
23. A person is riding a bicycle in vertical portion (IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
accelerating forward without slipping on a straight
horizontal road. What is / are the direction (s) of the
total force exerted by the road on front (P) and the
rear (Q) wheel ? (IJSO/Stage-II/2014)
(A) (B)
(A) Same in all cases (B) Minimum in (ii)
(C) Minimum in (iii) (D) Minimum (i)
26. If two bodies of different masses, initially at rest,

are acted upon by the same force for the same
time, then both bodies acquire the same
(C) (D)
(IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) Velocity (B) acceleration
(C) momentum (D) kinetic energy
PAGE # 103
27. It is more difficult to walk on a sandy road than on 31. A circus performer of weight W is standing on a
wire as shown in the adjacent figure. The tension
a concrete road. The most appropriate reason for
in the wire is (IJSO/Stage-I/2016)
this is (IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) the sand is grainy but concrete is solid
(B) the friction between sand and feet is less than
that between concrete and feet
(C) the friction between sand and feet is more
than that between concrete and feet
(D) sand is soft and concrete is hard w
(A) Approximately
4
w
28. A body is in equilibrium under the combined action (B) Approximately
2
of several forces then : (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
w
(A) all the forces must be applied at the same (C) Much more than
2
point
w
(B) all the forces form pairs of equal and opposite (D) Much less than
2
forces
(C) the sum of the torques about any point must
32. Pralay pushes two solid cubical boxes P and Q
always be equal to zero (that stay in contact) along a rough horizontal table
(D) the lines of action of all the forces must pass by applying a horizontal force F on P. Box P has a
through the centre of gravity of the body. mass of 4.0 kg and box Q has a mass of 8.0 kg
having same density. Coefficients of kinetic friction
between block P and table 0.4 and that between
29. The "reaction" force does not cancel the "action"
block Q and table is 0.6.
force because (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
(I) Calculate F, if both the boxes are moving with
(A) the action force is greater than the reaction
constant speed.
force
(II) Determine magnitude and direction of the
(B) the reaction force exists only after the action resultant reaction force exerted by the table on the
force is removed block Q.
(C) the reaction force is greater than the action (III) Draw a labeled diagram in right proportion
force indicating all the forces acting on both the blocks.
(D) they act on different bodies (IJSO/Stage-II/2016/Sub.)
30. A wooden block (W) is suspended by using a

cord from a heavy steel ball (B). The entire sys-
tem is dropped from a height. Neglecting air
resistance, the tension in the cord is
(IJSO/Stage-I/2016)
(A) Zero
(B) The differences in the masses of B and W
(C) The differences in the weights of B and W
(D) The weight of B
PAGE # 104
5. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
(a) Measurement of Work :
INTRODUCTION W ork is measured by the product of force and the
displacement in the direction of force. Work is a scalar
In everyday language, the word work is used to quantity.
describe any activity in which muscular or mental effort
is exerted. In physics, the word work has a special Work = Force × displacement in the direction of force
meaning. Work is done only when the force acting on a
body produces motion in it in the direction of force (or W = F(d cos) ......... (i)
in the direction of component of force). Thus a boy
pushing the wall is doing no work from physics’ point
of view. It is because the force exerted by the boy is not
producing motion of the wall. The speed at which work
can be done is an indication of the power of the body
doing work. For example, a boy may carry a suitcase
or work done = displacement × force in the direction of
upstairs in 3 minutes while a man may do it in 1 minute.
displacement.
Obviously, the power of the man is more than the power
of the boy. Thus, time factor is important for power. A W = d(F cos) ......... (ii)
body which has the capacity to do work is said to
possess energy. The greater the capacity of a body to
do work, the greater the energy it has. Thus work, energy
and the power are related to each other. In this topic
we shall deal with these three important concepts of
physics.
WORK Special cases :
In our day to day life, the word work means any kind of Case-I : If = 0º, then–
mental and physical activity. For example, we say that
we are doing work while,
From equation (i)
(i) reading a book, W = Fd cos Fd cos0º  cos0º= 1
(ii) cooking the food, So, W = Fd (maximum)
(iii) walking on a level road with a box on our head, W hen force and displacement are in same direction
then work done will be maximum.
(iv) pushing a wall of a house but fails to do so.
In all these cases, either mental or a physical activity is Case-II : When = 90º, then–
involved. From equation (i)
W = Fd cos90º
But in physics, the term work has entirely a different
meaning. In physics work is said to be done if body is  cos90º= 0
displaces due to the application of force. So, W = 0
Conditions which must be satisfied for the work done

are :
(i) A force must act on the body.
(ii) The body must be displaced from one position to
another position. W hen force and displacement are perpendicular to
Definition : each other then work done will be zero.
Work is said to be done by a force on a body or an Eg. If a body is moving in horizontal direction then work
object if the force applied causes a displacement in done by the force of gravity will be zero.
the body or object.
Eg. : Work is done, when a box is dragged on the floor
from one position to another. In this case, force is on
box to drag it on the floor and the box moves through a
certain distance between one position to another
position.
PAGE # 105
Eg. If a body is moving on a circular path then work
If one dyne force is applied on a body and displacement
done by the centripetal force will be zero, because the
in the body is 1 cm in the direction of force,
direction of centripetal force is towards the centre of
then work done will be one erg.
the circle and displacement will be along the tangent.
S.I. unit of work done is newton × metre = joule.
Definition of 1 joule :
If F = 1N and d = 1m .
then, W = 1 ×1 = 1 joule (J)
If a force of 1 Newton is applied on a body and
 NOTE :
displacement in the body is 1m in the direction of force
(i) If F = 0 then work done, W = 0 then work done will be 1 joule.
Eg. A student revising his notes by memory without Relation between joule and erg :
moving his limbs is doing no physical work. 1 joule = 107 erg
A meditating saint is doing no physical work though he Erg and joule are the absolute units of work done.
keeps sitting for hours.
Gravitational unit of work :
(ii) If displacement, d = 0 then work done, W = 0.
Work is said to have gravitational unit of work if unit
Eg. A foolish labour trying to displace a building has gravitational force displaces the body through unit
done no work though he may spend the whole day. distance in the direction of force.
Case III :
(i) In C.G.S. system, gravitational unit of work is gram-
If = 180º weight-centimeter (g wt cm).
then from equation (i) Since W = FS
W = Fd cos180º  cos180º= – 1
then, W = – Fd  1g wt cm = 1 g wt × 1 cm = 981 dyne × 1cm
W hen the force and displacement are in opposite 1g wt cm = 981 erg.
direction then work done will be negative. Thus 1g-wt-cm of work is done when a force of 1g-wt
Eg. W hen a spring is compressed then the force displaces a body through 1cm in its own direction.
applied by the spring and the displacement will be in (ii) In S.I. system, gravitational unit of work is kilogram
opposite direction to each other, so work done by the weight meter (kg wt m)
spring will be negative.
1kg wt m = 1kg wt × 1m = 9.81 N × 1 m
When the spring is stretched then the work done will
also be negative. 1 kg wt m = 9.81 J
Thus, 1 kg wt m of work is done when a force of 1 kg-wt
displaces a body through 1 m in its own direction.
(c) Summary of units :
Units of work
Eg. When a body of mass m is lifted upward a force, Absolute units Gravitational units
F = mg has to be applied upwards
Work done by the force of gravity will be negative
Work done, W = – mgh S.I. Unit C.G.S. unit S.I. unit C.G.S. unit
Joule(J) erg kgwtm gwtcm
1g wt m =9.8N-m = 9.8 J
1g wt cm = 981dyne-cm=981erg
(d) Positive Work done :

When the angle between force and the displacement
(b) Units of Work done :
is acute ( < 90º), then work done will be positive
Work done, W = Fd because one component of force (F cos) is in the
In C.G.S. system the unit of work done is dyne x cm = erg. direction of displacement so work done by this
Definition of 1 erg : component will be positive (Fd cos). Work done by
the vertical component (i.e. F sin) will be zero ( the
If F = 1 dyne and d = 1 cm.
angle between F sin and displacement is 90º) so net
then, W = 1× 1 = 1 erg.
work done will be positive.
PAGE # 106
Applied force (F) = 103 N = 1000 N
Angle () = ?
N
3
10
F=
=?
(i) In lifting a weight upward by applying an upward force ,
S=12cm
the work done by the applied force will be positive.
(ii) In stretching a spring, the work done by the external We know, W = F×S×Cos
force will be positive.
W
(e) Negative Work done : Cos=
FS
W hen the angle between the force and the
displacement is obtuse, ( > 90º), then work done will 60 60 1
be negative because work done by the horizontal cos=  
1000  0.12 120 2
component of force (i.e. F cos) is negative
( – Fd cos) and the work done by the vertical
component (F sin) will be zero, so net work done will  1
= cos–1   = 60º
be negative. 2
Therefore, the angle made by the string with the

horizontal is 60º.
4. If 784 J of work was done for lifting 20 kg mass, then

calculate the height through which it was lifre. (Take g
=9.8 ms–2)
ILLUSTRATIONS Sol. Given,
1. A porter lifts a luggage of 15 kg from the ground and put Work done, W = 784 J
it on his head, 1.5 m above the ground. Calculate the Mass of the body, m = 20 kg
work done by him on the luggage. (take g = 10 m/s2.) Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
Sol. Mass of luggage, m = 15 kg Height through which it was lifted, h = ?
displacement, d = 1.5 m We know, W = mgh
acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m/s2
work done, W = Fd = mgd W
h =
W = 15 × 10 × 1.5 = 225 J mg
2. A force of 10 N displaces a body by 5 m, the angle
between force and displacement is 60º, then find the 784 784
h=  = 4m
work done. 20  9.8 196
Sol. Force, F = 10 N,  The height through which if was lifted is 4m.

displacement, d = 5m,
angle between force and displacement,  = 60º 5. A student of E & L school lifts water from a well 25m
work done, W = Fd cos= 10 × 5 × cos60º, deep. If the work done by the student is 500J, then find
1 the volume of the water. (Take, g = 10 ms–2)
cos60º =
2 Sol. Given, Depth of well (h) = 25m
1 Acceleration (g) = 10 m/s-2
then, W = 10 × 5 × W = 25 J
2 Work done (w) = 500J
3. A Resonite pulls a toy train through a distance of 12 cm Volume of water (V) = ?
while plain in the garden. If the work done by the child We know, W = mgh
is 60J, When 103 N of force is applied, then find the [ mass(m) = Volume (V) × Density (d)]
angle made by the string held in the student’s hand
with the horizontal. 500 1
V  = 0.002 m3
12 1000  (10 )  25 500
Sol. Distance(S) = 12 cm = = 0.12 m
100
Work done (W) = 60J  The volume of water is 0.002 m3.
PAGE # 107
ENERGY (vii) Solar energy :
The energy radiated by the sun is solar energy. Sun is
When a man does a work, he feels tired. He feels that
the natural source of energy.
he has lost something which he must regain to work
more. A weak man gets exhausted after doing only a (viii) Nuclear energy :
small amount of work. A strong man can continue to
work for longer duration. Sometimes, a heavy nucleus breaks into two or more
lighter nuclei with the release of some energy. This
Something that a working man loses is called energy.
energy is called nuclear energy and the process is
Definition : called nuclear fission. On the other hand, when two
Capacity of doing work or total work done by a man or lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus, the
by an agent, is called the energy of the man or the process is called nuclear fusion.
agent.
(ix) Mechanical energy :
(a) Units of energy :
The energy possessed by a body due to its state of
C.G.S. unit of energy is erg and S.I. unit of energy is
rest or state of motion is called mechanical energy.
joule.
The Mechanical energy is find in two forms :
 NOTE : (i) Kinetic enrgy
(i) kilo Watt × hour (kWh) is commercial unit of energy. (ii) Potential energy
1 kWh = 1000 watt × 60 × 60 sec.
= 3.6 × 106 watt × sec.
1 kWh= 3.6 × 106 J. TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY
(ii) Electron volt(eV) is also the unit of energy. The
energy of an electron, when it is accelerated by a
The process of changing or converting one form of energy
potential difference of 1 volt, is known as one eV
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J. into another form is known as transformation of energy.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY Examples of transformation of energy :
(i) Heat energy : (i) A stone lying on the roof of a house has potential
W hen we burn coal, wood or gas, heat energy is energy due to its position. When it falls down, potential
released. Steam possess heat energy that is why in a energy is converted into kinetic energy due to its motion.
steam engine, the heat energy of steam is used to get Thus, during the fall of a stone (or any other body),
the work done. Sun also radiates heat energy.
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
(ii) Light energy :
When the stone hits the ground, sound is heard and
It is a form of energy which gives us the sensation of
vision. Natural source of light is the sun. An electric the place where the stone hits becomes hot. So, kinetic
bulb also emits light energy. energy of the stone is converted into sound energy
(iii) Sound energy : and heat energy.
The energy emitted by a vibrating wire, tuning fork,
(ii) Water stored in a dam has potential energy due to
vibrating membrane etc., that can be sensed by human
ears is called sound energy. its position. When water falls, potential energy of water
Eg. whistle, flute, sitar, all emits sound energy when is converted into kinetic energy due to the motion of
they are made to vibrate. water. This kinetic energy of water is used to rotate the
(iv) Magnetic energy : turbine of a generator, which produces electricity. Thus,
A magnet also possess energy known as magnetic potential energy of water in a dam is converted into
energy. W hen a current is passed through a coil, it kinetic energy which is then converted into electrical
stores magnetic energy. energy. In other words, mechanical energy (Potential
(v) Electrical energy : energy + Kinetic energy) is converted into electrical
An electric cell stores electrical energy. Two charges energy.
placed at some distance experience a force. They also
possess electrical energy. (iii) W hen electric current passes through an electric
Eg. A charged body possess electrical energy. bulb, it glows and gives out light and heat. So, electrical
(vi) Chemical energy : energy is converted into light energy and heat energy.
It is the energy possessed by fuels like petrol, diesel, (iv) When coal is burnt, chemical energy stored in coal
gas, etc. The chemical energy of petrol or diesel is is converted into heat energy and light energy.
utilized to move vehicles etc. The food we eat also
possess chemical energy.
PAGE # 108
(v) The heat energy produced due to the burning of (vi) Dry cell converts chemical energy into electrical
coal changes water into steam. This steam is used to energy.
run the steam engine. Thus, chemical energy of coal (vii) Microphone converts sound energy into electrical
is converted into heat energy and then heat energy is energy.
converted into mechanical energy (used to run the
(viii) Photocell converts light energy into electrical
steam engine).
energy.
(vi) The wound spring of a watch has potential energy
(ix) Lever transforms muscular energy into useful
due to its shape. W hen the watch shows time, this
mechanical work.
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy to the
hands of the watch.
KINETIC ENERGY
(vii) A stretched bow and arrow has potential energy.
W hen arrow is released, potential energy is The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its mo-
converted into kinetic energy of the moving arrow. tion is called kinetic energy.
(a) Examples of kinetic energy :

(viii) In a thermal power plant, coal is burnt to produce
(i) Energy possessed by a moving bicycle.
electricity. Thus chemical energy of the coal is converted
(ii) Energy possessed by running water
into electrical energy. (iii) Energy possessed by a shooting arrow.
(ix) W hen we rub our hands, they become warm. In (iv) Energy possessed by blowing wind
this case, mechanical energy is converted into heat (v) Energy possessed by a spinning electron round
energy. the nucleus.
(b) Expression for Kinetic Energy :

(x) A log of wood cut by a saw becomes hot. In this
case, mechanical energy is converted into heat energy. Kinetic energy is calculated by a work done to move
stationary object.
(xi) When a torch is switched on, chemical energy of
the torch cell is converted into electrical energy which Suppose initially the body is at rest (i.e., v0 = 0). Let a
is then converted into light and heat energy. 
constant horizontal force
F be applied to the body till
(xii) The head of a nail hammered into the wooden
it attains the velocity v. That means vf = vfinal = v. If S is
plank becomes hot. Here kinetic energy of hammer is
the distance travelled during this time, then work done
converted into heat energy. by the force on the body is
(xiii) The explosion of a fire cracker gives out sound, W = Fs
heat and light. In this case, chemical energy of the fire If a is the constant acceleration produced, then
according to Newton’s second law F = ma.
cracker is converted into sound, heat and light energy.
(xiv) The explosion of an atomic bomb gives out heat  W = ma.s … (i)
and light. In this case, the atomic energy is converted
Now, v 2  v 02 = 2as or v 2  0 2 = 2as
into heat and light energy.
v2
De vi ce s us ed t o Tr ansfor m Ener gy from  s … (ii)
2a
One form to Another : Now from (i) & (ii), we get :
(i) Heat engine converts heat energy into mechanical v2 1 2
energy.  W  ma = mv
2a 2
(ii) A thermal power plant converts chemical energy of Vo = 0 Vf = V
the coal into electrical energy.
F F
(iii) Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
S
energy.
Since W = Kinetic energy gained by the body
(iv) Electric motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. 1
 Kinetic energy K  mv 2
2
(v) An electric heater converts electrical energy into heat
Note that kinetic energy of the moving body is directly
energy. proportional to the mass and square of velocity of the
body. Clearly, the kinetic energy of a body at rest is zero.
The following points may be noted :
PAGE # 109
(i) Kinetic energy, like work, is a scalar quantity. The kinetic 1 1
energy of a moving body depends on its speed (mag- mv 2  mu2
F 2 2 ......(iv)
nitude of velocity) but not on the direction in which it is s
moving.
Equation (iv) gives us the relationship between force &
(ii) Since m and v2 both are positive, kinetic energy is
always positive. energy.
(c) Factors affecting Kinetic energy : The difference between the final and initial kinetic en-
ergies is the change in K.E. of the body  (K.E.)
(i) The more the mass of a body, the greater its kinetic
energy  W = change in K.E. =  (K.E.)
(ii) The more the velocity of a body, the more its kinetic 6. What is the work to be done to increase the velocity of
energy.
a car from 30 km/h to 60 km/h. If mass of the car is
(ii) Kinetic energy of a body depends both on its mass
1500 kg.
and velocity.
Sol. Mass of car, m = 1500 kg.
(d) Relation between momentum and kinetic Initial velocity, u = 30 km/h = 8.33 m/s.
energy : Final velocity, v = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s.
1 1 2 1
Kinetic energy = × m × v2 Work done , W = mv – mu2
2 2 2
On multiplying and dividing by ‘m’ in the
R.H.S. of equation, we get 1
W=  1500 [(16.67)2  (8.33)2 ]
2
m2  v 2 (mv )2
K.E. =  = 750 (277.9 – 69.4)
2m 2m W = 750 × 208.5 = 156375 J.
But, from equation, p = mv
W = 1.56 × 105 J.
p2 7. When the mass and velocity of the body are doubled,
K.E. =
2m what happens to its kinetic energy ?
(e) Relation between work done and kinetic Sol. Let the mas, initial velocity and K.E. of the body be m,v
energy : and k respectivley.
Work Energy Theorem :
1 2
This theorem states that the work done by the forces K= mv
acting on a body is equal to the change in the kinetic
2
energy of the body. When mass and velocity are doubled, the kinetic energy
Consider a body of mass m moving with a velocity u. 1 1 2
Let a force F be applied on the body, so that it is K = ×2m ×(2v2) = 8  mv 
2 2 
accelerated with an acceleration ‘a’.
Then, F = ma K = 8(K)
 When the mass and velocity of the body are doubled,
If s be the distance travelled by the body during its
the kinetic energy becomes 8 times the original.
accelerated motion, then the work done by the force F
is given by W = Fs = mas, 8. A body is moving in a straight line with a certain velocity.
Since (F = ma) ......(i) Another body with double the mass and half the velocity
Let the body acquires velocity v after travelling a dis- of the first, is moving in the straight line. W hat is the
tance s, then from v2 – u2 = 2as, we have ratio of kinetic energy of 2nd body with the first body ?
v 2  u2 Sol. Let the mass, initial velocity and K.E. of the body be m,v
a ......(ii) and K respectivley.
2s
1 2
Put this value in equation (equation-i), we get Kinetic energy of first body, K1 = mv
2
 v 2  u2  1 1 1 v
2
W  m   s = mv 2 – mu 2 ......(iii) Kinetic energy of second body, K2 = ×2m  
 2s  2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
Here mv 2 = Final K.E. and mu 2 = Initial K.E 1 v
 2m 
1 v
 2m 
2 2 K2 2  2 2 2  1
 
Now as W = F.s so (equation-iii) can be written as K1 1 2 1 2
mv mv 2
2 2
The ratio of K.E. of the second body to first body is 1 : 2
PAGE # 110
9. In the kinetic energy of a body is doubled, then how
does its momentum change ?
Sol. Let m, p and K be the mass, initial momentum and
kinetic energy of a body respectively.
 p1 = 2mK
p2 = 2  m  2K = 2  2mK = 2p1
 p2 = 2p1 Now, work done by the gravitational force on the block,
W = Fgh cos 1800

Therefore, the final momentum is 2 times of the initial  
momentum. [  = 1800 between Fg and h ]
or W g = – Fgh = –mgh [ Fg = mg]

POTENTIAL ENERGY
Work done against the gravitational force on the block
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position is known as gravitational potential energy.
or shape or configuration is known as potential energy.
Ug = –(–mgh) = mgh
Examples :
(i) Water stored in a dam has potential energy due to 10. Prove that gravitational potential energy depends upon
its position. the difference in heights of the initial position and final
(ii) A stone lying on the top of a hill or a mountain has position of a body but is independent of the path
potential energy due to its position. followed by the body while going from initial position to
final position.
(iii) A stretched or a compressed spring has potential
energy due to its shape. W hen spring is stretched or
compressed, work is done on it. This work done is
stored as potential energy of the stretched or
compressed spring.
(iv) A wound spring of a watch has potential energy
due to its shape.
(v) A stretched bow and arrow has potential energy
due to its shape.
(a) Gravitational Potential Energy :
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position

(i.e. height above the surface of the earth) is known as
gravitational potential energy. Sol. Consider a ball of mass m raised through height h
from position A to position B along path I as shown in
the figure(a). Then gravitational potential energy of the
Expres sion for Potent ial Ene rgy of a Body ball at height, h
at a Certain Height : U = mgh …(i)
The energy possessed by a body due to its position in Now let the ball is raised through height h 1 from
position A to position A1 as in figure(b). Then gravitational
the gravitational field of the earth is called gravitational
potential energy of the ball at height, h1
potential energy.
U1 = mgh1 .... (ii)
Consider a block of mass m which is to be raised to a When the ball is taken from position A1 to position A2,
height ‘h’. The force required to lift the block must be then no work is done against gravity because the force
equal to the gravitational force (i.e. weight of the block). of gravity acts perpendicular to the displacement of the
Thus, Fg = mg. Let the applied force on the block be F ball. Thus, gravitational potential energy of the ball at
= mg and the block is raised to the height h as shown position A1 and at position A2 is same. Hence, there is
in the figure. no change in gravitational potential energy of the ball
in going from position A1 to position A2.
Work done by the applied force F is given by
Now when the ball is raised through height h 2 from
W = Fh cos 0º [ cos0º = 1] position A2 to position B, then the gravitational potential
or W = Fh = mgh energy of the ball at height, h2
U2 = mgh2 ..... (iii)
Therefore, the total gravitational potential energy of the
ball at position B
PAGE # 111
U = U1+U2= mgh1 + mgh2
= mg (h1+ h2) =mgh ....(iv) [ (h1 + h2) = h]
U = U1+U2 = mgh
Conclusion :
(i) The gravitational potential energy of a body depends

upon the difference in height (h) of the initial and final
positions of the body
(ii) The gravitational potential energy of the body does

not depend upon the path followed by the body going
from initial to final positions.
 Important Information :
(i) Gravitational potential energy of a body on the surface

of the earth (i.e. h = 0) is zero.
(ii) Gravitational potential energy of a body increases if

the body moves upward (i.e. h increases).
(iii) Gravitational potential energy of a body decreases

if the body moves downward (i.e. h decreases).
(iv) Gravitational potential energy depends only on the
initial and final position of the body and not on the path
followed by the body to go from initial position to final According to Hooke’s law, the spring force Fs is pro-
position. It means, the gravitational potential energy of portional to the displacement of block from the equilib-
a body at height h will be same if it is either taken rium position, i,e,
straight upward to height h or it is taken along a curved Fs x or Fs = –kx
path to height h. The proportionality constant k is called spring con-
stant. Its SI unit is Nm–1 . The spring is stiff if k is large
and soft if k is small. The negative sign shows Fs acts
(b) Elastic potential energy : in the opposite direction of x.
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its (i) P.E. of an Elastic Stretched Spring by Graphical
deformed shape (i.e. either stretched or compressed) Method.
is known as elastic potential energy.
Figure shows the plot of spring force F s versus dis-
placement x of a block attached to the free end of the
Potential Energy of a Spring : spring.
Consider an elastic spring of negligible small mass

with its one end attached to a rigid support. Its other
end is attached to a block of mass m which can slide
over a smooth horizontal surface. The position x = 0 is
the equilibrium position, as shown in figure 3 (a) . When
the spring is stretched [figure 3 (b)] or compressed
[figure 3 (c)] by pulling or pushing the block, a spring
force Fs begins to act in the spring towards the equilib-
rium position.
PAGE # 112
According to Hooke’s law, the spring force for an ex-
tension xm is k 2
Velocity , v = (xm  x2 )
Fs = – k xm m
The work done by the spring force for an extension xm (C) At the equilibrium position :
is Here x = 0.
1 1
W s = Area of OBA = AB × OB U= k(0)2 = 0
2 2
1 1 1 2 1 1
= Fs × xm = (–k xm)× xm =– k xm K= mv 2x = 2
k xm
2 2 2 2 2
In order to stretch the spring slowly, an external force F Maximum speed,
equal to and opposite to Fs has to be applied. So work
done by the external force F is k
vm  xm .
1 2 m
W = – Ws = + kx
2 m The variations of K.E. and P.E. and total energy with
displacement x are shown in figure. As both K.E. and
This work done is stored as the P.E. of the spring
P.E. depend on x2, their graphs are parabolic. Total
1 2 mechanical energy E = K+U remains constant, so its
 U= kx
2 m graph is a straight line parallel to displacement axis.
(ii) Conservation of Energy in an Elastic Spring :

1 2
If we stretch a spring to a distance xm, its P.E. is kx .
2 m
When it is released, it begins to move under the spring
force till it reaches the equilibrium position x = 0, where
it has maximum velocity. All the P.E. is converted into
K.E. Due to inertia of motion, the body overshoots the
x= 0 position. Its velocity decreases until it momentarily
stops at position x = –xm, where all the K.E. is converted
into P.E. The spring force again pulls the body towards
the position x = 0. Thus the body keeps on oscillating.
the total mechanical energy remains constant.
INTERCONVERSION OF POTENTIAL AND KINETIC
(A) At the extreme positions : ENERGY
Here x =  xm and velocity v = 0. (i) For a freely falling body, potential energy changes
into kinetic energy.
1 2
K= mv = 0 Let a body of mass m be at rest at a point at height h
2
from the ground.
1 2 At highest point :
U= k x = a maximum value
2 m
Potential energy of the body U1 = mgh
(B) At any intermediate position x. Kinetic energy of the body K1 = 0 [ u = 0]
As the body falls freely, it gains velocity and reduces
For x between – xm to + xm,the energy is partly kinetic
height. Let the body have velocity v when it reaches the
and partly potential.
ground.
Total energy = K.E. + P.E.
At lowest point :
1 2 1 2 1 2
k xm = mv + kx Potential energy of the body, U2 = 0 [ h = 0]
2 2 2
1
Kinetic energy of the body, K2 = mv 2
1 2 1 2
2
 K= mv = k( xm – x2)
2 2 From third equation of motion,
v 2  u 2  2gh
PAGE # 113
constant. If one part of the universe loses energy,
We have, v 2  2gh [ u = 0]
another part must gain an equal amount of energy.
1 1
Hence, final kinetic energy = mv 2 = m(2gh) Energy conservation of a freely falling body
2 2
= mgh = Initial potential energy Let a body of mass m is at rest at a height h from the
earth’s surface, when it starts falling, after a distance x
(ii) For an upward projected body, kinetic energy (point B) its velocity becomes v and at earth’s surface
changes into potential energy. its velocity is v.
Let a body of mass m be projected upwards with a Mechanical energy of the body :
velocity u from a point on the ground.
At point A :
At lowest point : EA = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
1 2 1
Kinetic energy of the body, K1 = mu EA = m(0)2 + mgh
2
2
Potential energy of the body, U2 = 0
As the body rises upward, it gains height and loses

velocity.
Let the body reach highest point at height h where

veliocity becomes zero.
At highest point :
Kinetic energy of the body, K2 = 0

Potential energy of the body U2 = mgh
From third equation of motion, v 2  u2  2gh

EA = mgh ........ (i)
We have, 0 = u2 – 2gh
At point B :
( v = 0 and g is negative for upward motion)
or u2 = 2gh 1
EB = mv2 + mg (h – x) ........ (ii)
2
u2 From third equation of motion at points A and B
Hence, final P.E. = mgh = m.
2
v2 = u2 + 2gx u = 0
1 2
P.E. = mu = Initial K.E. v2 = 2gx
2 On putting the value of v2 in equation (ii)
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 1

EB = m (2gx) + mgh – mgx
2
When we throw a ball up, the chemical energy stored EB = mgx + mgh – mgx
in our body gets transferred to the ball as its kinetic EB = mgh ........ (iii)
energy. As the ball moves up, it loses K.E. and gains At point C :
P.E. At the highest point, all of its K.E. changes into P.E. 1
EC = m ( v  )2 + mg × o.
As the ball falls on the ground, its P.E. changes into 2
heat and sound. Although energy is being transformed 1
EC = m ( v  )2 ........ (iv)
from one form to to another at every stage, yet its total 2
amount remains the same.
From third equation of motion at points A and C.
This is the principle of conservation of energy which ( v  )2 = u2 + 2gh u = 0
can be stated in a number of ways: 2
So, ( v  ) = 2gh
(i) Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed. It may
be transformed from one form to another. On putting the value of ( v  )2 in equation (iv)
(ii) The total energy of an isolated system remains
1
constant. EC = m (2gh)
2
(iii) As the entire universe may be regarded as an
or EC = mgh ........ (v)
isolated system, the total energy of the universe is
From equation (i), (iii) and (v)
EA = EB = EC
PAGE # 114
Hence, the mechanical energy of a freely falling body
will be constant. CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
i.e. Total energy of the body during free fall, remains
constant at all positions. The form of energy, however (a) Conservative force :
keeps on changing. At point A, energy is entirely
potential energy and at point C, it is entirely kinetic A force is conservative if the work done by the force in
energy In between A and C, energy is partially potential displacing a particle from one point to another is inde-
and partially kinetic. This variation of energy is shown pendent of the path followed by the particle and de-
in figure. Total mechanical energy stays constant (mgh) pends only on the end points.
throughout.
Suppose a particle moves from point A to point B along
either path 1 or path 2, as shown in figure 1 (a) . If a
Thus in an isolated system, where only conservative
forces cause energy changes, the kinetic energy and conservative force F acts on the particle, then the work
potential energy can change, but the mechanical done on the particle is same along the two paths.
energy of the system (which is sum of kinetic energy
and potential energy) cannot change. We can,
therefore, equate the sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy at one instant to the sum of kinetic
energy and potential energy at another instant without
considering intermediate states. This law has been
found to be valid in every situation. No violation,
whatsoever, of this law has ever been observed.
Mathematically, we can write
W AB (along path1) = W AB (along path2) .....(i)
Now suppose the particle moves in a round trip, from
point A to point B along path 1 and then back to point A
along path 2, as shown in figure 1 (b). For a conserva-
tive force,
Work done on the particle along the path 2 from A to B
= – Work done on the particle along the path 2 from B
to A
i.e.,
W AB(along path 2) = – W BA(along path2)...(ii)
From (i) and (ii) , we have
11. A body of mass 10 kg is kept at a height 10 m from the W AB(along path1) = – W BA (along path2)
ground, when it is released after sometime its kinetic or W AB(along path 1) + W BA(along path2) = 0
energy becomes 450 J . W hat will be the potential or W closed path=0
energy of the body at that instant ?
Sol. At a height of 10 m. the mechanical energy of the body, Hence a force is conservative if the work done by the
E = Kinetic energy + potential energy force in moving a particle around any closed path is
zero.
1 e.g. Gravitational force, electrostatic force and elastic
E= m (o)2 + mgh
2 force of a spring are all conservative forces .
( initial velocity of the body is zero)
E = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 J.
12. Explain qualitatively that how is the gravitational force
After sometime the kinetic energy is 450 J. Suppose at a conservative force.
that instant potential energy is U, then by the law of Sol. Conservative nature of gravitational force.
conservation of mechanical energy-
(i) As shown in figure 2(a), suppose a body of mass m
E = 450 + U is raised to a height h vertically upwards from position
1000 = 450 + U A to B. The work done against gravity is
or U = 1000 – 450 U = 550 J. W = mg × AB = mg h
PAGE # 115
Conservative Forces Non- Conservative
Forces
Work done by a Work done by a
conservative force non-conservative
in a round trip is zero. force in a round
trip is not zero
Work done depends Work done is path
As shown in figure.2 (b), now suppose the body is on its initial and final dependent
taken from position A to B along the path ACDEB. Dur- position and not on
ing the horizontal paths CD and EB, the force of gravity its path.
is perpendicular to the displacement, so work done is
zero. Work is done only along vertical paths AC and
DE, the total work done is EINSTEIN’ MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
W = W AC + W CD + W DE + W EB
= mg × AC + 0 + mg × DE + 0 In 1985, Albert Einstein discovered that mass can be
= mg(AC + DE) = mg × h converted into energy and vice versa. He showed that
or W = mg h mass and energy are equivalent and related by the
relation
Thus the work done in moving a body against gravity is E= mc2
independent of the path taken and depends only on where c, the speed of light in vacuum is approximately
the initial and final positions of the body. Hence gravi- 3×10 8 ms–1.
tational force is a conservative force. According to Einstein’s mass -energy relation, if mass
(ii) Suppose a ball is thrown vertically upward. As it m disappears, an energy E(= mc 2) appears in some
rises, the gravitational force does negative work on it, form. Conversely, when energy E disappears, a mass
decreasing its kinetic energy. As the ball descends, m(=E/c 2) appears.
the gravitational force does positive work on it, increas- (b) Applications of mass -energy equivalence :
ing its kinetic energy. The ball falls back to the point of (i) Annihilation of matter :
projection with the same velocity and K.E. with which it
was thrown up. The net work done by the gravitational W hen an electron ( 01 e) and a ( 01 e) positron come
force on the ball during the round trip is zero. This close to each other, then they annihilate (destroy) each
again shows that the gravitational force is a conserva-
other forming two  - rays (electromagnetic radiation)
tive force.
of total energy given by einstein’s mass- energy relation.
(ii) Pair production :

When a  -ray photon of energy 1.02 MeV passes close
to a massive nucleus, it materializes into a pair of
particles- an electron and a positron. Thus energy gets
converted into matter.
(iii) Energy generation in the sun and stars. The energy
generated in the sun and stars is due to the conversion
of mass into energy.
(b) Non-Conservative Force :
If the amount of work done in moving an object against

a force from one point to another depends on the path The amount of work done for unit time is called power.
along which the body moves, then such a force is The rate of doing work is called power the amount of
power a body depends upon,
called a non-conservative force. The work done in
(i) The magnitude of the work and
moving an object against a non-conservative force (ii) The time taken by the body
along a closed path is not zero. so, by knowing the work and time , we can measure
e.g. Forces of friction and viscosity are non-conserva- power.
tive forces. The amount of power is the ratio of work and time
Work
Formula : Power =
Time
PAGE # 116
Unit : the direction that makes an angle ‘’ with the direction
S.I. unit of power is watt (W). of the motion.
One watt is the power of a man or a machine capable

F
of doing work at the rate of one joule per second
1 Joule A B
i.e. 1 Watt = or W = J s-1
1 Second S
t
Since watt is a smaller unit, higher units used are
1 Kilowatt (kW) = 103 watt If ‘S’ is the distance travelled by the body in time (t) ,
1 Megawatt (MW) = 10 watt6 then power used by the body can be calculated by the
following expression.
1 Gigawatt (GW) = 109 W
Work done( W )
commercial unit of power is horse power Power (P) =
Time ( t )
1 horse power (1 H.P) = 746 watt (W)
FS cos 
Formula : Power =
Different expression to calculate power t
(i) Power to move a body : Consider a force ‘F’ acting
on a body that is displaced in the direction of force by a (iv) Power to lift a body against gravity : Consider a
distance ‘S’. mass ‘m’ lifted from the surface to a height ‘h’ against
gravity. If ‘t’ is the time taken to lift the body, then the
t
F power can be calculated by the following expression.
A B
S Work done( W )
Power (P) =
Time ( t )
Then the power is given by the following expression :
Work done( W ) Weight of the body (mg)  Dis tance which it is lifted(h)
Power (P) = =
Time ( t ) Time ( t )
Force (F)  displacement (S) FS

=  P B
Time ( t ) t mgh
Formula = Power =
t
FS
Formula : Power =
t –mgh h
(ii) Power to stop a moving body : Consider a force ‘F’ Power against gravity , P =
t
acting on a body against the direction of the motion of
the body. The body is stopped in time ‘t’ after travelling
through a distance ‘S’. A
t (v) Power to a body moving with velocity (v) : Consider

F
a body moving with a speed of velocity of ‘v’ m/s. If ‘F’ is
A B the force applied to stop the body, then power of the
S
body is given by the following expression.
Then, the power used to stop the body can be obtained
Work done( W )
by the following expression. Power (P)=
Time ( t )
Work done( W )
Power (P) = Force(F)  Displacement (S)
Time (t ) =
Time( t )
Force (F)  displacement in the direction of force FS S  v  S 

P= P=F×  
Time ( t ) t t  t
Formula : Power = Fv
FS
 P 
t
–FS
Formula = Power =
t
Note –ve sign indicates that power is used against the
direction of motion of the body.
(iii) Power to pull a body : Consider a force ‘F’ acting in
PAGE # 117
Thus, electric power is defined as the product of
potential difference applied across the circuit and
current flowing through it.
Summary of power
(b) Other Forms of Electric Power :
Definition Mesuring formula Units
According to ohm’s law
Power is the rate V = IR
at which work is done
SI unit CGS unit Practical unit  From equation (ii)
P = I2R .......... (iii)
J/s or watt erg/s Horse power (hp)
V
Also I =
Relation between the different units R
1 watt = 1J/s and 1 hp = 746 W=0.746 kW  From equation (ii),
General Power to Power to Power to lift Power of a V2

formula moved a stopa moving a body against body moving P= .......... (iv)
body body gravity with velocity R
P= W P = FS P =–FS
t t P =mgh P = F×v
t P= t
V2
t
Thus, P  VI  I2R 
R
(c ) Relation between electric energy and
electric power:
ELECTRIC ENERGY We know, electric energy = VIt

and electric power = VI
The work done by a source of electricity to maintain a  Electric energy = electric power × time
current in an electrical circuit is known as electric energy.
( d) Com me rc ia l unit of el ec tr ic e ne rg y :
Consider an electric circuit through which current I flows
Kilowatt - hour (kWh) :
for time t. If charge q flows through the circuit for time t
then, Electric energy is required to run the electric lamps,
q = It .......... (i) heaters, refrigerators, televisions and other electric
If V is the potential difference applied across the circuit, appliances. The department of electricity sells the
then work done to maintain the flow of charge q through electric energy to the consumers in units called
it is given by,
kilowatt-hours (kWh). If our electricity bill shows that we
W = Vq
have pay for 10 units, then it means the electric
Using equation (i), we get
appliances of our house have consumed 10 kilowatt-
W = VIt .......... (ii)
This work done is equal to the electric energy hours. So, 1 unit = 1 kWh.
consumed in the circuit. A kilowatt-hour is the amount of electric energy used by
 Electric energy,, 1000 W att electric appliance (say a heater) when it
E = VIt .......... (iii) operates for one hour.
kWh is also known as “Board of Trade Unit” (B.O.T.)

(a) Electric Power :
(e) Relation between kWh and Joule :
Electric power is defined as the amount of electric
1 kWh = 1000 Wh
energy consumed in a circuit in one second. ( 1 kW = 1000 W)
If E be the amount of electric energy consumed in a
Now1 W = 1 Js–1 and 1h = 60 × 60 s = 3600 s.
circuit in t seconds, then the electric power is given by,
 1 kWh = 1000 Js-1 × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 × 106 J
E  1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
P= .......... (i)
t Electron volt is also the unit of energy. The energy of
Since E = Electric energy = VIt an electron, when it is accelerated by a potential
difference of 1 volt, is known as one electron volt.
VIt 1 electron volt = 1.6 × 10–19 joule.
 P=  1 e.v. = 1.6 × 10–19 J
t
or P = VI .......... (ii)
PAGE # 118
(f) Calculation of Electricity Bill :
mgh
The electricity bill of appliances is calculated by P= Here, m = mL + mm
t
following formula :
Consumed electric energy = mL  mm gh
P= ... (i)
Power (in watt )  No. of appliances  time (in hrs.) (in kWh or unit) t
1000 Substituting the values in (1), we get
Eg. : Suppose electric appliances of a house consumed 50  mm 10  40
100 kWh of electricity in a month and the cost of one unit 1568 =
25
is Rs. 5 . Then the total bill for a month = 100 × 5 = Rs.
500 . [Here 1 kWh = 1 unit.] 25
mm + 50 =1568 ×  mm + 50 = 98
13. A body does 150 J work in 5 s. What is its power ? 400
 mm = 98 - 50 = 48 kg
Sol. Work done, W = 150 joule
Time , t = 5 s. Therefore, the mass of man is 48 kg.
W 150
Power, P = = = 30 watt. 16. W hat horse power engine is required to lift 18.24
t 5
quintals of coal per minute from a mine 50 m deep?
(g) Distinction with Energy : (Take g = 10 ms–1)
Energy measures total work done.
Sol. Given,
Power measures work done per unit time (second).
Mass (m) = 18.24 quintal = 18.24 × 100 kg
Eg : An old man works slowly for eight hours and = 1824 kg ( 1 quintal = 100 kg)
manufactures 24 items in a day. His younger son works Time (t) = 1 minute = 60s
quickly for two hours and manufactures 16 items in a Height (h) = 50m
day. Power (P) = ?
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/s2
The old man has more energy but less power.
Selection of Formula:
The young man has less energy but more power. mgh 1824  10  50
P= = =15200 W
14. A boy of mass 50 kg runs up a staircase of 45 steps in
t 60
9s. If the height of each step is 15 cm. Find his power.
(g = 10 m/s2) 1
P = 15200 W = 15200 ×
Sol. Mass of man, m = 50 kg. 746
Height covered, h = 45 × 15 = 675 cm = 6.75 m ( 1 horse power (hp) = 746 W
W mgh 50 × 10 × 6.75 1
Power P = = =  1 watt = hp)
t t 9 746
P = 375 watt.  P =20.4 hp
15. A man carries a load of 50 kg through a height of 40 m Therefore, the engine of 20.4 horsepower is required.
in 25s. If the power of the man is 1568W, then find his
mass? (Take g = 10 ms-2) 17. How many 2.5kg bricks can a man carry up a stair
Sol. Given, case 3.6m high in one hour, if he works at tlie average
Mass of the load (mt) = 50 kg rate of 9.8 watt?
Height (h) = 40 m Sol. Given,
Time (t) = 25 s Mass, m = 2.5 kg, Height, h = 3.6 m
Power (P) = 1568 W Time, t =1 hr = 3600 s
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/s2 Power, P = 9.8 W
Mass of the man = mm = ? Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 ms–2
Selection of formula : No. of bricks, (n) =?
Power(P) = Work done (W)/Time(t) We know,
How to get W ?
We know, work done in lifting a body against gravity, W
The power to carry I brick, P1 =
W = mgh t
n W
The power to carry ‘n’ bricks, pn =
t
PAGE # 119
nmgh
= ( W =mgh) EXERCISE-1
t
WORK
Pt 9.8  3600
n =   400 1. Work done upon a body is :
mgh 2.5  9.8  3.6
(A) a vector quantity
Therefore, a man can carry 400 bricks. (B) a scalar quantity
(C) (A) and (B) both are correct
1 8. A boat is moving through the water at the rate of 10 m/
(D) none of these
s. Its engines has a power of 50 kW. Find the force
which must be overcome in moving through water. 2. Work done :
Sol. Given, (A) is always positive
Velocity of water (v) = 10 m/s
(B) is always negative
Power (P) = 50 kW
(C) can be positive, negative or zero
Force (F) = ?
=50 ×1000 = 5 × 104 W (D) none of these
Selection of formula : 3. No work is done when :
Power (P) = Force (F) × Velocity (V) (A) a nail is plugged in a wooden board
P 5  10 4 (B) a box is pushed along a horizontal floor
F= = = 5000 N (C) there is no component of force parallel to the
V 10
direction of motion
Therefore, the force which must be overcome in moving
(D) there is no component of force perpendicular to
through water is 5000N.
the direction of motion
19. The heartdoes 2.5 J of work in each heart beat. How 4. A body at rest can have :
many times per minute does it beat, if its power is 4 (A) speed (B) velocity
watt? (C) momentum (D) energy
Sol. Given,
Workdone by heart for 1 beat, W = 2.5J 5. On the basis of physics work means :
Time, t = 1 min = 60s (A) effort (B) interview
Power, P = 4W
(C) achievement (D) get-together
Number of heart beats in 1 min., n = ?
Selectionof Formula :
6. Work is done on a body when :
total work ' W ' (A) force acts on the body but the body is not displaced
Power, (P)=
time ' t' (B) force does not act on the body but it is displaced
Work done for 1 beat = W (C) force acts on the body in a direction perpendicular
Work done for n beat = n × w to the direction of the displacement of the body
(D) force acts on the body and the body is either
n W
Pn =  no. of heat beats, displaced in the direction of force or opposite to the
t
direction of force
P  t 4  60 240
n=  n= = 96 times 7. Force F acts on a body such that force F makes an
W 2.5 2 .5
angle  with the horizontal direction and the body is
Therefor ,number of heart beats in 1 minute is 96.
also displaced through a distance S in the horizontal
direction, then the work done by the force is :
(A) FS (B) FS Cos 
(C) FS Sin  (D) zero
8. In tug of war work done by winning team is :

(A) zero (B) positive
(C) negative (D) none of these
9. In tug of war work done by loosing team is :

(A) zero (B) positive
PAGE # 120
10. Work done by the force of gravity, when a body is lifted 21. A device which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy is known as :
to height h above the ground is :
(A) electric motor (B) lever
(A) zero (B) positive (C) generator (D) microphone
22. The value of g on moon is 1/6th of the value of g on the
earth. A man can jump 1.5 m high on the earth. On
11. When work is done on a body :
moon he can jump up to a height of :
(A) it gains energy (A) 9 m (B) 7.5 m
(B) it looses energy (C) 6 m (D) 4.5 m
(C) its energy remains constant 23. A raised hammer possess :
(D) none of these (A) kinetic energy only
(B) gravitational potential energy
12. Choose correct relation : (C) electrical energy
(A) 1 J = 105 erg (B) 1 J = 107 erg (D) sound energy
(C) 1 J = 103 erg (D) none of these 24. An object of mass 1 kg has a P.E. of 1 J relative to the
ground when it is at a height of :(g = 9.8 m/s2)
13. Which one is not the unit of energy ? (A) 0.10 m (B) 10 m
(C) 9.8 m (D) 32 m
(A) kilocalorie (B) kWh
(C) erg (D) watt 25. To lift a 5 kg mass to a certain height, amount of energy
spent is 245 J. The mass was raised to a height of :
14. The work done in holding 15 kg suitcase while waiting (A) 15 m (B) 10 m
for a bus for 15 minutes is : (C) 7.5 m (D) 5 m
26. A moving body need not have :
(A) 225 J (B) 13500 J
(A) Potential energy (B) Kinetic energy
(C) 1500 J (D) zero
(C) Momentum (D) Velocity
ENERGY AND POWER :
27. Potential energy of your body is minimum when :
15. When a ball is thrown upward, its total energy : (A) You are standing
(A) increases (B) decreases (B) You lie down on floor
(C) remains same (D) none of these (C) You are sitting on chair
(D) Sitting on the ground
16. If a stone of mass ‘m’ falls a vertical distance ‘d’ the 28. A spring is compressed. The potential energy of spring
decrease in gravitational potential energy is : will :
Mg Mg2 (A) Remain unchanged (B) Increase
(A) (B) (C) Decrease (D) Become zero
d 2
29. A man is climbing a staircase. The energy he uses
Mg does not depends upon :
(C) mgd (D)
d2 (A) The height of the staircase
17. An object of mass 10 kg falls from height 10 m. Kinetic (B) The weight of his body
energy gained by the body will be approximately equal (C) The time taken to reach the top
(D) The mass of his body
to :
(A) 1000 J (B) 500 J 30. When a ball is thrown upwards, its total energy :
(C) 100 J (D) None of these (A) Increases (B) Decreases
18. A spring is stretched. The potential energy in stretching (C) Remains same (D) None of these
the spring :
31. Work energy theorem states that change in K.E. of an
(A) remains the same (B) increases
object is equal to :
(C) decreases (D) becomes zero (A) Work done by all forces acting on it.
19. The potential energy of a boy is maximum when he is : (B) Work done by conservative forces acting on it
(A) standing (C) Work done by non-conservative forces acting on it
(B) sleeping on the ground (D) None of these
(C) sitting on the ground 32. Types of mechanical energy are :
(D) sitting on chair (A) kinetic energy only
20. The potential energy of a freely falling object decreases (B) potential energy only
continuously. W hat happens to the loss of potential (C) kinetic energy and potential energy both
energy ? (D) neither kinetic energy nor potential energy
(A) It is continuously converted into sound energy 33. The kinetic energy of an object is K. If its velocity is
(B) It is continuously converted into kinetic energy doubled than its kinetic energy will be :
(C) It is continuously destroyed (A) K (B) 2K
(D) None of these
K
(C) (D) 4K
2
PAGE # 121
46. Work is product of time and :
34. Two bodies of mass 1 kg and 4 kg possess equal
momentum. The ratio of their K.E. : (A) energy (B) power
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 1 : 4 (C) force (D) distance
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 2
47. A young son work quickly for two hours and prepares
35. 1 kg mass has K.E. of 1 J when its speed is : 16 items in a day. His old father works slowly for eight
(A) 0.45 ms-1 (B) 1 ms-1 hours and prepare 24 items a day :
(C) 1.4 ms-1
(D) 4.4 ms-1 (A) son has more power
(B) son has more energy
36. When you compress a spring you do work on it. The (C) both have equal power
elastic potential energy of the spring : (D) both have equal energy
(A) increases (B) decreases
(C) disappears (D) remains constant 48. One horse power is :
(A) 746 W (B) 550 W
37. The K.E. of a body of mass 1 kg and momentum 2N -s (C) 980 W (D) 32 W
is :
49. Power of a moving body is stored in the form of :
(A) 1 J (B) 2J
(A) work and distance
(C) 0.5 J (D) 4J
(B) force and distance
38. Two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 have equal (C) force and velocity
momentum. Their kinetic energies are in the ratio of :
(D) force and time
(A) m1 : m2 (B) m1 : m2
50. A weight lifter lifts 240 kg from the ground to a height of
2 2
(C) m2 : m1 (D) m 1
:m 2 2.5 m in 3 second his average power is :
39. Two bodies of masses 1 m and 4 m have the same (A) 1960 W (B) 19.6 W
K.E. What is the ratio for their momenta : (C) 1.96 W (D) 196 W
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2
51. Which of the following is not the unit of power ?
(C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1
(A) J/s (B) Watt
40. Two bodies of masses 2 kg and 3kg have same (C) kJ/h (D) kWh
momentum. K.E. of 3kg mass is 10 J. Then K.E. of 2
kg mass is : 52. A body of mass 0.1 kg is dropped from a height of 10 m
(A) 50 J (B) 15 J at a place where g = 10 ms–2 . Its K.E. just before it
(C) 25 J (D) 20 J strikes the ground is :
41. A simple pendulum hanging freely and at rest is verti- (A) 1 J (B) 1.04 J
cal because in the position. (C) 3.5 J (D) 10 J
(A) K.E. is zero (B) K.E. is minimum
53. A body of mass 10 kg is dropped from a point where it
(C) P.E. is zero (D) P.E. is minimum
possess on energy of 100 J. Then the K.E. when it
42. If K.E. of a given particle is doubled, its momentum will reaches ground would be :
be :
(A) 1000 J (B) 100 J
(A) double
(C) 10 J (D) None of these
(B) tripled
(C) 54. An object of mass ‘m’ is moving with a constant veloc-
2 times
ity v. How much work should be done on the object in
(D) remains unchanged
order to bring the object to rest :
43. If the velocity of a car is tripled its K.E. will be : (A) mv (B) mgv
(A) doubled (B) tripled
(C) 9 times (D) increase 15 times 1 2
(C) mv2 (D) mv
2
44. Chlorophyll in the plants convert the light energy into :
(A) heat energy (B) chemical energy 55. If a force F is applied on a body and it moves with a
(C) mechanical energy (D) electrical energy velocity V, the power will be :
45. Kilowatt is the unit of : (A) F × V (B) F/V

2
(A) energy (B) power (C) F/V (D) F × V2
(C) force (D) momentum
PAGE # 122
56. The power of a pump which takes 10s to lift 100 kg of 66. Two bodies of masses MA and MB have equal kinetic
water tank situated at a height of 20 m is : energy. The ratio of their momentum is :
(A) 2 × 10 N 4
(B) 2 × 10 W 3 (A) MB:MA (B) MA : MB
2 (C) MA : MB (D) M2A : M2B
(C) 2 × 10 W (D) None of these
57. Kilowatt-hour is :
67. An engine draws water from a depth of 10 m with
(A) Commercial unit of electric energy
constant speed 2 m/s at the rate of 10 kg per 10 second
(B) Board of trade unit
the power of the engine is (in watt.) : (Take : g = 9.8 m/s2)
(C) Equivalent to kilovolt ampere-hour (A) 102 (B) 98
(D) All of these (C) 100 (D) 200
58. Which of the following relation is/are correct for electric
68. A body of mass 5 kg is moving with a momentum of 10
power :
kg m/s. A force of 0.2 N acts on it in the direction of
V2
(A) P = VI (B) P = motion of the body for 10 sec. The increase in its kinetic
R energy is :
(C) P = I2R (D) All of these
(A) 2.8 J (B) 3.2 J
59. A motor boat is having a steady speed to 20 m/s. If the (C) 3.8 J (D) 4.4 J
water resistance to the motor boat is 600 N, then the
power is : 69. Force F applied on a body moves it through a distance
S along F. Energy spent is :
(A) 12 kW (B) 120 W
(A) F × S (B) F / S
(C) 9.8 kW (D) 1200 W
(C) FS2 (D) F / S2
60. The power of a pump which can pump 100 kg of water
in 10s to a height of 100 m is - 70. The K.E. of a body becomes 4 times its initial value.
(A) 9.8 kW (B) 120 kW The new linear momentum will be :
(C) 1.2 kW (D) 1200 kW (A) same as initial value
(B) four times the initial value
61. The power of a pump which can pump 200 kg/s of (C) twice the initial value
water to a height of 200 m in 10 s is (g = 10 m/s2) (D) eight times the initial value
(A) 40 kW (B) 80 kW
(C) 400 kW (D) 960 kW 71. A body of mass 2 kg is thrown upward with initial
62. 1 kWh equals to : velocity 20 m/s. After 2s its kinetic energy will be :
(A) 3.6 × 104 J (B) 3.6 × 105 J (g = 10 m/s2)
(C) 3.6 × 106 J (D) 3.6 × 107 J (A) 400 J (B) 200 J
(C) 100 J (D) zero
63. 1 kW is equal to :
(A) 1000 watts (B) 10-3 mega watts 72. In the above question the potential energy of the body
(C) A and B both (D) neither A nor B (after 2 sec) will be :
(A) 400 J (B) 200 J
64. Two masses of 1 gm and of 4 gm are moving with
(C) 100 J (D) zero
equal linear momenta, the ratio of their kinetic energies
73. If the kinetic energy of a body is increased by 100%,
is :
then the change in momentum of the body is :
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 2 :1 (A) 4.17% (B) 41.7%
(C) 141.7% (D) none of these
(C) 1 : 2 (D) 1 : 16
74. A man weighing 600 N carries a load of 150 N up the
65. If the linear momentum of a body is increased by 50 %, stairs 6m high in 15 seconds. His power will be :
then K.E. of that body will increase by : (A) 290 W (B) 350 W
(A) 50% (B) 100% (C) 300 W (D) 200 W
(C)125% (D) 25%
PAGE # 123
EXERCISE-2
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS :
(iii) (iv)
1. Body A moves along a circle of radius RA in a horizontal
plane whereas B moves along a circle of radius RB in
Height of the ball Speed of the ball
a vertical plane such that RA > RB. If the work done by
gravity on the two bodies be W A and W B respectively,
(A) I (B) II
then : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(C) III (D) IV
(A) W A > W B
(B) W A =W B = 0
(C) W A = 0 but WB  0 7. A boy throws a ball vertically upwards, then work is
(D) nothing can be said as the data are insufficient done by (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009)
(A) the boy throughout the motion of the ball.
2. If the linear momentum of a body is doubled, its kinetic
(B) the boy only during upward motion of the ball.
energy gets : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(C) the boy only at the moment he throws the ball.
(A) halved (B) doubled
(D) the gravitational force during downward motion of
(C) four times (D) unaffected
the ball.
3. The ratio of minimum kinetic energies of two projectiles
8. A solid square plate is spun around different axes with
of the same mass is 2 : 1. The ratio of maximum
the same angular speed. In which of the following
heights attained by them is 3 : 1. Then, the ratio of their
choice of axis of rotation will the kinetic energy of the
ranges is (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
plate be the largest ? (KVPY/2009)
(A) 1/6 (B) 6 (A) through the central normal to the plate.
(B) along one of the diameter of the plate.
(C) 2 / 3 (D) 3 / 2 (C) along one of the edges of the plate.
(D) through one corner normal to the plate.
4. A mass of 1 mg is equivalent to energy of : 9. A loaded bus (mass m2 ) and an unloaded bus (mass
m 1) are both moving with the same kinetic energy.
(A) 9 × 1010 J (B) 9 × 106 J
Brakes are applied to both the buses so as to exert
(C) 3 × 106 J (D) 3 × 1010 J
equal retarding force. If s1 and s2 are the distances
5. A certain force acting on a body of mass 2 kg increases covered by the two buses respectively, before coming
its velocity from 6 m/s to 15 m/s in 2 s. The work done
by the force during this interval is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2008)
s1
to rest, then
(A) 27 J (B) 3 J s2 is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(C) 94.5 J (D) 189 J

m1
6. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a certain initial (A) 1 : 1 (B)
m2
velocity. Assume that there is no resistance due to air.
Among the graphs below, the graph that is not an
appropriate representation of the motion of the ball is: 2
m1 m1
(KVPY/2008) (C) (D) 2
m2 m2
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
10. A boy throws a stone (mass 100g) vertically upwards.

It reaches a height of 10 m and then falls to the ground.
The work done by the boy is (g = 10 ms–2)
(i) (ii) (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) 10 J. (B) 20 J.
Time Time
(C) zero. (D) –10 J.
PAGE # 124
11. A load is to be moved using a wheelbarrow. The total
mass of the load and wheelbarrow is 60 kg. The 17. A block of mass 2 Kg placed on a floor experiences an
external force in horizontal direction of 20N, frictional
magnitude of gravitational acceleration is 10 ms–2..
force of 6N and normal force of 20N. The body travels
(IJSO/Stage-II/2012) a distance of 10m under the combined effect of all
these force. If Initially body is at rest then what is the
kinetic energy of the body at the end of 4m :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2013)
(A) 140J (B) 260J
(C) 60J (D) 56 J
18. A body of mass 2 kg moving in the positive X-direction

with a speed 4ms–1 collides head on with an another
body of mass 3kg moving in the negative X-direction
with a speed of 1ms–1. During collision a loud sound
is heard and they both start moving together . The sound
energy cannot be greater than : (IJSO/Stage-I/2013)
(A) 12J (B) 14J
(C) 15J (D) 17.5J
What is the work done if the handle is raised by 50 cm? 19. If two bodies of different masses, initially at rest, are

(A) 35.0 J (B) 17.5 J acted upon by the same force for the same time, then
(C) 175 J (D) 350 J both bodies acquire the same : (IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) Velocity (B) acceleration
12. A 750 W motor drives a pump which lifts 300 litres of (C) momentum (D) kinetic energy
water per minute to a height of 6 meters. The efficiency 20. A lift is moving up at constant speed. Consider the
following statements: (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
of the motor is nearly (take acceleration due to gravity
I. The tension in the string is constant
to be 10 m/s2) (KVPY/2011) II. The K.E of the elevator is constant
(A) 30% (B) 40% III.The gravitational P.E of the earth lift system is
(C) 50% (D) 20% constant :
IV. The acceleration of the elevator is zero.
V. The mechanical energy of the earth -lift system is
13. A house uses 7 tubelights of 50 W each, for 5 hours a constant.
day. The electrical energy consumption for one day is : Choose the correct option
(A) 1.75 units (B) 3.5 units (A) Only lI·and V are true
(C) 50 units (D) 350 units (B)Only IV and V are true
(B) Only I, II and III are true
(D) Only I, II and IV are true
14. A 20-V battery connected to a bulb drives a current of 5A
through it. The energy supplied by the battery in 10 21. Two toy cars (a and b) fixed with spring at front, collide
minutes is : as shown in the figure below. 'a' has a mass of 200 g
and is initially moving to the right. Car 'b' has a mass of
(A) 60 J (B) 60 KJ
300 g and is initially at rest. W hen the separation
(C) 10 J (D) 10 KJ between the cars is minimum, (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
15. In a nuclear reactor the fission process of each

atom gives out an energy of 200MeV. According to
Einstein's equation the amount of mass getting
converted to energy in this process is :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2012) (A) car b is at rest
(A) 3.55X10–30 Kg (B) 3.55X10–38Kg (B) car a has come to rest
(C) 3.55X10–28Kg (D) 3.55X10–27Kg (C) both cars have the same kinetic energy (K.E.)
16. An object of mass 1 kg is made to slide down a smooth (D) the K.E of the system is at a minimum
inclined plane of length 20m. If the kinetic energy
possessed by the body at the bottom of the plane is 22. If a force acting is conservative only when :
100 J, then the inclination of the plane with the (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
horizontal is (take g = 10 ms–2) (IJSO/Stage-I/2013) (A) work done by this force is zero when the particle
(A) 45º (B) 37º moves once around any closed path
(C) 60º (D) 30º (B) it obeys Newton's third law
(C) its work is the change in the K.E of the particle
(D) it is not a frictional force
PAGE # 125
23. Air of density  moving with velocity  strikes normally (b) Masses of 300g and 500g are hung at the opposite
on an inclined surface (having area A) of a wedge of ends of a light inextensible string. The string passes
mass m kept on a horizontal surface. Collisions are over a smooth horizonatl peg. The system is released
perfectly elastic (No loss of kinetic energy). Minimum from rest. Calculate the loss is gravitational potential
coefficient of static friction between wedge and the energy of the system when the 300 g mass has
horizontal surface, for the wedge to be stationary, is : ascended by 1 m. At this instant, the other mass is
(IJSO/Stage-II/2015) suddenly reduced by 400 g. How much further will the
300 g mass ascend ? Neglect air resistance.
25. A student of mass 75 kg rides a bicycle of mass 25kg.

The student has a habit of standing on the paddle, one
leg at a time, so that the force of his weight drives the
bicycle. Distance between the top and the bottom
position of the pedal is 20 cm. Ratio of the paddle
wheel (bigger) and the gear (on the rear wheel) is 10.
Radius of the rear wheel of the cycle is 50 cm. The
A 2 student takes 6 second for one full pedal (both the
(A) legs) and spends only that much energy so that the
mg  A 2 cos  cycle runs continously with constant velocity.
(IJSO/Stage-II/2016/Sub.)
2A 2 sin  (I) Calculate the average power that the student
(B) provides to the cycle.
mg  2A 2 cos 
(II) Calculate the kinetic energy of only the cycle during
this uniform motion.
A 2 cos 
(C) (III) What fraction of this kinetic energy (of the cycle) is
mg the loss of energy in various dissipation mechanisms
(D) tan during one full pedal ?
24. (a) A tiny ball is dropped on a smooth inclined plane
as shown in the figure. It falls through 1.8 m before
striking the plane. Coefficient of restitution of impact is
0.5. Calculate time taken by the ball before second
impact Neglect air resistance. (Coefficient of restitution
of collision of two bodies is defined as the numerical
ration of relative speed of recede to relative speed of
approach). (IJSO/Stage-II/2015/Sub.)
1.8 m
60°

PAGE # 126
6. GRAVITATION
Fr 2
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION We have, G
m1m2
The magnitude and the direction of the gravitational

force between two particles are given by the universal Nm 2
In S.I. G = Nm2 kg-2
law of gravitation, which was formulated by Newton. kg kg
Universal Law of Gravitation :
dyne cm2
The force of attraction between any two particles is In C.G.S G = dyne cm2 g-2
directly proportional to the product of the masses of g. g
the particles and is inversely proportional to the square (iii) Values of G :
of the distance between them.
In S.. G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
Mathematical Expression : In C.G.S G = 6.67 × 10-8 dyne cm2 g-2
The universal law of gravitation states that the
magnitude of the force of attraction between the bodies (b) Important Characteristics of Gravitational
is : Force :
(i) Gravitational force between two bodies form an
(i) directly proportional to the product of their masses.
action and reaction pair i.e, the forces are equal in
(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance magnitude but opposite in direction.
between them. (ii) Gravitational force is a central force i.e., it acts along
the line joining the centres of the two interacting bodies.
m1 m2
(iii) Gravitational force between two bodies is
independent of the nature of the intervening medium.
(iv) Gravitational force between two bodies does not
r depend upon the presence of other bodies.
According to law of gravitation (v) Gravitational force is negligible in case of light

bodies but becomes appreciable in case of massive
F  m1m2 ........(i)
bodies like stars and planets.
1 (vi) Gravitational force is a long range force i.e,
F ........(ii)
r2 gravitational force between two bodies is effective even
if their distance of separation is very large. For example,
combining (i) and (ii)
gravitational force between the sun and the earth is of
m1m 2 Gm1m 2 the order of 1022 N, although distance between them is
F F = 1.5 × 108 km.
r2 r2
(vii) Gravitational force is a conservative force.
When G is proportionality constant and is known as
the universal gravitational constant. (viii)Distances are always measured from the centre
of the bodies.
(a) Universal Gravitational Constant :
(ix) The gravitational force is always an attraction force.
(i) Definition : (c ) E xp er im enta l Supp ort for t he Law of
Gravita tion :
Gm1m 2
In relation, F (i) All the planets including the earth, rotate around the
r2 sun due to gravitational force between the sun and the
If m1 = m 2 = 1, r = 1, then F = G. Hence, universal planet.
gravitational constant may be defined as the force of (ii) Tides are formed in oceans due to gravitational
attraction between two bodies of unit masses force between the moon and the earth.
separated by unit distance apart. (iii) It is the gravitational force between the planet and
its satellite which makes the satellite to move around
(ii) Units of G : the planet.
Gm1m 2 (iv) The atmosphere of the earth is due to the
F 2
r gravitational force of the earth.
PAGE # 127
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION AND 6.67  10 –11  50  50
GRAVITATION F= = 1.67 × 10–7 N.
12
Newton’s third law of motion says that : If an object Force of gravity,
exerts a force on another object, then the second object
GMm
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object. F’ = Here r = R, radius of the earth
The Newton’s third law of motion also holds good for r2
the force of gravitation. This means that when earth and m1 = M = mass of earth, m2 = m = mass of object
exerts a force of attraction on an object, then the object
6.67  10 –11  6  10 24  50
also exerts force on the earth in the opposite direction. F’ = = 0.48 × 103 N .......(ii)
Thus, even a falling object attracts the earth towards 6.4  10 
6 2
itself. When an object, say a stone, is dropped from a

F’ is much greater than F so the persons will not move
height, it gets accelerated and falls towards the earth
towards each other but each of them moves towards the
and we say that the stone comes down due to the
earth.
gravitational force of attraction exerted by the earth. Now,
the stone also exerts an equal and opposite force on
the earth, then why don’t we see the earth rising up ESTIMATION OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
towards the stone. BETWEEN DIFFERENT OBJECTS
From Newton’s second law of motion, we know that : (a) Between Sun and Earth :
Mass of earth, m1 = 6 × 1024 kg
Force = Mass × Acceleration
Mass of the sun, m2 = 2 × 1030 kg
Force Distance between the sun and the earth,
So, Acceleration = r = 1.5 × 1011m
Mass
Gravitational force between the sun and the earth,
or a= F
M Gm1m 2
F
It is clear from this formula that the acceleration
r2
produced in a body is inversely proportional to the mass
6.67  10 11 Nm2 kg 2  6 10 24 kg  2  10 30 kg
of the body. Now, the mass of a stone is very small, F=
due to which the gravitational force produces a large 1.5  10 m
11 2
acceleration in it. Due to large acceleration of stone, F = 3.6 × 1022 N

we can see the stone falling towards the earth. The The gravitational force between the sun and the earth
mass of earth is, however, very - very large. Due to the is very large (i.e. 3.6 × 1022 N). This force keeps
very large mass of the earth, the same gravitational the earth bound to the sun.
force produces very- very small acceleration in the earth.
(b) Between Moon and Earth :
Actually, the acceleration produced in the earth is so
small that it cannot be observed. And hence we do not Mass of the earth, m1 = 6 × 1024 kg
see the earth rising up towards the stone. Mass of the moon, m2 = 7.4 × 1022 kg
Distance between the earth and the moon, r = 3.8 × 108 m
ILLUSTRATIONS  Gravitational force between the earth and the moon,
1. Two persons having mass 50kg each, are standing Gm1 m 2

such that the centre of gravity are 1m apart. F=
r2
Calculate the force of gravitation and also calculate
the force of gravity on each. 6.67  10 11 Nm2 kg2  6 10 24 kg 7.4 10 22 kg
(Take G = 6.67 × 10–11 N.m2 kg–2 , mass of earth F=
M = 6 × 1024 kg, radius of earth R = 6.4 × 106 m.)
3.8  10 m
8 2
F = 2.05 × 1020 N
Sol. Given : m1 = m2 = 50 kg.
r = 1m. , G = 6.67 × 10–11 N.m2 / kg2 This large gravitational force keeps the moon to move
around the earth. This large gravitational force is also
Gm1m 2 responsible for the ocean tides.
Force of gravitation F =
r2
PAGE # 128
2. Two bodies A and B having mass m and 2m respectively
are kept at a distance d apart. Where should a small FORCE OF GRAVITATION OF THE EARTH (GRAVITY)
particle be placed so that the net gravitational force on it
Gravitation and gravity :
due to the bodies A and B is zero ?
Attraction between two bodies having mass of same
Sol. It is clear that the particle must be placed on the line
order, is called gravitation and the force is called
AB, suppose it is at a distance x from A . Let its mass
gravitational force. Forces involved are very small and
is m’.
the attracting bodies do not move towards each other.
The force on m’ due to A, Attraction between a planet (earth) or its satellite and a
body, having masses of widely different order is called
Gmm' gravity and the force is called force of gravity. Forces
F1 = towards A
x2 involved are large and body moves towards the planet.
Thus, gravity becomes a special case of gravitation in
which small bodies move towards huge planets.
Then force of gravity,
GMm
F 2
and that due to B is - r
Here M represents the mass of earth and m represents
the mass of a body.
G2mm '
F2 = towards B.
d – x 2 BODIES FALLING NEAR THE SURFACE OF
The net force will be zero if F1 = F2 THE EARTH
Gmm ' G2mm ' (a) Galileo’s Observations on Falling Bodies :

Thus , = 2
x 2 d – x  The speed of falling body increases as it comes down.
2 2 This means that the body accelerates, when it falls
or (d – x) = 2x
freely. Suppose we drop a coin and a feather from the
d–x=± 2 x. same height simultaneously. W hich will reach the
ground first ? The answer is obvious , the coin will
d=(1± 2 )x reach earlier than lighter feather or we can say that the
heavier objects comes down more faster than lighter
d d
ones but such a generalization is not correct. If we take
x=
1  2  or x =
1 – 2  two solid balls of different masses, say, one of 1 kg
As x cannot be negative and the other of 2 kg, and drop them from the same
height, we will find that they reach the ground almost
d
simultaneously.
So x =
1  2  It is said that Galileo dropped two stones of different
3. Force between two masses is 5N if itheir masses masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (in Italy) and
founded that they reached the ground simultaneously.
Galileo argued that the air resist an object travelling
become doubled and distance between them is
through it. If the material is dense and its surface area
is small, the resistance due to air is quite small
halved, then find new force. compared to the force of gravity. Thus one can neglect
the effect of air resistance while studying falling stones,
Gm1m 2 metallic blocks, coins etc. But the effect of air resistance
Sol. Initial force, F = = 5N is very important for small pieces of paper, feathers,
r2
leaves etc. each of which has a large surface area and
G2m1  2m2 low density. When a coin and a feather fall through air,
Final force, F = air offers greater resistance to the motion of the feather
r / 22 and less resistance to the motion of the coin. According
to Galileo’s argument, if air is totally removed, the coin
Gm1m 2 and the feather will fall simultaneously.
F = 16 × F = 16 F = 16 × 5
r2
Newton was born in the year Galileo died. Galileo did
F = 80 N not have access to the equations for gravitational
attraction and the acceleration resulting from a force.
Still, he correctly predicted something from his
observations that was contrary to everyday experience.
PAGE # 129
Galileo’s prediction was tested by the British scientist The acceleration has the same value, both in
Robert Boyle. He kept a coin and a feather in a long magnitude (9.8 m/s2) and direction (towards center of
glass tube and evacuated the air from inside the tube earth), whether the particle falls, moves up or moves
by using a vacuum pump. When the tube was inverted, at some angle with the vertical. In all these cases, we
the coin and the feather fell together. say that the particle moves freely under gravity.
(b) Acceleration due to Gravity : (c) Value of ‘g’ on the Surface of the Moon :
If we drop a ball from a height, its speed increases as
time passes. If we throw a ball upwards, its speed
GM
g , where M is the mass of a heavenly body like
decreases till it reaches the highest point. If we throw R2
the ball at an angle to the vertical, its direction of motion earth and R is its radius. As all heavenly bodies (like
changes. In all these cases, the velocity of the ball planets, the sun and the moon) are of different masses
changes, i.e., the ball is accelerated, whenever an and different radii, so the value of g is different on
object moves near the surface of the earth with no different heavenly bodies.
other object pushing or pulling it, it is accelerated. This
acceleration is caused due to the force of gravity and is GMm
called the acceleration due to gravity. We know, gmoon  2 ........... (i)
Rm
Consider an object of mass m moving freely near the
earth’s surface. Neglecting air resistance, the only Mm (mass of the moon) = 7.4 × 1022 kg
force on it, is due to gravity. This force has magnitude : Rm (radius of the moon) = 1.75 × 106 m
GMem G = 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2
F ......(i) Then, from equation (i), gmoon
R 2e
where Me = mass of the earth, m = mass of the object, 6.673  10 11 Nm2 kg2  7.47  1022 kg
=
and Re = radius of the earth. 1.75  10 m
6 2
As the earth’s radius R e (6400 km) is large as

gmoon = 1.63 ms-2
compared to distance of the object from the earth’s
surface. W e use R e in Equation (i) to denote the gmoon 1.63 ms 2 1
distance of the object from the centre of the earth. As Now, = 2 =
gearth 9.8 ms 6
the force given by equation (i), is the resultant force on
the object, its acceleration is
F GMe or g  1g
moon earth
a = 6
m R 2e
Thus acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon
Note that this acceleration does not depend on the
mass of the object. Thus we have the following : 1
is times the acceleration due to gravity on the surface
6
If gravity is the only acting force (meaning that air
resistance is neglected), then all objects move with of the earth.
the same acceleration near the earth’s surface. This
acceleration is called the acceleration due to gravity,
whose magnitude ‘g’ is given by MASS OF EARTH AND MEAN DENSITY OF EARTH
GMe (a) Mass of the Earth :

g 2
Re
The mass of the earth can be calculated by using
2  Newton’s law of gravitation. Consider a body of mass

 6.67  10 11 N m   6  10 24 kg
  m lying on the surface of the earth, then force of gravity
 kg2 
g=  = 9.8 ms–2 acting on the body is given by
 6
6.4  10 m
2

GMm
F= ............(i)
The direction of this acceleration is towards the centre R2
of the earth, i.e, in the vertically downward direction.
where, M = mass of the earth
R = radius of the earth
Also, F = mg ............(ii)
PAGE # 130
to move it from rest or stopping it from motion. The
GMm body exhibits inertia. Thus, mass offers inertia. This
From (i) and (ii), we have mg  or
R2 mass is called inertial mass (m i).
A body never has a zero mass.
gR 2
M Measurement of mass :
G
Mass of a body is measured by a beam balance by
Now g = 9.8 ms-2, R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106 m comparing the mass with bodies of known mass. At
G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 one place, bodies of same mass have same pull of
gravity on them.
M=

9.8  6.4  10 6 
2
= 5.98 × 1024 kg A beam balance works on the principle of moments

6.67  10 11 (Bodies of equal masses, having equal weights, have
equal and opposite moments about fulcrum of the
Thus, the order of the mass of earth is 1025 kg
balance, when suspended at equal distances from
(b) Mean Density of Earth : the fulcrum, and make the beam horizontal).
GM (b) Weight :
We know, g =
R2
Definition :
Let  be the mean density of the earth. Since earth is
The force with which a body is attracted towards the
assumed to be a homogeneous sphere of radius R, centre of the earth, is called the weight of the body. It is
therefore, mass of the earth is given by represented by the symbol W.
4 It is a vector quantity having direction towards the centre

M = Volume × density = R 3 of the earth. It’s unit is Newton (N)
3
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get Expression for weight :
If mass of a body = m
G 4 3 4
g = 2 × R  = GR Acceleration due to gravity of the earth = g
R 3 3
Then from relation,
Force = Mass × Acceleration i.e, W = mg
3g
This is the required expression.
   4 GR
Nature :
Since, g = 9.8 ms-2; As W = mg, the weight of a body will vary from place to
G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2, R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106 m place due to variation in value of g.
A body has zero weight at the centre of the earth (where

3  9. 8
  g = 0).
4  3.142  6.67  10 11  6.4  10 6
Measurement of weight :
3
or
ρ  5478.4 kgm Weight of a body is measured by a spring balance.
(c) Difference between Mass and Weight :
Density of earth 5478.4 kg m 3 Mass Weight
= ~ 5.5
Density of water 1000 kg m 3
1. Mass is quantity of matter 1. Weight is the force with which a
possessed by a body. body is attracted towards the centre
Thus, density of earth is about 5.5 times the density of
of the earth.
water. 2. It is a scalar quantity. 2. It is a vector quantity.
3. Its S.I unit is kilogram (kg). 3. Its S.I. unit is newton (N).
MASS AND WEIGHT 4. Mass of a body remains 4. Weight of the body changes
constant at all places. from place to place.
(a) Mass : 5. Mass of a body is 5. Weight of a body becomes zero
never zero. at the centre of the earth.
Definition :
6. Mass is measured by a beam 6. Weight is measured by
Quantity of matter possessed by a body, is called the balance. a spring balance.
mass of the body. It is represented by the symbol m. It
is a scalar quantity. (d) Weight of object on Moon :
Nature : A body of mass m has weight, W = mg

For calculation
A body with more mass, needs a greater effort (force)
For earth, ge = 9.8 ms-2
PAGE # 131
For moon gm = 1.7 ms-2 The mass of a body remains the same throughout the
Hence, universe, but as the value of ‘g’ is different at different
For earth, W e = mge places. Hence, the weight of a body is different at
For moon W m = mgm different places.
Wm mgm gm (i) The value of ‘g’ is more at poles and less at the
1 .7 1
Ratio = = =  equator. Therefore, weight of a body is more at the
We mge ge 9.8 6
poles and less at the equator. In otherwords, a body
weighs more at the poles and less at the equator.
1
i.e. Weight on moon = th weight on earth.
6 (ii) The value of ‘g’ on the surface of different planets of
the solar system is different, therefore, the weight of a
kg.wt. is a unit of force :
body is different on different planets.
From relation, W = mg
If m = 1 kg W = 9.8 N (iii) The value of ‘g’ decreases with height from the
Hence a 1 kg body has a weight of 9.8 N surface of the earth. Therefore, the weight of a body
It means that 9.8 N becomes equal to a force of 1 also decreases with height from the surface of the
kilogram weight (kg.wt.) earth. That is why, the weight of a man is less on the
peak of Mount Everest than the weight of the man at
(e) Variation in the weight of a body :
Delhi.
Weight of the body is given by, (iv) The value of ‘g’ decreases with depth from the
W = mg surface of the earth. Therefore, the weight of a
So the weight of a body depends upon (i) the mass of body decreases with depth from the surface of the earth.
the body and (ii) value of acceleration due to gravity (g) (v) The value of ‘g’ at the centre of the earth is zero, hence
at a place. weight (=mg) of the body is zero at the centre of the earth.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘g’ and ‘G’
Acceleration due to gravity (g) Universal gravitational constant (G)
1. The acceleration produced in a body falling 1. The gravitational force between two bodies of unit
freely under the action of gravitational pull of the masses separated by a unit distance is known as
earth is known as acceleration due to gravity. universal gravitational constant.
2. The value of 'g' is different at different points on

2. The value of 'G' is same at every point on the earth.
the earth.
3. The value of 'g' decreases as we go higher from
3. The value of 'G' does not change with height and
the surface of the earth or as we go deep into
depth from the surface of the earth.
the earth.
4. The value of 'G' is not zero at the centre of the earth

4. The value of 'g' at the centre of the earth is zero.
or anywhere else.
5. The value of 'g' is different on the surfaces of
different heavenly bodies like the sun, moon, 5. The value of 'G' is same throughout the universe.
the planets.
6. The value of 'g' on the surface of the earth is 6. The value of G = 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 throughout
9.8 ms -2. the universe.
PAGE # 132
4. A helicopter is ascending with a velocity of 2 m/s at a
2
height of 24 m when it drops a mail packet. The packet  300 Me  Re 
contains material, which can be damaged if it hits = ge =   
 m e  10 Re 
ground with velocity greater than 72 km/h. W as the
packet damaged ? Explain your answer. (g = 10 m/s2) gP = 3ge .........(i)
1
Sol. Velocity during ascent = 2 m / s s = 0+ gt2
Height of the helicopter = 24 m 2 ee
Height from where the packet is dropped = 24 m
1 tP ge 1
Initial velocity of the packet, u = – 2 m/s s= g t2   
2 PP te gP 3
Final velocity of the packet, v = ?
Using the equation, 1
v2 – u2 = 2 as tP = te
3
v2 – (– 2 m/s)2 = 2 × 10 m/s2 ×24 m
v2 = 480 m2/s2 + 4 m2/s2 = 484 m2/ s2 VARIATION IN THE VALUE OF 'g’
This gives,
v= The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) varies as
484m 2 / s 2 = 22 m / s
we go above or below the surface of the earth. It also
Converting the units of velocity,
varies from place to place on the surface of the earth.
22  1 m 22  10 –3 km P
v= 
1s (1 / 60  60)h h
= 22 × 10–3 × 60 × 60 km/h = 79.2 km/h Q
Thus, the packet hits the ground with a velocity of 79.2
km/h.
R
Because the packet hits the ground with a velocity M O
greater than the limit for safety (72 km/h), it will get
damaged.
5. The mass of the red planet is 0.1 times of the earth (a) Variation of ‘g’ with Altitude :
1 Consider earth to be a sphere of radius R and Mass M.
and its radius is that of the earth. compare the
2 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth
acceleration due to gravity on the planet’s surface to (point Q in the figure) is
that on the surface of the earth. GM
Sol. g ........... (i)
R2
Mass=me Mass=MP =0.1Me Consider a point P at a height h above the surface of the
earth. The acceleration due to gravity at point P is
Radius=Re Radius=RP = Re/2
GM
Earth Red planet gh  ............(ii)
R  h2
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we have
GMe R2e
2 2
ge Re  M  R  Me R2 R2
   e  P  ~   42 gh
gP GM 0. 1M = =
P  MP  R e  e Re g (R  h)2  h
2
RP2 R 2 1  
 R
ge : gP = 10 : 4 = 5 : 2
g
6. How much faster does a body fall on Jupiter considering gh  2
face that Jupiter is 300 times heavier than earth and or
 h ............(iii)
1 
10 times bigger than earth.  R
Sol. mP = 300 Me, RP = 10 Re
Therefore, gh < g. Thus as we go above the surface of
2 earth, acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing.
 MP  Re 
gP = ge    Equation (iii) can be written as :

 Me  RP 
PAGE # 133
g h 2 GM
gh   g(1  ) g
 h
2 R R2
1  
 R  If  is the density of the earth, then,
4
 2h h mass of earth, M = R 3 
gh= g 1   terms containing higher powers of  3
 R R
If h is small compared to R, higher powers of h/R can
4 3 
be neglected.  R   G
  3 
g 2
 2h  R
 gh  g  1  R  ............ (iv)
 
Equation (iv) may be used when h is small as 4
or g RG .............. (v)
compared to R. However, if h is comparable to R, then 3
equation (iii) may be used. Note that acceleration due Consider a point P which is inside the earth and at a
to gravity is maximum at the surface of the earth. depth d below the surface of the earth. Its distance
For example, at a height equal to the radius of the from the centre O is (R – d). Let a sphere be drawn with
earth (i.e, h = R = 6400 km), we have O as centre and (R – d) as radius. The acceleration
due to gravity gd at P is only due to the sphere of radius
g g
gh  2 = (R – d).
 R 4
1   G M'
 R gd 
 (R  d)2
 NOTE :
We can calculate the percentage decrease in the value where M = Mass of inner solid sphere (shaded portion)
of g with height h as under :
4 3
From equation (iv), we have M= R  d 
3
 2h 
gh  g 1  
 R 4 3
 3 (R  d) ρ G
 gd =  
2hg (R  d)2
or g  gh 
R
4
or gd = (R  d) G  .............. (vi)
g  gh 2h 3
or = ..... fractional decrease in g
g R
Dividing equation (vi) by equation (v), we have
 Percentage decrease in the value of g with height
h is gd R  d

g  gh 2h g R
%= × 100
g R
 d
(b) Variation of g with depth : or gd = g 1   .............. (vii)
 R
Consider the earth to be a sphere of radius R and Therefore gd < g. Thus as we go below the surface of
mass M. The acceleration due to gravity at point Q on the earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes on
the surface of the earth is,
decreasing and becomes zero at the centre of the earth
Q (where d = R). Figure shows the variation of gd and gh
as a function of r. W here r is the distance from the
P d
R centre of the earth.
O R–d
1
Outside the earth, gh 
r2
PAGE # 134
(i) Shape of the earth :
gd and gh The earth is not a perfect sphere : It flattens at the

poles (where  = 90 0) and bulges out at the equator
(where =00). Its equatorial radius RE is nearly 21 km
larger than the polar radius RP. We know that the value
of g depends upon the radius (R) of the earth.
GM
g=
r<R r=R r>R R2
Since G and M are constant g  1/ R 2 .

2
For points outside the earth g h 1/r . The maximum
Thus the value of g at a place on the surface of earth
value of gravitational acceleration is obtained at the
surface of earth where, r = R. varies inversely as the square of the radius of earth at
Inside the earth, gd r that place. The radius of earth is least at the poles and
Thus inside the earth gd r. In other words, inside the greatest at the equator.
earth (assuming uniform earth density). g d varies
linearly with the distance from the centre of the earth. It
is easy to see that the value of g is maximum at the A
surface of the earth and it is zero at the centre of the
earth. That is why the weight of the body at the centre of
the earth is zero though its mass is constant.
 NOTE :
We can calculate the percentage decrease in the value

of g with depth h inside the earth as under :
From eq. (vii), we have g at poles –
 d GM
gd  g1  
 R gP = R 2 .......(i)
P
dg and g at equator–
or g  gd 
R GM
gE = .......(ii)
g  gd RE2
d
or = ......fractional decrease in g
g R On dividing equation (i) by equation (ii)
 Percentage decrease in the value of g with depth d 2

inside the earth is gP  RE 
 
gE  RP 
g  gd d
%= × 100
g R  RE > RP
So, gP > gE
(c) Variation of g with Latitude :
Therefore the value of g is maximum at the poles and
The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) changes least at the equator. In fact, as we go from the equator
due to the change in latitude. This is due to two reasons: towards the pole, the radius of earth goes on
(i) shape of the earth and (ii) rotation of the earth about decreasing and hence the value of g goes on
its own axis. The latitude at a place on the surface of increasing. The value of g at the equator is 9.78 ms-2
earth is defined as the angle which the line joining the whereas at poles, it is 9.83 ms-2.
place to the centre of the earth makes with the
(ii) Rotation of earth :
equatorial plane. It is denoted by . Thus referring to
The earth is rotating about is axis from west to east.
figure the latitude at place P = POE =  . It is clear
So every body on its surface is moving in a circle, i.e.,
that = 900 at poles and  = 00 at the equator.. is in accelerated motion. So the effective acceleration
due to gravity (as in a lift accelerated down) will be
PAGE # 135
Gm  y3 
F=  M   = – GMm y
y2  R3 
  R3
i.e. the restoring force is linear; so the motion is linear
SHM with force constant
GMm m R3
k= 3 so that T = 2 = 2
R k GM
R
Furthermore as g = GM/R2 , T = 2
g
gA = gP – a .......(i)
Which is same as that of a simple pendulum of infinite
where a is the acceleration of the body towards the length and is equal 84.6 minute.
centre of earth due to its circular motion. Now for a Case – II If the tunnel is along a chord and ball is
body at P the centripetal acceleration ar =  2r along
released from the surface
AO =  2 R cos  along AO AO (as r = R cos  ); so
component of ar along AO will be
a = ar cos  = R  2 cos2  ..........(ii)
Substituting this value of a in equation(i),
gA = gP – R  2 cos2 
Here  is angular speed of earth
It is clear from the following equation that the
acceleration due to gravity decreases on account of
rotation of the earth.
If the ball at any time is at distance x from the center of
If object is at equatorial line than gA = gE and  = 0º i.e. the tunnel as shown in Figure., the restoring force will
gE = gP – 2R be.
 GMm  x GMm
TIME PERIOD FOR OSCILLATION F’ = F sin =  3
y   = – x
UNDER GRAVITY  R  y R3
W hich is again linear with same force constant k =
Motion of a ball in a tunnel through the earth : (GmM/R3) so that the motion is linear simple harmonic
case -1 If the tunnel is along a diameter and the ball with same time period.
is released from the surface :
m R3 R
T = 2 = 2 = 2 = 84.6 minute.
k GM g
 NOTE :
(1) As in SHM,umax = A  = A ( g / R ) [as  2 = g/R], in
case I and II though time period is same , umax will be

different due to the fact that in case II, A = semichord
If the ball at any time is at a distance y from the center
while in case I,A =R. So in case I, umax =R ( g / R ) = 8 km/s
of the earth, the restoring force will act on the ball due
to gravitation between ball and earth. But from theory (= speed of a satellite close to the surface of earth).
of gravitation we know that force that acts on a particle
inside the earth at a distance y from its center is only
(2) If the ball in case I or II is dropped from a height h
due to mass M’ of the earth that lies within the sphere
(or with an initial velocity u, so that h = u2/2g),the ball
of radius y. (The portion of the earth that lies outside
this sphere does not exert any net force on the particle)
will reach the earth in time t = ( 2h / g) , and on the
So F = – (GmM’/y2).
other side will go out of earth through the same dis-
But as M = (4/3)R3  and M’ = (4/3)y3  i.e. M’ = M(y/R)3 tance before coming back towards the earth. However,
outside the earth F  (–1/r2) and not (–r),so the motion
does not remain simple harmonic but becomes oscil-
latory .
PAGE # 136
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL (GP) GMm
FA =
R2
The work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to
a point in the gravitational field without accelerating is
called the gravitational potential at that point. Now, if the body is at B, then
(i) GP, is taken to be zero at infinity.
GMm
(ii) GP, is always negative (since the direction of force FB =
by the agent and displacement is opposite )
R12
If W is the work obtained in bringing a mass m from
infinite to a point, then the gravitational potential at that Since points, A and B are very close together, hence
point, the force acting on the body from A to B can be taken as
geometric mean of FA and FB.
W
Vg = – J/kg So that,
m
The gravitational potential at a distance r from the centre GMm GMm GMm
of the earth is FAB = FA  FB   =
R2 R12 RR1
GM The work done in carrying the body from A to B against
Vg = –
r the force of attraction
For the surface of the earth, r = R
GMm
W AB = FAB ×(R1 – R) =
GM RR1 (R1– R )
Vg = –
R
1 1 
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY = GMm   
 R R1 
The work done in bringing any body from infinity to a  1 1 

point in the gravitational field is called the gravitational Similarly , W BC = GMm   
potential energy of that body at that point. Suppose a  R1 R 2 
body of mass m is placed at a point A on the surface of
the earth, mass of the earth be M and radius be R  1 1 
distance (A to ) is divided into small segments AB, and W CD = GMm   

R
 2 R 3 
BC, CD... suppose the distances of points B, C, D, ....
from the centre of earth are R1, R2, R3,...... respectively. Total work done in bringing the body of mass m from A
Force acting upon the body at point A to 
W = W AB + W BC + W CD ............ 
Infinity  1 1  1 1   1 1   1 
= GMm  R  R    R  R    R  R   ..........   
 1  1 2   2 3   
D 1 1 1
= GMm    ( = 0)
C R   
B
GMm
A Or W =
R
R
R3R2 R1
It is the work done in bringing a mass m from the
O earth’s surface to infinity.
Earth If it bring from infinity to the surface of the earth work
done will be :
GMm
W=– .......(i)
R
PAGE # 137
This work done is equal to the potential energy of the
body :
v0 m
GMm
U=– .......(ii) r
R
Gravitational potential energy at a height h from the h
R
earths surface
GMm
Uh =  .......(iii)
(R  h)
If we put m = 1 in equation (ii) and (iii)
(GP) on the earth’s surface GM g
or v 0   v0  R with
GM r (R  h)
Vg = 
R
(GP) at a height of h from the earth’s surface
GM
g= and r = (R + h) ......(i)
R2
GM
Vg =  From this expression it it clear that :
Rh
(A) Orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the
PLANETS AND SATELLITES orbiting body and is always along the tangent to the
orbit.
(a) Planets : (B) Orbital velocity depends on the mass of central
body and radius of orbit. Greater the radius of orbit
Planets are large natural bodies rotating around a star
in definite orbits. The planetary system of the star sun 1
called solar system consists of eight planets, viz., lesser will be the orbital velocity [v0  ]
r
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune. Out of these planets Mercury is the
(C) Close to the surface of earth r = R as h = 0
smallest, closest to the sun and hottest. Jupiter is the
largest planet. Saturn has maximum thirty moons.  v0 = gR  10  6.4  10 6
Venus is closest to Earth and brightest. Kepler after a
life time study worked out three empirical laws which v0 ~
 8 km/s
govern the motion of these planets and are known as
Kepler’s Law. (ii) Time period of the satellite :
(b) Satellites :
The time taken by the satellite to make one com-
Satellites are natural or artificial bodies describing orbit plete rotation around the earth is called time pe-
around a planet under its gravitational attraction. Moon riod. It is given by
is a natural satellite while INSAT-IB is an artificial
satellite of earth. W e shall here now compute and Distance travelled by satellite
T= =
discuss some physical entities of interest for a satellite Speed of satellite
undergoing circular motion.
Circumference of the orbit of the satellite
(i) Orbital velocity v0 : Let a satellite of mass m be
Orbital velocity
moving in an orbit of radius r with speed v0 as shown
in figure. The centripetal force required for the motion
1 1
is ( mv 02 / r ) while the gravitational force is GMm/r2. As 2r  r3  2 2  r 3  2
= v = 2   =  
gravitation provides centripetal force, 0  GMe  R g
mv 20 GMm 2 GM If the satellite is very close to earth i.e. h is very

  v0 
r r2 r small as compared to R then, r = R  h  R
1
R  2
T = 2  
g
PAGE # 138
(iii) Altitude of satellite :
TOTAL ENERGY OF SATELLITE
The altitude of satellite is given by
1 Let a satellite of mass m revolve around the earth in

 T 2 gR2  3 circular orbit of radius r . Let M  be the mass of the
h=  2 
R
earth, R its radius and orbital velocity of satellite is v0.
 4 
The kinetic energy of satellite
knowing the time period T and radius of earth R, we
2
can calculate the altitude h or the height of the 1 2 1  GM 
EK = mv 0  m
satellite above the earth’s surface. 2 2  r 
ESCAPE VELOCITY
1 GMm
EK = ......(i)
2 r
It is the minimum velocity with which a body should be
projected from the surface of the planet so as to reach The potential energy of satellite
infinity. GMm
EP = – .....(ii)
If a body of mass m is projected with velocity ve from r
the surface of a planet of mass M and radius R then by Hence, total energy of satellite
the law of conservation of mechanical energy,
1 GMm GMm
(K.E. + P.E.) at surface = (K.E. + P.E.) at . ET = EK + EP = 
2 r r
1  GMm 
m v 2e +    =0+0 GMm
2  R  ET = –
2r
(–Ve) sing shows that satellite is bounded under the
gravitational force of the earth.
1
Note : Total energy of satellite = -K.E. = P.E.
2
BINDING ENERGY
1 2 GMm The binding energy of a satellite is the amount of energy

mve  which on giving to it, makes the satellite escape from
2 R
the orbit.
2GM We know that total energy of the satellite is
or ve = ......(i)
R
1 GMm
 GM = gR2 ET = –
2 r
2gR2 1 GMm
or ve =  ve = 2gR . If the satellite is given energy + , then total
R 2 r
i.e. ve ~
 11.2 km/s energy becomes zero and it leaves the orbit forever
Relation between Escape Velocity and Orbital Velocity : GMm

So that binding energy of satellite is EB = + .
2r
The orbital velocity of satellite, v0 = gR .....(i)
The escape velocity, ve = 2gR = 2 gR
ve = 2 v 0 from equation (i) A satellite whose time period is 24 hours and is

revolving in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the
or v0 = ve / 2 equational plane of earth is called geostationary or
stationary satellite.
h  36000 km, v0 3.08 km/s.
PAGE # 139
WEIGHTLESSNESS
A satellite that revolves in a polar orbit is called a polar (a) Introduction :

satellite. A polar orbit is one whose plane is
When a man stands on weighing machine at rest, his
perpendicular to the equatirial plane of the earth. As
weight compresses its spring downwards. Due to
the earth rotates about its axis, the polar satellite
upward reaction, the pointer of the machine moves
successively passes across the different parts of
over the scale and the machine records the weight of
earth’s surface. Thus the polar satellite eventually
the man.
scans the entire surface of the earth. Examples of polar
But when the same machine starts falling down freely,
satellites are European SPOT and the Indian Earth
resources satellites (IERS). there is no reaction and the pointer stays at zero
recording a zero weight.
Uses of polar satellites :
The man falling freely under the action of gravity has
(i) Polar satellites are used in weather and become weightless.
environment monitoring. They provide more reliable
information than geostationary satellites because their Definition :
orbits are closed to the earth.
Weightlessness may be defined as the state in which
(ii) They are used in spying work for military purposes. a body loses its weight due to free fall.
(iii) British polar satellite first detected hole in the ozone (b) Demonstration :
layer.
Let a stone piece be suspended from a spring balance
(iv) They are used to study topography of Moon, Venus suspended by a hand finger. The balance shows the
and Mars. actual weight of the stone.
W hen the balance is released from hand finger, the
LAUNCHING OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES balance falls freely with the hanging stone piece. The
, balance shows a zero reading. This proves that the
 The artificial satellites are placed in an orbit with the freely falling stone is weightless.
help of multistage rockets. The friction of air is (i) The spring balance shows the weight of the stone.
maximum near the earth and the force of gravitation is
(ii) Freely falling spring balance with the stone showing
also large, hence the first part is made larger and fuel
a zero reading.
is filed in, a large quantity.
,
 The satellite is put in the nose of a rocket first of all the

rocket launched vertically, after that by and by turned
horizontally.
As soon as fuel of the first part of rocket finishes it falls-
off from the satellite and the fuel of second part begins
to burn. After finishing the fuel, the second part is also
separated and the fuel of the third part begins to burn.
This part puts the satellite in the orbit with calculated
speed. Now the satellite revolves round the earth in a
atmosphere free orbit.
(c ) W ei ghtl es snes s of an A st rona ut i n a

Satellite (Space Ship) :
A satellite is a freely falling body orbiting round the

earth. It tries to reach the earth but its path being parallel
to earth’s surface. It does not reach the earth. Hence
the satellite and all the bodies inside it become
weightless.
It is due to this situation of weightlessness of

astronauts that they are shown floating in spaceship
in films on television.
PAGE # 140
Kepler's Law
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. These are :
(i) The law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits
with the sun at one focus.
EXERCISE-1
(ii) The law of areal velocity : A line that connects a NEW TON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION :
planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
time i.e., the areal velocity of the planet is always 1. When an apple falls from a tree :
constant. (A) only earth attracts the apple
(B) only apple attracts the earth
(C) both the earth and the apple attract each other
(D) none attracts each other
2. Force of attraction between two bodies does not

depend upon :
(A) the shape of bodies
(B) the distance between their centres
(C) the magnitude of their masses
(D) the gravitational constant
(iii) The law of periods : The square of the period of
revolution of any planet is proportional to the cube of 3. When the medium between two bodies changes, force
the semi-major axis of the orbit, i.e., T2  r3. of gravitation between them :
Newton showed that these empirical laws followed (A) will increase
from his law of gravitation. These laws are found to (B) will decrease
hold equally well for satellites either natural or artificial (C) will change according to the environment
orbiting around a planet [Earth or any other massive (D) remains same
central body].
4. S.I. unit of G is :
Shape of the orbit of a satellite :
(A) Nm2 kg-2 (B) Nm kg-2
Let V be the velocity of the satellite in its orbit. (C) N kg2 M-2 (D) Nkg m-2
And V0 = orbital velocity, Ve = escape velocity.
5. The value of universal gravitational constant :
(i) If V < V0, the satellite falls to the earth following
a spiral path. (A) changes with change of place
(B) does not change from place to place
(ii) If V = V0, the satellite continues to move in the (C) becomes more at night
circular orbit. (D) becomes more during the day
(iii) If V0 < V < Ve, then the satellite moves in ellip- 6. The value of G in S.I. unit is :
tical orbit.
(A) 6.67 × 10-9 (B) 6.67 × 10-10
(iv) If V = Ve, then the satellite escapes from the
(C) 6.67 × 10-11 (D) 6.67 × 10-12
earth following a parabolic path.
7. The gravitational force between two bodies varies with
(v) If V > Ve, then the satellite escapes from the
distance r as :
earth following a hyperbolic path.
1 1
(A) (B)
r r2
(C) r (D) r2
PAGE # 141
8. The value of G in year 1900 was 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2. 17. If two bodies of mass M1 and M2 are placed a distance
The value of G in the year 2007 will be : r apart they have a force of gravitation F between them.
(A) 6.673 × 10-9 Nm2 kg-2 If both of the masses are reduced to half then force of
(B) 6.673 × 10-10 Nm2 kg2 gravitation would be :
(C) 6.673 × 10-2 Nm2 kg-2
F
(D) 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 (A) (B) 2 F
-11 2 -2
2
9. Value of G on surface of earth is 6.673 × 10 Nm kg ,
then value of G on surface of Jupiter is : F
(A) 12 × 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 (C) (D) F
4
6.673
(B) ×10-111 Nm2 kg-2 18. Force between two masses of 1 kg each, are sepa-
12 rated by a distance 1 metre will be :
(C) 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 (A) 6.6 7× 10–11 N (B) 9.8 N
(C) 6.6 7× 10–8 N (D) 6.6 7× 10–12 N
6.673
(D) × 10-111 Nm2 kg-2 19. The mass of the moon is about 1.2% of the mass of
6
the earth. Compared to the gravitational force the earth
10. The earth attracts the moon with a gravitational force of
exerts on the moon and, the gravitational force, the
10 20 N. Then the moon attracts the earth with a
moon exerts on earth :
gravitational force of :
(A) is the same (B) is smaller
(A) 10-20 N (B) 102 N (C) is greater (D) varies with its phase
20
(C) 10 N (D) 1010 N
20. Two objects are placed at some distance, if their
11. The orbits of planets around the sun are :
masses becomes two times and distance between
(A) circular (B) parabolic
them becomes half then value of new gravitational force
(C) elliptical (D) straight
will be :
12. Law of gravitation is applicable for : (A) 4 times (B) 8 times
(A) heavy bodies only (C) 16 times (D) 32 times
(B) medium sized bodies only
(C) small sized bodies only 21. The earth attracts the moon with a gravitational force of
(D) bodies of any size 10 20 N. Then the moon attracts the earth with a
gravitational force of :
13. The universal law of gravitation was proposed by :
(A) 10-20 N (B) 102 N
(A) Copernicus (B) Newton 20
(C) 10 N (D) 1010 N
(C) Galileo (D) Archimedes
VA RI AT ION OF’G’
14. Choose the correct statement :
(A) All bodies repel each other in the universe. 22. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) on earth’s
(B) Our earth does not behave like a magnet.
surface is :
(C) Acceleration due to gravity is 8.9 ms-2.
(A) 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 (B) 8.9 m/sec2
(D) All bodies fall at the same rate in vacuum.
(C) 9.8 m/sec2 (D) none of these
15. Gravitational force is a :
23. The acceleration due to gravity :
(A) Short range force
(B) Long range force (A) has the same value everywhere in space
(C) Medium range force (B) has the same value everywhere on the earth
(D) Does not depend on distance between the two (C) varies with the latitude on the earth
bodies (D) is greater on moon because it has smaller diameter
16. If initially the distance between two bodies is r and 24. When a body is dropped form same height on surface
their masses be M1 and M2 then the force of gravitation of the earth and the moon the ratio of time to reach the
be F. If this distance is increased to two times then the ground will be :
force would become : (A) 1 : 6 (B) 6 : 1
F F (C) 6 : 1 (D) 1 :
(A) (B) 6
2 4
(C) 2 F (D) 4 F
PAGE # 142
25. If planet existed whose mass and radius were both
half of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity at the 33. If the distance between two masses be doubled then
the force between them will become :
surface would be :
(A) 19.6 m/sec2 (B) 9.8 m/s2 1
(A) times (B) 4 times
(C) 4.9 ms-2 (D) 2.45 m/s2 4
1
(C) times (D) 2 times
26. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. The acceleration 2
due to gravity :
34. The type of force which exists between charged bodies is
(A) is in the direction opposite to the direction of its
(A) only gravitational
motion
(B) neither gravitational nor electrical
(B) is in the same direction as the direction of its motion (C) only electrical
(C) increases as it comes down (D) both electrical and gravitational
(D) become zero at the highest point. 35. The value of ‘g’ will be maximum at :
27. The acceleration due to gravity on the moon’s surface (A) the equator
is : (B) the top of Mount Everest
(C) the pole of the earth
(A) approximately equal to that near the earth’s surface
(D) the kutub Minar
(B) approximately six times that near the earth’s surface
(C) approximately one-sixth of that near the earth’s 36. The value of ‘g’ is zero :
surface (A) at the top of atmosphere
(D) slightly greater than that near the earth’s surface (B) at 20 km below the surface of the earth
(C) at 20 km above the surface of the earth
28. The force acting on a ball due to earth has a magnitude (D) at the centre of the earth
37. The value of g :
Fb and that acting on the earth due to the ball has a
(A) decreases with height from earth’s surface
magnitude Fe Then :
(B) increases with height from earth’s surface
(A) Fb = Fe (B) Fb > Fe
(C) remains unchanged with increase of height from
(C) Fb < Fe (D) Fe = 0
earth’s surface
(D) none of these
29. The force of gravitation between two bodies does not
depend on : 38. As we go from equator to poles, the value of g :
(A) remains the same
(A) their separation
(B) increases
(B) the product of their masses
(C) decreases
(C) the sum of their masses
(D) decreases up to a latitude of 45º
(D) the gravitational constant
39. If the change in the value of ‘g’ at a height h above the
30. The ratio of the value of g on the surface of moon to that surface of the earth is the same as at a depth d below
on the earth’s surface is : it. When both d and h are much smaller than the radius
of earth, then :
(A) 6 (B) 6 (A) d = h (B) d = 2h
1 1 (C) d = h/2 (D) d = h2
(C) (D)
6 6
40. The value of g on moon is 1 / 6 th of the value of g on
31. Order of magnitude of G in S.I. unit is : earth . A man can jump 1.5 m high on the earth. He can
(A) 10-11 (B) 1011 jump on the moon up to a height of :
(C) 10 -7
(D) 107 (A) 9 m (B) 7.5 m
(C) 6 m (D) 4.5 m
32. The S.I. unit of g is :
41. If the radius of earth is decreased by 1 % , its mass
(A) m2/s (B) m/s2
remaining the same. The acceleration due to gravity
(C) s/m 2 (D) m/s on the surface of earth will :
(A) increase by 1% (B) increase by 2%
(C) decrease by 1% (D) decrease by 2%
PAGE # 143
52. A ball is thrown up and attains a maximum height of
42. The weight of a body is 120 N on the earth. If it is taken 19.6 m. Its initial speed was :
to the moon, its weight and mass will be about (A) 9.8 ms-1 (B) 44.3 ms-1
(Take ge = 10 m/s2) : (C) 19.6 ms -1
(D) 98 ms-1
(A) 120 N, 120 kg (B) 60 N, 12 kg 53. The value of g at pole is :
(C) 20 N, 12 kg (D) 720 N, 120 kg (A) greater than the value at the equator
(B) less than the value at the equator
MASS & WEIGHT (C) equal to the value at the equator
(D) none of these
43. The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 : 54. Two bodies A and B of mass 500 g and 200 g
(A) Much above the earth’s surface respectively are dropped near the earth’s surface. Let
(B) Near the earth’s surface the acceleration of A and B be aA and aB respectively,
(C) Deep inside the earth then :
(D) At the centre of the earth (A) aA = aB (B) aA > aB
44. A particle is taken to a height R above the earth’s (C) aA < aB (D) aA  aB
surface, where R is the radius of the earth. The 55. A body is thrown up with a velocity of 20 m/s. The
acceleration due to gravity there is : maximum height attained by it is approximately :
(A) 2.45 m/s2 (B) 4.9 m/s2 (A) 80 m (B) 60 m
2
(C) 9.8 m/s (D) 19.6 m/s2 (C) 40 m (D) 20 m
45. When a body is thrown up, the force of gravity is : 56. The weight of a body is 120 N on the earth. If it is taken
(A) in upward direction to the moon, its weight will be about :
(B) in downward direction (A) 120 N (B) 60 N
(C) zero (C) 20 N (D) 720 N
(D) in horizontal direction
57. Two iron and wooden balls identical in size are
46. Mass of an object is : released from the same height in vacuum. The time
(A) amount of matter present in the object taken by them to reach the ground are :
(B) same as weight of an object (A) not equal (B) exactly equal
(C) measure of gravitational pull (C) regularly equal (D) zero
(D) none of these
47. The weight of an object is : ESCAPE A ND ORBITA L VELOCIT Y :

(A) the quantity of matter it contains
(B) refers to its inertia 58. The escape velocity for a body projected vertically
(C) same as its mass but is expressed in different upwards from the surface of the earth is 11.2 km s–1 . If
units the body is projected in a direction making an angle of
(D) the force with which it is attracted towards the earth 45º with the vertical, the escape velocity will be:
48. Weight of an object depends on : (A) 11.2 km s–1 (B) 11.2 × 2 km s

–1
(A) temperature of the place

(B) atmosphere of the place (C) 11.2 × 2 km s–1 (D) 11.2 / 2 kms
–1
(C) mass of an object

(D) none of these 59. If both the mass and the radius of the earth decreases
49. The mass of body is measured to be 12 kg on the by 1%, then :
earth. Its mass on moon will be : (A) the escape velocity would increase by 1%
(A) 12 kg (B) 6 kg (B) the acceleration due to gravity would increase by 1%
(C) 2 kg (D) 72 kg (C) the escape velocity would decrease by 1%
(D) the acceleration due to gravity would decrease 1%
50. A heavy stone falls : 60. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the
(A) faster than a light stone moon is one sixth that on the surface of earth and the
(B) slower than a light stone
diameter of the moon is one fourth of that of earth. The
(C) with same acceleration as light stone
ratio of escape velocity on moon and earth will be :
(D) none of these
1 2
51. A stone is dropped from the roof of a building takes 4s to (A) (B)
reach the ground. The height of the building is : 24 16
(A) 19.6 m (B) 39.2 m 2
(C) 156.8 m (D) 78.4 m (C) (D) 24
3
PAGE # 144
69. An artificial satellite moving in a circular orbit around
61. If a satellite is revolving near the earth’s surface, then the earth has a total (Kinetic + Potential) energy E0. Its
its orbital velocity does not depends upon :
potential energy is :
(A) The mass of the satellite
(B) The radius of the earth (A) – E0 (B) 2E0
(C) The radius of the orbit (C) 1.5 E0 (D) E0
(D) The mass of the earth
70. The period of a satellite in a circular orbit around a
62. Escape velocity of a particle depends on its mass m planet is independent of :
as :
(A) The mass of the planet
(A) m2 (B) m
(C) mº (D) m –1 (B) The radius of the planet
(C) The mass of the satellite
63. Escape velocity from a planet of mass M and radius R
(D) All above
will be :
2GM 2GM EXERCISE-2

(A) (B) 2
R R
2MR R
(C) (D) 2
G GM 1. As one goes from the surface of the earth to its centre,
the acceleration due to gravity :(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) increases
64. There is no atmosphere on the moon because : (B) decreases and becomes zero at the centre
(A) It is closer to the earth (C) remains constant
(B) It revolving around the earth (D) first increases and then decreases
(C) It gets light from the sun
2. The escape speed of a body from the earth regarded
(D) here the escape velocity is less than their rms
as a uniform (non-rotating) sphere depends on :
velocity of gas.
(KVPY/2008)
(A) the mass of the body.
SATELLITE AND KEPLER’S LAW :
(B) the direction of projection.
(C) the location of the projection on the earth's surface.
65. The time period of a satellite revolving in a circular
orbit of radius r is T. Time period of another satellite (D) the height of location from the earth’s surface
revolving in the circular orbit of radius 4r will be : from where the body is launched.
T 3. In raising an Earth satellite to a farther orbit, which of

(A) 4T (B)
4 the following quantities increases ?
T
(C) 8T (D) (A) centripetal force
8
(B) gravitational force
66. The time period of geostationary satellite is :
(A) zero (B) 24 h (C) orbital speed
(C) 12 h (D) 48 h (D) none of the above
67. The time period of a seconds pendulum inside a 4. Newton deduced the inverse square law of gravitation
(IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
satellite will be :
(A) by observing motion of an apple falling from a tree.
(A) zero (B) 1 s (B) by using kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
(C) 2 s (D) infinite (C) by studying motion of different objects in the
68. Motion of artificial satellite around the earth is powered laboratory.
(D) by using data obtained from Cavendish experiment.
by :
(A) liquid fuel (B) solar energy 5. Consider two spherical planets of same average
density. Planet 2 is 8 times as massive as planet 1.
(C) atomic energy (D) none of these
The ratio of the accelertion due to gravity of the second
planet to that of the first is. (KVPY/2009)
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 4 (D) 8
PAGE # 145
6. W hich of the following statements corresponds to 10. The percentage change in acceleration due to gravity
Kepler's laws of planetary motion ? at an altitude equal to radius of earth compared to
(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2009) that on the surface of earth is given by :
(A) A planet moves around the sun in a circular orbit. (IJSO/Stage-I/2013)
(B) A planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
(A) 25% increase (B) 35% decrease
with the sun at the geometrical centre.
(C) 75% decrease (D) 25% decrease
(C) A planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
with the sun at the focus.
11. A satellite is launched in a circular orbit of radius R.
(D) A planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
Another satellite is also launched in an orbit of radius
with uniform speed.
1.1R. The period of the second satellite is larger than
the first by approximately…..
 7. The figure below shows elliptical orbit of a planet P
(A) 7.5% (B) 1.5%
moving round the sun at focus F. Then :
(C) 15% (D) 10%
12. Clock A based on oscillations of spring and clock B is
B
based on pendulum motion. Both the clocks keep the
same time on earth. If they are taken to a planet having
F half the density of earth and twice the radius
A C (IJSO Stage-I/2014)
(A) then A runs faster than B
(B) B runs faster than A
D (C) both will run at equal faster rate than earth
(A) the planet moves with uniform speed. (D) both will run at same rate as earth
(B) the speed of the planet at B equal to its speed at D.
(C) the planet moves with highest speed at A. 13. a. In the Panchatantra stories, one of the popular
(D) speed of the planet is smallest at C. stories is where a crow sits on a pot partially filled with
water. Crow could not reach up to the water level and
8. A planet of mass m is moving around a star of mass M so decides to put in some stones so that the water
and radius R in a circular orbit of radius r. The star level rises up to a point from where crow could drink
abruptly shrinks to half its radius without any loss of the water. Let us see if this is possible.
mass. What change will be there in the orbit of the Assume that the container is rectangular in shape with
planet ? (KVPY/2010) base of 10 cm x 20 cm and height of 30 cm. Crow has
(A) The planet will escape from the star. marbles of radius 1 cm to pack the container. Crow
(B) The radius of the orbit will increase. packs the base of the container tightly with a set of
(C) The radius of the orbit will decrease. marbles. All the subsequent layers are similar.
i. What should be the initial level of water such that any
(D) The radius of the orbit will not change.
kind of packing will certainly bring the water level up to
9. Three particles each of mass m are placed at the brim of the container so that it can drink the water ?
the vertices of a triangle of side r. The force ii. What is the minimum number of marbles required
experienced by each mass is : to do the job ?
(IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
b. Comet ISON, which several astronomy
Gm 2 Gm 2 enthusiasts had hoped would be the ‘comet of the
(A) 3 ( ) (B) 2 ( )
r2 r2 century’, recently disappointed sky observers by
breaking apart before reaching its peak brightness,
Gm2 Gm 2
(C) (D) 2 rendering it too dim to be visible by the naked eye. In
r2 r2
this problem we will consider a simplistic model to try
and model the breakup of the comet.
The breakup of the comet was attributed to the strong
effect of tidal forces acting on the comet due to the sun.
These are the same tidal forces that lead to the
PAGE # 146
commonly observed effect of tides on the earth. Tidal
forces are nothing but a result of the difference of the
gravitational attraction at the two ends of the object.
ISON is made of two identical sphers (m1, m2) attached

to each other. As seen from the sun, one spheres is
exactly behind other sphere. Let total mass be m and
distance between centers of two spheres be r. Let the
distance of closest approach of the comet from the
sun, when it broke , be R (Distance of closest approach
means, the distance between the comet and the sun,
is smallest).
i. What is the mutual gravitation force by two spheres
on each other ?
ii. What gravitation force of sun on closer sphere?
iii. By comparing the difference in forces on each of the

2 halves, with respect to the mutual force between the
two halves, give a relation by governing when the comet
would break up.
iv. Convert this relation to find an upper limit on the
density of the comet.
(IJSO/Stage-II/2014/Subjective)

PAGE # 147
7. CIRCULAR MOTION
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A UNIFORM

CIRCULAR MOTION LINEAR AND CIRCULAR MOTION
(a) Definition :
Uniform linear motion Uniform circular motion
The motion of a body moving around a fixed point in a
circular path is known as circular Motion. 1. The direction of 1. The direction of motion
motion does not changes continuously.
Uniform Circular motion : If the body covers equal changes.
distances along the circumference of the circle in equal 2. The motion is non 2. The motion is
intervals of time, the motion is said to be a uniform accelerated. accelerated.
circular motion. A uniform circular motion is a motion
in which speed remains constant but direction of RADIAN
velocity changes.
It is the unit of plane angle.
Eg: Examples of uniform circular motion are:
Definition :
(i) Motion of moon around the earth.
One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the
(ii) Motion of satellite around its planet.
centre of the circle by an arc equal in length to its
(b) Circular motion is known as accelerated radius.
motion :
Eg. n figure , the arc AB of the circle has length  and
Explanation :
subtends an angle  at the centre C.
Consider a boy running along a regular hexagonal track If  ACB = radians.
(path) as shown in figure. As the boy runs along the
side of the hexagon at a uniform speed, he has to take 
Then,  = radians.
a turn at each corner changing direction but keeping r
the speed same. In one round he has to take six turns
[For  = r,  = 1 radian]
at regular intervals. f the same boy runs along the
Angle subtended by the circumference at the centre,
side of a regular octagonal track with same uniform
2 r
speed, he will have to take eight turns in one round at = = 2 radians {or 2c}
regular intervals but the interval will become smaller. r
[c] is symbol for radian, just as (0) is symbol for degree.
Relation between radian and degree :

By increasing the number of sides of the regular
polygon, we find that number of turns per round For complete circle at centre
becomes more and the interval between two turns 2c = 360º
become still shorter. A circle is a limiting case of a 360
polygon with an infinite number of sides. On the circular or 1c = = 57.3º
2
track, the turning becomes a continuous process
without any gap in between. The boy running along the
KINEMATICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION
sides of such a track will be performing a circular
motion. Hence, circular motion is the motion of a body Variables of Motion :
along the sides of a polygon of infinite number of sides (a ) Angular Position :
with uniform speed, the direction changing continuously,
To decide the angular position of a point in space we
it means the body moves with changing velocity in a
need to specify (i) origin and (ii) reference line. The
circular path thus the uniform circular motion is known angle made by the position vector w.r.t. origin, with the
as accelerated motion. reference line is called angular position. Clearly angular
position depends on the choice of the origin as well as
the reference line. Circular motion is a two dimensional
motion or motion in a plane.
PAGE # 148
(ii) For a rigid body, as all points will rotate through
Y
same angle in same time, angular velocity is a
characteristic of the body as a whole, e.g., angular
P' velocity of all points of earth about earth’s axis is (2/
P 24) rad/hr.
O r X
(iii) If a body makes ‘N’ rotations in ‘t’ seconds then
average angular velocity in radian per second will be
Suppose a particle P is moving in a circle of radius r 2N
av 
and centre O. t
The angular position of the particle P at a given instant (iv) If T is the period and ‘f’ is the frequency of uniform
may be described by the angle  between OP and OX. circular motion. then
This angle  is called the angular position of the 2
particle. av = = 2f
T
( b ) Angula r Displace ment : (v) Direction of angular velocity is along the axis of
rotation and decided by right hand thumb rule.
Definition: Angle through which the position vector of
the moving particle rotates in a given time interval is
called its angular displacement. Angular displacement ILLUSTRATIONS
depends on origin, but it does not depends on the
reference line. As the particle moves on above circle 1. Is the angular velocity of rotation of hour hand of a
its angular position  changes. Suppose the point watch greater or smaller than the angular velocity of
rotates through an angle  in time t, then  is Earth’s rotation about its own axis ?
angular displacement.
 Important points : Sol. Hour hand completes one rotation in 12 hours while
(i) Angular displacement is a dimensionless quantity. Earth completes one rotation in 24 hours. So, angular
Its SI unit is radian, some other units are degree and velocity of hour hand is double the angular velocity of
revolution
 2 
2 rad = 360° = 1 rev Earth.    .
 T 
(ii) Infinitesimally small angular displacement is a
vector quantity, but finite angular displacement is a (d) Angular Acceleration  :
scalar, because while the addition of the Infinitesimally
Let 1 and 2 be the instantaneous angular speeds at
small angular displacements is commutative, addition
times t1 and t2 respectively, then the average angular
of finite angular displacement is not.
    acceleration av is defined as
d1  d2  d2  d1   
   1 
 av  2 
but 1  2  2  1 t 2  t1 t
(iii) Direction of small angular displacement is
decided by right hand thumb rule. W hen the fingers
are directed along the motion of the point then thumb
(e ) Di re ct ions of angula r di sp la ce me nt ,
will represents the direction of angular displacement.
angular velocity and angular acceleration :
(c) Angular Velocity 
Angular displaceme nt
av =
Total time taken
 2  1 
av  
t 2  t1 t
where 1 and 2 are angular position of the particle at
time t1 and t2. Since angular displacement is a scalar,
average angular velocity is also a scalar.
 Important points :
(i) Angular velocity has dimension of [T-1] and SI unit

rad/s.
PAGE # 149
(f) Re la ti on b et we en Linea r and Angula r Motion with constant angular acceleration
Quanti ties : Circular motion with constant angular acceleration is
analogous to one dimensional translational motion
(i) Relation between linear displacement and angular
with constant acceleration. Hence even here equation
displacement.
of motion have same form.
Q
arc 0  Initial angular velocity
 angle = x
radius
C   Final angular velocity
r P
x
=  x = r..... (i)   Constant angular acceleration
r
  Angular displacement
(ii) Relation between linear velocity and angular
 = 0 + t
veloccity.
From (i) x = r 1 2
 = 0t + t
x  2
 r   v = r..... (ii) 2 = 02 + 2 
t t
(iii) Relation between linear acceleration and angular    0 
=  t
acceleration.  2 
From (ii) v = r 
n th = 0 + (n – n-1)
v  2
 r  a = r ..... (iii)
t t 5. A particle is moving with constant speed in a circular
path. Find the ratio of average velocity to its
2. A fly wheel making 120 revolutions/minute. Find
instantaneous velocity when the particle describes an
the angular speed of the wheel :
Sol.  120 revolution/ minute = 2 rev/s

angle  =
Angular speed = angle in one revolution × number 2
of revolution/s
 R R
Sol. Time taken to describe angle , t = = =
= 2× 2= 4rad/s  v 2v
Total displacement 2R
3. A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm is whirled Average velocity = =
Total time R / 2v
in a horizontal circle with a constant speed. If the
2 2
stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 sec., what is the = v

 22  Instantaneous velocity = v
magnitude of the angular speed.  use   
 7  The ratio of average velocity to its instantaneous
Sol. angular speed = angle × number of rev./s 2 2
velocity = Ans.
14 
 = 2  = 3.52 rad/s 6. A fan is rotating with angular velocity 100 rev/sec. Then
25
it is switched off. It takes 5 minutes to stop. (a) Find the
total number of revolution made before it stops.
4. Earth revolves around the Sun in 365 days.
(Assume uniform angular retardation) (b) Find the
Calculate its angular speed. value of angular retardation (c) Find the average
Sol. T = 365 days = 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s angular velocity during this interval.
2 2
So,  =     0   100  0 
T 365  24  60  60 Sol. (a)  =   t =   × 5× 60 = 15000
 2   2 
= 1.99 × 10–7rad/s revolution.
 Important points : (b)  = 0 + t

(i) Both average and instantaneous angular 1
 0 = 100 –  ( 5 × 60)   = rev./sec2
acceleration are axial vectors with dimension [T-2] and 3
unit rad/s2 .
(ii) Direction of angular acceleration is along the axis Total Angle of Rotation 15000
(c) av  = = 50 rev./sec.
of rotation and decided by right hand thumb rule. Total time taken 5  60
(iii) If  = 0, circular motion is said to be uniform.
Motion with constant angular velocity
 = t ,  = 0
PAGE # 150
7. Find the time period of meeting of minute hand and
second hand of a clock. a= a t2  a r2
Sol. Ref. line
a
at
ar
at
2 2 tan  =
min = rad/min. , sec = rad/min ar
60 1
sec min = 2 (for second and minute hand to meet
8. A particle travels in a circle of radius 20 cm at a speed
again)
(sec – min) t = 2 that uniformly increases. If the speed changes from
2(1 – 1/60) t = 2 5.0 m/s to 6.0 m/s in 2.0 s, find the angular acceleration.
60 Sol. Since speed increases uniformly, average tangential

 t = min. acceleration is equal to instantaneous tangential
59
acceleration
RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL ACCELERATION  The instantaneous tangential acceleration is given
by
There are two types of acceleration in circular motion ;
v 2  v1
Tangential acceleration and centripetal acceleration. at =
t 2  t1
(a)Tangential Acceleration :
6.0  5.0
Component of acceleration directed along tangent of = m/s2 = 0.5 m/s2.
2.0
circle is called tangential acceleration. It is responsible
for changing the speed of the particle. It is defined as, The angular acceleration is  = at / r
v 0.5 m / s 2
at = = Rate of change of speed. = = 2.5 rad/s2.
t 20 cm
at = r angular acceleration
 Important Points :
DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION
  
(i) In vector form a t =   r
If there is no force acting on a body it will move in a
(ii) If tangential acceleration is directed in direction of straight line (with constant speed). Hence if a body is
velocity then the speed of the particle increases.
moving in a circular path or any curved path, there must
(iii) If tangential acceleration is directed opposite to
be some force acting on the body.
velocity then the speed of the particle decreases.
( b ) Centripetal Acceleration : If speed of body is constant, the net force acting on the
body is along the inside normal to the path of the body
It is responsible for change in direction of velocity. In
circular motion, there is always a centripetal and it is called centripetal force.
acceleration. mv 2
Centripetal force (Fc) = mac = = m 2 r
Centripetal acceleration is always variable because it r
changes in direction. However if speed of the body varies then, in addition to
Centripetal acceleration is also called radial above centripetal force which acts along inside normal,
acceleration or normal acceleration. there is also a force acting along the tangent of the
path of the body which is called tangential force.
v2 Tangential force (Ft) = Mat = M  r ; where  isthe
ac = ar =
r angular acceleration
(c ) Total Acceleration :  IMPORTANT POINT :

Total acceleration is vector sum of centripetal mv 2
Remember is not a force itself. It is just the
acceleration and tangential acceleration. r
   value of the net force acting along the inside normal
a = ar  a t
which is responsible for circular motion. This force
may be friction, normal, tension, spring force,
gravitational force or a combination of them.
So to solve any problem in uniform circular motion we
identify all the forces acting along the normal (toward’s
mv 2
center), calculate their resultant and equate it to .
r
PAGE # 151
9. A block of mass 2kg is tied to a string of length 2m, the (a) the tension T along the string and
other end of which is fixed. The block is moved on a (b) the weight mg vertically downward.
smooth horizontal table with constant speed 5 m/s.
Find the tension in the string.
The particle is moving in a circle with a constant speed
Sol. Here centripetal force is provided by tension. v. Thus , the radial acceleration towards the centre has
magnitude v2 / r. Resolving the forces along the radial
direction and applying Newton’s second law,
Tsin  = m(v2 / r) ....(ii)
As there is no acceleration in vertical direction, we have
from Newton’s law,
Tcos  = mg .....(iii)
mv 2 2  52 Dividing (ii) by (iii),
T= = = 25 N
r 2
10. A block of mass m moves with speed v against a

v2
tan  = or, v = rg tan 
smooth, fixed vertical circular groove of radius r kept rg
on smooth horizontal surface.
v g tan  g
 = = =
r r h
g g
= = Ans.
L cos  (L  r 2 )1 / 2
2
Find :
(i) normal reaction of the floor on the block.
(ii) normal reaction of the vertical wall on the block.
mg mgL
Sol. Here centripetal force is provided by normal reaction And from (iii), T = = 1 Ans.
cos  2
of vertical wall. (L r2 )2
(i) normal reaction of floor NF = mg
mv 2
(ii) normal reaction of vertical wall NW = . MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE
r
11. A particle of mass m is suspended from a ceiling
through a string of length L. The particle moves in a
Let us consider the motion of a point mass tied to a
horizontal circle of radius r. Find (a) the angular speed
of the particle and (b) the tension in the string. string of length  and whirled in a vertical circle. If at any
(Such a system is called a conical pendulum). time the body is at angular position , as shown in the
figure, the forces acting on it are tension T in the string
Sol. The situation is shown in figure. The angle  made by
along the radius towards the center and the weight of
the string with the vertical is given by
the body mg acting vertically down wards.
L2  r 2 Applying Newton’s law along radial direction
sin  = r / L, cos  = h/L = ...(i)
L
The forces on the particle are
T
v
mg
PAGE # 152
at lowest point here potential energy is taken as zero
mv 2 using equation ..(3) for vtop we get
T – mg cos  = m.ar =

u 5g 
mv 2
or T= + mg cos  .....(1) i.e., for looping the loop, velocity at lowest point must

Conditions to complete the circular path : be  5g  .
The point mass will complete the circle only and only if
12. If velocity of a point mass attached to a string at lowest
tension is never zero (except momentarily, if at all) if
point is just enough for looping the loop as shown in
tension becomes zero at any point, string will go slack
figure. Find the value of potential energy , speed,
and subsequently, the only force acting on the body is tension, centripetal, tangential and net acceleration at
gravity. Hence its subsequent motion will be similar to :
that of a projectile.
From equation ...(1), it is evident that tension decreases C

with increase in  because cos  is a decreasing
function and v decreases with height. Hence tension
is minimum at the top most point. i.e. Tmin = Ttopmost.
T > 0 at all points. If Tmin > 0.
However if tension is momentarily zero at highest point
the body would still be able to complete the circle. D v B
Hence condition for completing the circle (or looping
the loop) is Tmin  0 or Ttop  0.
P
at
(a) At any general point P

(b) At lowest point A
(c) At points where height is equal to radius of circle i.e
at B and D
(d) At topmost point C
Sol. (a) At any general point P :
by energy conservation
mv 2top +
Ttop + mg = (2)

Equation...(2) could also be obtained by putting  =  in
equation (1)
For looping the loop, Ttop  0.
mv 2top
  mg

(b) At lowest point A
 vtop  g (3)
P.E. = 0
Condition for looping the loop is vtop  g .
If speed at the lowest point is u, then from conservation
of mechanical energy between lowest point and top T–mg =
most point.
1 1 2
mu2 = m v top + mg . 2
2 2
anet = 5 g
PAGE # 153
(c) At points where height is equal to radius of circle i.e Sol. From energy conservation
at B and D :
1
mv 2A + 0 = 0 + mg (for minimum speed vB = 0)
2
By energy conservation, v =
vmin = 2 g
2 If at the position B, v = 0 and T = 0 ball will return back,
could also be obtained by motion is oscillatory.
CONDITION FOR OSCILLATION OR

LEAVING THE CIRCULAR
anet = g 10
In case of non uniform circular motion in a vertical plane

Similarly at point D the values of above quantities are
same as at point B.
(d) At topmost point C
C
v
aC
T
T=0
O aC = g
Ref.line at = 0 if velocity of body at lowest point is lesser than 5g  ,
the particle will not complete the circle in vertical plane.
In this case, the motion of the point mass depend on
‘whether tension becomes zero before speed
P( general point) A B,D C
becomes zero or vice versa.
1 Velocity g(3  2 cos ) 5g 3g g
2 Tension 3mg(1 cos ) 6mg 3mg 0 Case  (Speed becomes zero before tension)
3 Potential Energy mg(1  cos ) 0 mg 2mg
4 Radial acceleration g(3  2 cos ) 5g 3g g
5 Tangential acceleration g sin 0 g 0 C
Note :
D B
From above table we can see , Tbottom – Ttop = TA – TC
= 6 mg , this difference in tension remain same even if
V> 5g  A
(A)
13. Find minimum speed at A so that the ball can reach at

point B as shown in figure. Also discuss the motion of
particle when T = 0, v = 0 simultaneously at  = 90º.
In this case the ball never rises above the level of the
center O i.e. the body is confined to move within A
and B, ( |  | < 90° ) for this the speed at A,
C B v< 2g (as proved in above example)

In this case tension cannot be zero, since a component
of gravity acts radially outwards.
A Hence the string will not go slack, and the ball will
reverse back as soon as its speed becomes zero.
Its motion will be oscillatory motion.
PAGE # 154
Case  (Tension becomes zero before speed)
R B
A
C
mg
mv 2
 R – mg =
D B r
mv 2
or R = mg +
r
Clearly R > mg, i.e., the weight of the moving car is
A greater than the weight of the stationary car.
(B) For Leaving the circular path 16. A block is released from the top of a smooth vertical
after which motion converts into track, which ends in a circle of radius r as shown.
projectile motion.
In this case the ball rises above the level of center O

(i) Find the minimum value of h so that the block
i.e. it goes beyond point B ( > 90°) for this v > 2g  completes the circle.
(as proved in above example) (ii) If h = 3r, find normal reaction when the block is at
In this case a component of gravity will always act the points A and B.
towards center, hence centripetal acceleration or (iii) If h = 2r , find the velocity of the block when it loses
speed will remain nonzero. Hence tension becomes the contact with the track.
zero first.
As soon as, Tension becomes zero at any point, string Sol. (i) For completing the circle, velocity at lowest point
will go slack and subsequently, the only force acting
on the body is gravity. Hence its subsequent motion of circle (say A) is 5gr
will be similar to that of a projectile. In this case motion 1
is a combination of circular and projectile motion. from energy conservation mgh =
2
m  5gr  2
14. Prove that a motor car moving over a convex bridge is 5r

lighter than the same car resting on the same bridge.  h= Ans.
2
Sol. The motion of the motor car over a convex bridge AB is
the motion along the segment of a circle AB (Figure) ; (ii) h = 3r
From energy conservation velocity at point A and B are

R
1
mg.3r = mv 2  vA = 6gr
2 A
mg
A B 1
mg.3r = mg2r + mv 2  vB = 2gr
2 B
Therefore normal reaction at A and B is -
2
mv A
NA – mg =  NA = 7mg
The centripetal force is provided by the difference of r
weight mg of the car and the normal reaction R of the 2
bridge. mv B
NB + mg =  NB = mg
mv 2 mv 2 r
 mg – R = or R = mg –
r r (iii) h = 2r
Clearly R < mg, i.e., the weight of the moving car is
less than the weight of the stationary car. It loses contact with the track when normal reaction is
zero
15. Prove that a motor car moving over a concave bridge is
heavier than the same car resting on the same bridge. mv 2
 mg cos  .......... (1)
Sol. The motion of the motor car over a concave bridge AB
r
from energy conservation
is the motion along the segment of a circle AB (Figure);
The centripetal force is provided by the difference of 1 2
mgh = mgr (1 + cos ) + mv .......... (2)
normal reaction R of the bridge and weight mg of the 2
car. from (1) and (2)
2g(h  r ) 2gr
v= = Ans.
3 3
PAGE # 155
EXERCISE-1 10. Unit of angular velocity is :
(A) rad (B) m/s
CI RCULAR M OT ION (C) rad/s2 (D) rad/s
1. 1C is equal to :
(A) 57.3º (B) 573º 11. Two bodies in circular paths of radii 1 : 2 take same
(C) 180º (D) 360º time to complete their circles. The ratio of their linear
speeds is :
2. An athlete complete one round of a circular track of (A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1
diameter 200 m in 40 s. What will be the displacement (C) 1 : 3 (D) 3 : 1
at the end of 2 minutes 40 s. ?
(A) 2200 m (B) 220 m 12. In a circular path of radius 1m, a mass of 2kg moves
(C) 22 m (D) Zero with a constant speed of 10 ms–1. The angular speed
in radian/sec. is :
3. What will be the distance in the above question ? (A) 5 (B) 10
(A) 2512 m (B) 2500 m (C) 15 (D) 20
(C) 2200 m (D) Zero
13. The relation among v,  and r is :
4. The distance travelled by a body is directly proportional v 
to the time, then the body is said to have : (A)  = (B) v =
r r
(A) Zero speed (B) Zero velocity
(C) Constant speed (D) None of these r
(C)  = (D) None of these
5. An athlete runs along a circular track of diameter 28 m. v
The displacement of the athlete after he completes 14. A body moving along circular path may have :
one circle is : (A) a constant speed
(A) 28 m (B) 88 m (B) a constant velocity
(C) 44 m (D) Zero (C) no tangential velocity
(D) no radial acceleration
6. Uniform circular motion is an example of : 15. Find the ratio of the distance covered to the
(A) Constant acceleration displacement covered by a body along a semicircle of
(B) Variable acceleration radius r :
(C) A and B both

(D) None of these (A) 2  (B)
2
7. Rate of change of angular velocity refer to : (C)  (D) None of these
(A) angular speed
16. A body is moving on a circular path of radius 10 cm, it
(B) angular displacement
covers an angle of 60º. Its displacement is :
(C) angular acceleration
(A) 10 cm (B) 15 cm
(D) None of these
(C) 5 cm (D) 20 cm
th 17. The motion of a point on the rim of a wheel rotating
 1
8. A car travels   of a circle with radius r. The ratio of about an axis fixed in a wall is :
4
(A) Circular (B) Linear
the distance to its displacement is : (C) Linear and circular (D) Vibratory
  18. Examples of uniform circular motion are :
(A) 1 : (B) :1
2 2 2 2 (A) motion of moon around the earth
(B) motion of satellite around a planet
(C) 2 2 :  (D)  2 2 : 1
(C) a runner running on a circular track with constant
speed
9. A boy is running along a circular track of radius 7 m. He
(D) all of them
completes one circle in 10 second. The average
velocity of the boy is : 19. W hen a body moves along a semicircle, total angle
(A) 4.4 ms–1 (B) 0.7 ms–1 subtended by it at centre of circle is :
(C) Zero (D) 70 ms–1

(A) (B) 2
2
(C)  (D) none of these
PAGE # 156
20. The figure shows the velocity and acceleration of a 3. Different locations of a cyclist on an off-road track are
point like body at the initial moment of its motion. The as shown in the figure below. At which of these locations
acceleration vector of the body remains constant. The would he feel heaviest ? (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
minimum radius of curvature of trajectory of the body
is: C
v0 = 8m/s A
D
B
a = 2m/s2
(A) 2 metre (B) 4 metre
(C) 8 metre (D) 16 metre (A) A (B) B
21. A motor car is travelling at 20 m/s on a circular road of (C) C (D) D

radius 100m. It is increasing its speed at the rate of 3 4. A circular metal washer is uniformly heated. Select
m/s2. Acceleration of motor car is : the correct statement.
(A) 3 m/sec2 (B) 5 m/sec2 (A) Both its external and internal diameters
2
(C) 8 m/sec (D) None of these increase. (IJSO/Stage-II/2012)
(B) Its external diameter increases and internal
22. A particle initially at rest starts moving from point A on diameter decreases.
the surface of a fixed smooth hemisphere of radius r (C) Its external diameter is unchanged and internal
as shown. The particle looses its contact with diameter decreases.
hemisphere at point B. C is centre of the hemisphere. (D) Its external diameter increases and internal
The equation relating  and  is : diameter is unchanged
5. Particles P and Q are undergoing uniform
horizontal circular motions along concentric circles
of different radii in clockwise sense. P completes
each round in 2 minutes while Q does it in
5 minutes. Time required by Q to make one
(A) 3 sin  = 2 cos  (B) 2 sin  = 3 cos  revolution around P is : (IJSO/Stage-II/2014)
(C) 3 sin  = 2 cos  (D) 2 sin  = 3 cos 
(A) 3 minutes
(B) 10 minutes
(C) 10/3 minutes
EXERCISE-2 (D) This is not possible as Q is moving slower
than P.
1. Starting from rest, a particle moves along a circle of
radius 2 m with an angular acceleration of ( / 4) rad

s –2. During the time the particle covers a quarter of the
circle, the magnitude of average velocity is :
(A) 1.50 m/s (B) 2,00 m/s
(C) 1..00 m/s (D) 1.25 m/s
2. The rear wheels of a car are turning at an angler speed

of 60 rad/s. The brakes are applied for 5s, causing a
uniform angular retardation of 8 rads–2. The number of
revolutions turned by the rear wheels during the braking
period is about : (KVPY/2007)
(A) 48 (B) 96
(C) 32 (D) 12
PAGE # 157
8. FLUID
FLUID
W hen an object is placed in a liquid (or a gas), the
Fluid is a substance that flows under the action of an
force exerted by the liquid on any point of the object is
applied force and does not have a shape of its own.
perpendicular to the surface of the object. The force
For example, liquids and gases. They take the shape
exerted by the liquid on the walls of the container is
of container in which they are stored.
also perpendicular to the walls at all the points. That is
The study of fluids at rest is known as hydrostatic or
why the force exerted by a liquid (or a gas) on an object
fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion is termed as
immersed in it and on the walls of the container is
hydrodynamics. In this chapter, we will discuss the
called the thrust.
study of liquids only.
(b) Unit of thrust : The unit of thrust is the same as
that of force. Thus, the SI unit of thrust is newton (N).
PRESSURE IN A FLUID
In common use, thrust is also expressed in the unit of
gram-weight (g-wt) or kilogram-weight (kg-wt).
In case of solids, the force can be applied in any
1 kg-wt = 9.8 N
direction with respect to the surface, but in liquids, the
force must be applied at right angles to the liquid
surface. This is because fluids (liquids and gases) at
UNITS OF PRESSURE
rest cannot sustain a tangential force. Therefore, we
state the pressure acting on the fluid instead of force.
F
The pressure (P) is defined as the magnitude of the (i) Pressure, P =  N/m2 or pasal (Pa)
A
normal force acting on a unit surface area of the fluid.
(ii) In C.G.S. dyne/cm2
If a constant force of magnitude F acts normally on a
surface area A, then pressure acting on the surface is (iii) 1atm = 760 mm of Hg = 1.013 × 105 Pa
(iv) 1Bar = 105 Pa

given by P  F . The pressure is a scalar quantity..
A (v) 1 Torr = 1 mm of Hg
(a) Pressure is a Scalar Quantity :

This is because hydrostatic pressure is transmitted
equally in all directions when force is applied, which Pressure is a scalar quantity because at one level
shows that a definite direction is not associated with inside the liquid, the pressure is exerted equally in all
pressure. direction, which shows that a direction is not
associated with hydrostatic pressure or pressure due
to a static fluid.
THRUST
(b) Pressure Exerted by a Liquid Column :
You have learnt about force in the previous sections.
Consider a liquid of density  contained in a cylindrical
Force can be applied on a solid surface in any direction.
vessel of cross sectional area a. Let h be the height of
liquid column, and g be the acceleration due to gravity.
(a) Definition : The force applied on any surface in a
The weight of liquid will exert a downward thrust on the
direction perpendicular (or normal) to the surface is
bottom surface of the vessel. Therefore, pressure due
called thrust. to liquid acts on that surface.
When a body is placed on a horizontal surface, it ex- Weight of liquid inside the vessel = volume × density of
erts a thrust equal to its weight on the surface. liquid × acceleration due to gravity
A body resting on a horizontal surface will exert the
same thrust irrespective of its orientation.
PAGE # 158
(d) Reducing Pressure :
(i) Vehicle brakes have flat surface :
This reduces pressure on the vehicle tyres and avoid

their tearing.
(ii) Board sole shoes :

h
Board sole shoes make walking easier on a soft land.
(iii) Wide steel belt on army tank :
a Wide steel belt over the wheels of an army tank, makes

its movement easier over marshy land.
=ah×  ×g
(iv) Tractor tyres are broad : Tractors do not sink in
So, thrust of liquid on area a = weight of liquid = a h  g the soft land of the field while operating them.
Liquid pressure on the base of vessel is (v) Camel foot are broad and soft : They walk swiftly
on sand.
thrust ah  g
P = (vi) Hanging bags have wide straps : They reduce
area a
pressure on the shoulders.
P= ...........(i)
hρ g
(e)Factors which do not affect fluid pressure :
 NOTE :
(i) The liquid at rest exerts equal pressure in all (i) fluid pressure is independent of the shape and size
directions at a point inside the liquid. of the container, as per figure (A).
(ii) fluid, pressure is also independent of area of cross
(ii) The liquid at rest exerts equal pressure at all those
section of the container, as per figure (A).
points which are in one level inside the liquid.
(iii) Liquid pressure is independent of shape of the
liquid surface, but depends upon the height of liquid
column.
(iv) Total pressure at a depth h below the liquid surface
= P0 + h g where P0 = atmospheric pressure.
(v) Pressure is a scalar quantity. Figure (A)
(vi) Mean pressure on the walls of a beaker containing (iii) fluid pressure is also independent of direction,as
liquid upto height h is (= h g / 2), where  is the per figure (B).
density of liquid.
(vii) Thrust exerted by liquid on the walls of the vessel
in contact with liquid is normal to the surface of vessel.
(c ) S om e Fa ct s Invol vi ng T hr us t and
Pre ssur e :
(i) Nails have a flat top but pointed end :
Figure (B)
A small pressure applied on the flat top through falling
hammer becomes a large thrust. The same thrust acts
ILLUSTRATIONS
on the wooden board through the pointed end of the
nail. It result in a large pressure. The nail can easily be 1. Soft snow can be compressed by about 3000 pascals
fixed in the wooden board. of pressure. What is the smallest area that a pair of
(ii) Sewing needles have pointed tips : snowshoes must have if they will enable a 70 kg.
Person to walk over the snow without sinking in ?
A small force of fingers makes the needle pierce into
the cloth easily and sewing becomes quicker. Sol. The force on the snow is the person’s weight
(iii) Cutting items (knives and blades) have sharp edge. = mg = (70 kg) (9.8 m/s2) = 686 N.
Cutting becomes easier. F 686 N
A  2
P 3000 N / m2 = 0.23 m
PAGE # 159
2. What is the pressure at a depth of 23 meter in water? 6. A cuboid has dimensions of 0.4 m × 0.6 m × 0.2 m and
a weight of 288 kg–f. What is the maximum pressure
Sol. First, we need the density of water in SI units. exerted by the cuboid ?
Density = D = 1000 kg/m3
 p = hDg, Force (F)
Sol. Given, Pressure, (P) =
p = 23 × 1000 × 9.8 Area ( A )
p = 225400 Pa
F = 288 kg–f
Minimum surface area, A = 0.08 m2
 NOTE : To get the actual pressure, we have to add the
atmospheric pressure at the surface, which is 101 288 kgf
 Maximum pressure, P =
kilopascals. 0.08 m 2
3. What is the pressure due to a man weighing 80 kg, = 3600 kgf.m–2
standing on his feet ? Area of his feet = 160 sq. cm.
Sol. Given :
Weight of the man (W) = mg BUOYANCY AND FORCE OF BUOYANCY
= 80 × 10 N (BUOYANT FORCE) :
= 800 N
Area (A) = 160 sq. cm (a) Buoyancy :
= 160 × 10–4 m2
= 16 × 10–3 m2 When an object is placed in a liquid, the liquid exerts
Force Weight ( W ) an ‘upward force’ on it. For example, when a piece of
Pressure (P) = 
Area Area( A ) cork is held below the surface of water by applying the
force of our thumb and then released, the cork
800N immediately rises to the surface (see figure). It appears
=
16  10 – 3 m 2 as if some upward force is exerted by water on the cork
= 5 × 104 Nm–2 which pushes it to the surface.
4. What is the pressure at a depth of 15 cm in brine of
density 1.2 g/cm3 ?
Force
Surface of water
Take g = 10 ms–2
Sol. Pressure (P) = h d g

Given : h = 15 cm
= 15 × 10–2 m
d = 1.2 g/cm3
Cork
= 1.2 × 103 kg/m3
g = 10 ms–2
Substituting these values and solving we get, (A cork held below the surface of water)
P = 15 × 10–2 × 1.2 × 103 × 10 N m–2
= 1800 Nm–2 Cork
Surface of water
5. What is the height of mercury which exerts the same
pressure as 20 cm of water column ? Take density of
mercury as 13.6 g/cc.
Sol. Given :
Pressure exerted by mercury column, Pm = h m d m g
(say)
Pressure exerted by water column, Pw = hw dw g (say) (On releasing, the cork rises to surface of water)
Where the symbols have their respective meanings.
But Pm = P w If we lift a stone lying at the bottom of a pond, it appears
 hm dm = hw dw to be light as long as it is being lifted inside water. But
as soon as the stone is lifted out of water into air, the
h w d w 20  10 –2  10 3
or hm =  same stone feels to be much heavier. This means that
dm 13.6  10 3 some upward force acts on the stone when it is
–2
= 1.48 × 10 m immersed in water and makes it feel lighter.
= 1.48 cm
PAGE # 160
The objects appear to be less heavy in water because
the water exerts an upward force on them. It is not only
water which exerts an upward force on the objects
immersed in it but all liquids exert this force. The
Water
tendency of liquid to exert an upward force on an object A
placed in it, is called buoyancy. Even the gases exhibit
the property of buoyancy.
Buoyant
( b ) Buoyant Force : force (upthrust)
When an object is immersed in a liquid, it experiences Thus, there is a net force on the mug in the upward
an upward force. This upward force is called buoyant direction. The net upward force on the mug is equal to
force. Thus, the upward force acting on an object the difference in the upward force acting on its bottom
and the downward force acting on its top. This net
immersed in a liquid is called buoyant force. It is due
upward force acting on the mug is the buoyant force
to the upward ‘buoyant force’ exerted by a liquid that (which reduces the effective weight of mug and makes
the weight of an object appears to be less in the liquid it feel lighter).
than its actual weight in air. The upward force exerted (ii) Factors affecting Buoyant force :
by a liquid is also known as ‘upthrust’. In other words,
(A) Size or volume of the body immersed in a fluid :
the buoyant force is also known as upthrust. It is due to The buoyant force is directly proportional to the size or
the upward force (‘buoyant force’ or ‘upthrust’) exerted volume of the body immersed in a fluid. That is,
by water that we are able to swim in water and ships Buoyancy (or Buoyant force)  Volume of the body
float in water. If there were no upward force of water, we immersed in a fluid.
would not be able to swim, and the ships would also Thus, larger the size or volume of the body immersed
sink. It is this buoyant force which makes the heavy in a fluid, greater is the buoyant force (or buoyancy)
objects seem lighter in water. acting on the body.
(B) Density of the fluid in which the body is immersed:
Upthrust = Buoyant force = Loss of weight The buoyant force (or buoyancy) is directly proportional
to the density of the fluid in which the body is immersed.
(i) Example for of Buoyant force : That is,
(A) a bucketful of the water, when lifted above the
Buoyant force (or buoyancy)  Density of the fluid in
surface fo water in a well, seems much heavier than which it is immersed
when it is in water.
Thus, greater is the density of the fluid in which the
(B) When a swimmer jumps into water from a height, body is immersed, greater is the buoyant force acting
he finds himself being pushed towards the surface of on the body.
the water without any effect on his part. (C) Acceleration due to gravity at the place : The
buoyant force (or buoyancy) is directly proportional to
(ii) Cause of Buoyant force :
the acceleration due to gravity at the place of
In order to understand why liquids exert an upward measurement. That is,
buoyant force, let us consider a mug filled with water Buoyant force (or buoyancy)  Acceleration due to
immersed in a bucket containing water as shown in gravity : Thus, a body when immersed in the same
liquid will experience lesser buoyant force on the moon
figure. Water exerts force on the sides of the mug as
than on the earth.
well as on its top and bottom (shown by arrows). The (D) Temperature : The buoyant force (or buoyancy) is
sideways forces exerted by water on the mug, being inversely proportional to the temperature of the fluid in
equal and opposite, cancel out. Now, there is a force of which the body is immersed. That is,
Buoyant force (or buoyancy) 
water acting on the top of the mug (which acts in the
downward direction) and a force of water acting on the 1
bottom of the mug (which acts in the upward direction) Temperature of the fluid
(see figure). It is known that the pressure exerted by a Remember these points :
liquid increases with depth and acts in all directions (i) An object whose weight (i.e., downward gravitational
(even upwards). Now, as the top A of the mug is at a force) is greater than the upthrust of the liquid (say
water) on the object, sinks in the liquid. This is possible
lower depth in water, it experiences less force
if density of object is more than the density of liquid.
downwards. The bottom B of the mug is at a greater
(ii) An object whose weight (i.e downward gravitational
depth in water, so it experiences more force in the
force) is less than the upthrust of the liquid on the
upward direction. object, floats on the liquid. This is possible if density of
object is less than the density of liquid.
PAGE # 161
7. Two spheres of same material of radii ‘r’ and ‘2r’ F1 = p1 × a= h1 g × a
respectively are immersed in a liquid. If the buoyant Pressure exerted by the liquid at the lower surface of
force on the first sphere is F, find the buoyant force on the body,
the second sphere. P2 = h2 g
Sol. Buoyant force = wt fo th displaced liquid = volume of Upward thrust on the lower surface of the body is,
F2 = P2 × a = h2 g × a
the body × density of liquid × g
The horizontal thrusts acting on the vertical sides of
the body being equal and opposite from all the sides
4
(2r )3 cancels out.
B.F2 V2dg 3
   Resultant upthrust or buoyant force acting on the
B.F1 V1dg 4 3 =8
r body is,
3
F = F2 – F1 = h2 g a – h1 g a = (h2 – h1) g a
F2 = 8 F1 = 8F ( F1 = F)
 Buoyant force of second sphere is 8 times the
buoyant force of the first sphere.
F1
h1
8. A metallic sphere of mass 2.0 kg and volume 2.5 × 10–4 m3
is dipped in water. Find the buoyant force exerted by h2
water on the sphere. Density of water = 1,000 kg/m3. h
Sol. The sphere displaces water of volume 2.5 × 10–4 m3 to
make place for itself. The mass of displaced water is
F2
 kg 
M = V =  1000 3  × (2.5 × 10–4 m3) = 0.25 kg
 m 
The weight of the displaced water is Since volume of the body, V = ( h2 – h1) a
 m  F = V g
W = Mg = (0.25 kg) ×  9.8 2  = 2.45 N Which implies that products of the volume of the body,
 s 
the density of the liquid and the acceleration due to
Thus, the buoyant force exerted by water on the sphere gravity gives the weight of the liquid displaced.
is 2.45 N.
Thus , when a body is submerged in a liquid, it
experiences an upward thrust equal to the weight of
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE the liquid displaced by the body.
A Greek scientist Archimedes conducted many (b) Practical of Archimedes Principle :
experiments and concluded that when a body or an To verify the Archimedes Principle we take following
object is immersed partially or completely in a liquid or steps :
a gas (i.e. fluid), it experiences an upthrust or buoyant
force. The upthrust or buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body. It is known as
Archimedes principle.
Statement of Archimedes principle :
A B
When a body is immersed partially or completely in a
fluid (liquid or gas), it experiences an upthrust or 0 0 W
2
10 10
buoyant force which is equal to the weight of the fluid 20 20
displaced by the body. 30 30
40 40
50 50
(a) Proof of Archimedes Principle : 60 60
70 W1 70
Consider a cylindrical body of cross-sectional area ‘a’
submerged in a liquid of density  . Let the upper face
of the body is at a depth h1 below the surface of the Solid
liquid and the lower face is at a depth h 2 below the
surface of the liquid. The pressure exerted by the liquid A Empty
on the upper surface of the body is given by p1 = h1 g. container
Downward thrust on the upper surface of the body is,
PAGE # 162
displaced in ‘newtons’. That will give us the buoyant
force. We know that :
Weight, W = m × g
Here, Mass of water, m = 5 kg
And, Acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2
Now, putting these values of m and g in the above

formula, we get :
Weight of water, W = 5 × 10 N
= 50 N
Now, since the weight of water displaced by the alu-

minium object is 50 newtons, therefore, the buoyant
force acting on the aluminium object (due to water) will
also be 50 newtons.
DENSITY
The ratio of mass to volume of the body is known as

the density of the material of the body.
mass
Density =
volume
(i) Take a small piece of stone and suspend it with a
spring balance. Let the weight of the stone indicated = M
by the spring balance be W1. V
(ii) Now take an empty beaker and measure its weight If V = 1 m3 , then,  = M
by suspending it with the spring balance with the help or the mass per unit volume is known as the density of
of a thread of negligible mass. Let the weight of the the material of the object.
empty beaker be W2.
Unit of density :
(ii) Take a Cane having a side tube known as spout.
Fill Cane with water upto the level of spout. M
  = V  g/cm3 (in C.G.S)
(iv) Lower the stone suspended with a spring balance
inside the water. The stone displaces the water which   kg/m3 (in S.. system)
comes out of the Cane through the spout. The water
coming out of the Cane is collected in the beaker. When
the water stops coming out of the spout, note the RELATIVE DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY
reading of the spring balance. This reading shows the
weight of the stone inside the water. Let the weight of The ratio of density of the substance to the density of
the stone inside the water be W3. It is seen that W3 is water at 4ºC is known as the relative density of the
less than W1. substance
Relative density of substance
(v) Now measure the weight of the beaker along with
the water collected in it. Let this weight be W4. density of substan ce
=
(vi) Now find (W1 – W 3). This difference in weight is density of water at 4º C
equal to the loss of weight of the stone immersed in
water (i.e upthrust or buoyant force). It is pure number having no unit.
(vii) Also find (W4 – W 2). This difference in weight is

equal to the weight of the water displaced by the stone. 10. The relative density of silver is 10.5. The density of
(viii) It is found that (W1 – W 3) = (W4 – W2). That is water is 103 kg/m3 . What is the density of
upthrust or buoyant force is equal to the weight of the silver in S..unit ?
water displaced. Thus, Archimedes principle is verified. Sol. Density of water dw = 103 kg/m3
Relative density (R.D.) of silver = 10.5
9. W hen an aluminium object is immersed in water, it
Density of silver dAg = ?
displaces 5 kg of water. How much is the buoyant force
acting on the aluminium object in newtons ? (g = 10 m/s2). density of silver
 R.D. = density of water
Sol. According to Archimedes’ principle, the buoyant force
acting on this aluminium object will be equal to the dAg
weight of water displaced by this aluminium object. 10.5 =
103
So, all that we have to do is to find the weight of water
dAg = 10.5 × 103 kg/m3.
PAGE # 163
USES OF ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE (iii) Archimedes principle is used to design :
Relative density for solids and liquids can also be (A) the ships and submarines.
determined with the help of Archimedes principle.
(B) the hydrometers to find the densities of liquids.
(i) For solids :
(C) the lactometers to test the purity of milk.
By definition, we have
Table of densities and relative densities of some
Density of subs tan ce
Relative density = Density of water substances :
Weight of certain volume of substance

=
Weight of same volume of water
-3
Sr. No. Name of Substance Density at S.T.P in (kg m ) Relative Density
-3
Weight of a body 1 Air 1.29 1.29 × 10
Relative density = loss in weight when fully immersed in water
2 Wood 800 0.80
3 Ice 920 0.917
Relative density of a solid can be measured by
4 Water 1000 1.00
weighing it first in air and then when fully immersed in
6 Glycerine 1260 1.26
water.
7 Glass 2500 2.50
Let weight of the body in air = W 1 8 Aluminium 2700 2.70
Weight of solid body in water = W 2 9 Iron 7900 7.90
Loss in weight = W 1 – W 2 10 Silver 10500 10.50
Weight of solid body in air 11 Mercury 13600 13.60

R.D. = W1
Loss in weight in water = 12 Gold 19320 19.32
W1 W2
–
(ii) For liquids :

PHYSICAL MEANING OF RELATIVE DENSITY
To measure relative density of a liquid, choose a body
which can be fully immersed in water as well as in the
Relative density of a substance is a number of times
given liquid. The body is weighed first in air, then fully
the given substance is heavier than the equal volume
immersed in water and then fully immersed in that
of water. When we say that the relative density of silver
particular liquid.
= 10.5, it means, silver is 10.5 times heavier than equal
Density of liquid volume of water.
R.D. =
Density of water
LAW OF FLOATATION
Weight of certain volume of liquid
= Weight of water displaced by the same body Law of floatation is an extension of Archimedes
principle.
weight of liquid displaced by a body When a body is immersed partially or wholly in a fluid,
R.D. =
weight of water displaced by the same body
then the various forces acting on the body are (i) upward
thrust (B) acting at the centre of buoyancy and whose
loss of weight in liquid
R.D. = magnitude is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
loss of weight in water
and (ii) the weight of the body (W) which acts vertically
downwards through its centre of gravity.
weight of body in air  weight of body in liquid
R..D.=
weight of body in air  weight of body in water
W<B
Let the weight of a body in air = W W=B
Weight of the body fully immersed in water =W
Weight of the body fully immersed in liquid = W
Then loss of weight in liquid = W – W
and loss of weight in water = W – W W >B
 Relative density of the liquid = W W' '

– –
W W' Floatation
(i) When W > B, the body will sink in the liquid.

(ii) When W = B, then the body will remain in equilibrium
inside the liquid.
PAGE # 164
(iii) W hen W < B, then the body will come upto the
Density of solid
surface of the liquid in such a way that the weight of the (B) Relative density of solid =
Density of water
liquid displaced due to it balance the weight of body
immersed inside the liquid.
1.42 g / cm 3
Thus law of floatation is defined as follows : = = 1.42
1g / cm 3
Definition :
A body floats in a liquid if weight of the liquid displaced Thus, the relative density of solid is 1.42.
by the immersed portion of the body is equal to the
(C) Since the relative density of this solid (1.42) is
weight of the body.
greater than the relative density of water which is 1 so
(a) Special features of floating body : it will sink in the water.
(i) Floating body is a weightless body : As the weight (D) The solid will displace water equal to its own vol-
acting downwards is neutralized by the buoyant force ume. Since the volume of solid is 350 cm 3 so it will
acting upwards, a floating body is a weightless body. displace 350 cm3 of water. Now, volume of water dis-
We can also say that the apparent weight of the floating placed is 350 cm3 and the density of water in common
body is zero. units is 1 g/cm3. Putting these values in (i), we get,
(ii) Loss of weight of a floating body is complete :
As the floating body is weightless, it means it has lost Mass of water
Density of water =
its wegiht completely. Volume of water
 loss of weight for a floating body
= Real weight – Apparent weight Mass of water
We get 1 g/cm3 =
= Real weight – 0 = Real weight 350 cm3
(b ) R el at ion be tw ee n De nsi ty of Soli d and So, Mass of water = 1 g/cm3 × 350 cm3
Liquid : Thus, the mass of water displaced is 350 grams.
Let 1 be the density of the solid whose volume is V1 . (c) Equilibrium of Floating Bodies :
Let 2 be the density of the liquid and the volume of the
portion of the solid immersed in the liquid be V2. From law of floatation, we know that a body will float in
a liquid when its weight W is equal to the weight w of
Now, weight of the floating solid = weight of the liquid the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body.
displaced But this does not necessarily indicate that the body will
be in equilibrium. A body will be in equilibrium only if
i.e. V11g = V2 2 g  ρ1 = V2 the resultant of all the forces and couples acting on the
ρ2 V1 body is zero. If W and w act along different lines, they
Density of solid will then form a couple which will tend to rotate the
or Density of liquid body. Thus, a floating body can be in equilibrium if no
couple acts on it. It will be so if the line of action of W
Volume of the immersed portion of the solid and w is along the same vertical straight line. Thus,
= there will be equilibrium of floating bodies if the following
Total volume of the solid
conditions are fulfilled :
= Fraction of volume of body immersed in liquid
(i) A body can float if the weight of the liquid displaced
11. The volume of a solid of mass 500 g is 350 cm3. by the immersed part of body must be equal to the
(A) What will be the density of this solid ? weight of the body.
(B) What will be the relative density of solid ?
(ii) A body can be in equilibrium if the centre of gravity of
(C) Will it float or sink in water ?
the body and centre of buoyancy must be along the
(D) What will be the mass of water displaced by this
same vertical line.
solid ?
(iii) The body will be in stable equilibrium if centre of
Mass of solid gravity of body lies vertically below the centre of buoyancy
Sol. (A) Density of solid = ... (i) and in the unstable equilibrium if centre of gravity lies
Volume of solid
vertically above the centre of buoyancy.
500g
= = 1.42 g/cm3  NOTE :
350 cm3
 When an ice block is floating in water in a vessel, then
Thus, the density of the given solid is 1.42 g/cm3. the level of water in the vessel will not change when
the whole ice melts into water.
PAGE # 165
 When an ice block is floating in a liquid in a vessel and (c) Non-Viscous Flow :
ice completely melts, then the following cases may The fluid offers no internal friction. An object moving
arise for the level of liquid in the vessel. through this fluid does not experience a retarding force.
(i) If density of liquid is greater than that of water i.e., (d) Irrotational :
L >w , the level of liquid plus water will rise.
This means that there is no angular momentum of the
(ii) If density of liquid is less than the density of water fluid about any point. A very small wheel placed at any
i.e, L < w , the level of liquid plus water will decrease point inside such a fluid does not rotate about its centre
of mass.
(iii) If density of liquid is equal to the density of water
i.e,  L = w , the level of liquid plus water will remain
unchanged.
PASCAL'S LAW
12. A body of volume 300 cm3 and relative density 1/3 is
If the pressure in a liquid is changed at a particular
placed in water. Will it sink or float in water and what
point the change is transmitted to the entire liquid
will be the volume of water displaced by it ?
without being diminished in magnitude. In the above
case if Pa is increased by some amount than P must
1
Sol. Relative density of body = increase to maintained the difference (P – Pa) = hg.
3 This is Pascal’s Law.
body (a) Hydraulic Press :

1
 = b = density of body
 water 3 f W W
p=  or f  a
w = density of water a A A
as A >> a then f << W..
1 1 This can be used to lift a heavy load placed on the
 body = ×1= gm/cc platform of larger piston or to press the things placed
3 3
between the piston and the heavy platform. The work
Since density of body is less than density of water it
done by applied force is equal to change in potential
will float.
energy of the weight in hydraulic press.
Let “x” be the volume of body immersed inside the W
water then volume of displaced water will also be equal Applied
f Force
to "x".
If V = total volume of body then its weight = V b × g and
Buoyant force = x w × g
For floatation weight of body must be balanced by up-
ward buoyant force
So V b × g = x  × g
x b
 =
V w
1 1
x= ×V = × 300 = 100 cm3 13. The area of cross-section of the two arms of a hydraulic
3 3
press are 1 cm2 and 10 cm2 respectively. A force of 5N
is applied on the water in the thinner arm. What force
IDEAL FLUID should be applied on the water in the thicker arms so
that the water may remain in equilibrium ?
An ideal fluid is one which is non-viscous,
incompressible and its flow is steady and irrotational.
Thus an ideal fluid has the following features connected
with its flow :
(a) Steady flow :
In a steady flow, the fluid velocity at each point does
not change with time, neither in magnitude nor in
direction. Sol. In equilibrium, the pressures at the two surfaces
should be equal as they lie in the same horizontal
(b) Incompressible Flow :
level. If the atmospheric pressure is P and a force F is
The density of the fluid remains constant during its applied to maintain then the equilibrium, the pressures
flow. are
PAGE # 166
5N F can not draw a clear cut line above which there is no
P0 + 2 and P0 + 2 respectively.. atmosphere. Anyhow the atmosphere extends upto
1 cm 10 cm
1200 km. This limit is considered for all practical
On solving F = 50 N
purposes.
(b) Hydraulic Brake : MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Hydraulic brake system is used in automobiles to
(a) Mercury Barometer :
retard the motion.
To measure the atmospheric pressure experimentally,
HYDROSTATIC PARADOX Torricelli invented a mercury barometer in 1643.
Pressure is directly proportional to depth and by

applying pascal’s law it can be seen that pressure is
independent of the size and shape of the containing
vessel. (In all the three cases the heights are same).
The pressure exerted by a mercury column of 1mm

high is called 1 Torr.
A B C 1 Torr = 1 mm of mercury column
PA = PB = PC (b) Open Tube Manometer :
Open-tube manometer is used to measure the

pressure gauge. W hen equilibrium is reached, the
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE pressure at the bottom of left limb is equal to the
pressure at the bottom of right limb.
• Definition : The atmospheric pressure at any point is
numerically equal to the weight of a column of air of
unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to
the top of the atmosphere.
At 0ºC, density of mercury = 13.595 g cm–3, and at sea
level, g = 980.66 cm s–2
Now P = hg.
Atmospheric pressure = 76 × 13.595 × 980.66 dyne i.e. p + y1 g = pa + y2 g
cm–2 = 1.013 × 105 N/m2 (pa) p – pa = g (y2 – y1) = gy
p = absolute pressure, p – pa = gauge pres sure.
• Height of Atmosphere : The standard atmospheric Thus, knowing y and  (density of liquid), we can
pressure is 1.013 × 105 Pa (N m–2). If the atmosphere measure the gauge pressure.
of earth has a uniform density  = 1.30 kg m–3, then the
14. The manometer shown below is used to measure the
height h of the air column which exerts the standard
difference in water level between the two tanks. Calculate
atmospheric pressure is given by
this difference for the conditions indicated.
 hg = 1.013 × 105
Liquid
5 (sp gravity=0.9)
1.013  10 1.013  10 5
h= = m
g 1.3  9.8
h2 40cm h1
= 7.95 × 103 m ~ 8 km.
In fact, density of air is not constant but decreases with Water Water
height. The density becomes half at about 6 km
1 Sol. pa + h2 g + 40g = pa + h1 g + 40 mg

high, th at about 12 km and so on. Therefore, we
4 h1 g – h2 g = 40 g – 40 mg
PAGE # 167
STREAMLINE FLOW
pa pa The path taken by a particle in flowing fluid is called its
h2 40cm h1
line of flow. In the case of steady flow all the particles
Water Water passing through a given point follow the same path
and hence we have a unique line of flow passing
through a given point which is also called streamline.
as m = 0.9
(h1 – h2) g = 40g( – m)
(h1 – h2) g = 40g( – 0.9)
h1 – h2= 4 cm
(c) Water Barometer :
Let us suppose water is used in the barometer instead of

mercury.
hg = 1.013 × 105
1.013  10 5
or h =
g (a) Characteristics of Streamline :
(i) A tangent at any point on the stream line gives the
The height of the water column in the tube will be 10.3 direction of the velocity of the fluid particle at that point.
m. Such a long tube cannot be managed easily, thus
(ii) Two steamlines never intersect each other.
water barometer is not feasible.
15. In a given U-tube (open at one-end) find out relation LAMINAR FLOW
between p and pa.
If the liquid flows over a horizontal surface in the form
Given d2 = 2 × 13.6 gm/cm3 d1 = 13.6 gm/cm3 of layers of different velocities, then the flow of liquid is
called Laminar flow. The particle of one layer do not go
to another layer. In general, Laminar flow is a streamline
flow.
TURBULENT FLOW
• The flow of fluid in which velocity of all particles
crossing a given point is not same and the motion of
the fluid becomes disorderly or irregular is called
Sol. Pressure in a liquid at same level is same i.e. at A – A,
turbulent flow.
p a  d2 yg  xd1g  p
REYNOLD'S NUMBER
In C.G.S. According to Reynold, the critical velocity (vc) of a liquid

pa + 13.6 × 2 × 25 × g + 13.6 × 26 × g = p flowing through a long narrow tube is
pa + 13.6 × g [50 + 26] = p (i) directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity ()
2pa = p [pa = 13.6 × g × 76] of the liquid.
(ii) inversely proportional to the density  of the liquid
and
PAGE # 168
(b) Potential energy :
(iii) inversely proportional to the diameter (D) of the
tube. The potential energy of a liquid of mass m at a height
 R h is m g h.
That is vc  or vc =
D D mgh
 P.E. per unit mass = = gh
v c D m
R= ......(A)
 (c) Pressure energy :
where R is the Reynold number.
If R < 2000, the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar. If The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its
R > 3000, the flow is turbulent. If R lies between 2000 pressure is called pressure energy.
and 3000, the flow is unstable and may change from Consider a vessel fitted with piston at one side (figure).
streamline flow to turbulent flow. Let this vessel is filled with a liquid. Let ‘A’ be the area
of cross section of the piston and P be the pressure
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY experienced by the liquid.
The equation of continuity expresses the law of The force acting on the piston = PA
conservation of mass in fluid dynamics. If dx be the distance moved by the piston, then work
done by the force = PA dx = Pdv
where dV = Adx, volume of the liquid swept.
This work done is equal to the pressure energy of the
liquid.
Pressure energy of liquid in volume dV, = Pdv.
a1v1 = a2v2 The mass of the liquid having volume dV, = dv,
 is the density of the liquid.
In general av = constant . This is called equation of
continuity and states that as the area of cross section
of the tube of flow becomes larger, the liquid’s (fluid)
speed becomes smaller and vice-versa.
e.g. (i) Velocity of liquid is greater in the narrow tube as
compared to the velocity of the liquid in a broader tube.
(ii) Deep waters run slow can be explained from the
equation of continuity i.e., av = constant. Where water
is deep the area of cross section increases hence
velocity decreases.
16. An incompressible liquid flows through a horizontal Pdv
tube as shown in the following fig. Then find the velocity  Pressure energy per unit mass of the liquid =
 dv
v of the fluid.
P
= .

BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
Sol. m = m1 + m2 It states that the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy

A vt =A v2t + 2Av1t and potential energy per unit mass or per unit volume
V = V2 + 2V1
or per unit weight is always constant for an ideal (i.e.
ENERGY OF A LIQUID incompressible and non-viscous) fluid having
streamline flow.
A liquid can posses three types of energies :
(a) Kinetic energy : P 1 2
i.e. + v + gh = constant.
The energy possessed by a liquid due to its motion is  2
called kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of a liquid of
1
mass m moving with speed v is mv2.
2
1
mv 2 1 2
 K.E. per unit mass =
2 = v.
m 2
PAGE # 169
17. W ater flows in a horizontal tube as shown in figure. (V) Venturimeter : It is a gauge put on a flow pipe to
The pressure of water changes by 600 N/m between 2 measure the flow of speed of a liquid (Fig). Let the
liquid of density  be flowing through a pipe of area of
A and B where the areas of cross-section are 30cm2
cross section A1. Let A2 be the area of cross section at
and 15cm2 respectively. Find the rate of flow of water the throat and a manometer is attached as shown in
through the tube. the figure. Let v1 and P1 be the velocity of the flow and
pressure at point A, v2 and P 2 be the corresponding
quantities at point B.
• Using Bernoulli’s theorem :
P1 1 2 P2 1 2
+ gh1 + v =  + gh2 + v , we get
Sol. Let the velocity at A = vA and that at B = vB.  2 1 2 2
vB 30 cm2
By the equation of continuity, = = 2.
vA 15 cm2
By Bernoulli’s equation,
1 1
PA +  vA2 = PB + rv 2
2 2 B
1 1 3
or, PA – PB = (2vA)2 – vA2 = v 2
2 2 2 A
N 3 1000 kg  2 P1 1 2 P2 1 2
or, 600 2 =   v + gh + v1 = + gh + v (Since h1 = h2
m 2  m3  A  2  2 2
= h)
or, vA = 0.4 m 2 / s 2 = 0.63 m/s.
1
The rate of flow = (30 cm2) (0.63 m/s) = 1890 cm3/s. or (P1 – P2) = ( v 22 – v12) ....(A)
2
According to continuity equation, A1 v1 = A2v2
• Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem:
A 
(i) Bunsen burner or v 2   1  v
(ii) The sprayer.  A2  1
(iii) A ping-pong ball in an air jet Substituting the value of v2 in equation (A) we have
(iv) Torricelli’s theorem (speed of efflux)  A  2   A  2 
1  1  v 12  v 12  1  1   1
 A 2 
2
At point A, P1 = P, v1 = 0 and h1 = h (P1 – P2)=   
 A 2   = 2 v1 
2    
At point B, P2 = P, v2 = v (speed of efflux) and h=0
Since A1 > A2, therefore, P1 > P2
2(P1  P2 ) 2A 22 (P1  P2 )
or v12 = =
 A  2   ( A12  A 22 )
1
    1
 A 2  
 
where (P1 – P2) = m gh and h is the difference in heights
of the liquid levels in the two tubes.
P1 1 2
Using Bernoulli’s theorem + gh1 + v 2m gh
 2 1
v1 =  A  2 
P2 1 2   1   1
= + gh2 + v , we have  A 2  
 2 2  
P P 1 The flow rate (R) i.e., the volume of the liquid flowing
2
 + gh + 0 =  + 0 + 2 v per second is given by R = v1 A1.
1
 v2 = gh or v = 2gh
2
PAGE # 170
(VI) Curved path of a spinning ball : hence longer) than the lower surface and the front edge
is broader than the rear edge As the aircraft moves the
• Magnus effect : When a ball is thrown horizontally with
air moves faster over the upper surface of the wing
a large velocity and at the same time given a twisting than on the bottom. According to Bernoulli’s principle,
motion to cause a spin, it deviates from its usual the air pressure above the upper surface decreases
parabolic trajectory of spin free motion. This deviation below the atmospheric pressure and that on the lower
can be explained on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle. surface increases above the atmospheric pressure.
When the ball spins about an axis perpendicular to its The difference in pressure provides an upward lift,
horizontal motion, it carries with itself an air of layer called dynamic lift, to the aircraft.
due to viscous drag. The streamlines around it are in
the form of concentric circles, as shown in figure(a).
W hen the ball moves forward with velocity v, the air
ahead of the ball rushes backward with velocity v to fill
the space left empty by the ball. Thus the streamlines
in air due to translatory motion of the ball are of the
form shown in figure (b). The layer above the ball moves
in a direction opposite to that of the spinning ball, so
the resultant velocity decreases and hence pressure
increases in accordance with bernoulli’s principle. The
layer below the ball moves in the direction of spin, the
resultant velocity increases and hence pressure (VIII) Blood flow and heart attack : In persons suffering
decreases. Due to difference of pressure on the two with advanced heart condition, the artery gets
constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its
sides of the ball, the ball curves downwards in the
inner walls in order to drive the blood throught this
direction of spin, as shown in figure (c)
constriction, a greater demand is placed on the activity
of the heart. The speed of blood flow increases in this
region from Bernoulli’s principle, the inside pressure
drops and the artery may collapse due to external
pressure. The heart exerts further pressure to open
this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood
rushes through the opening, the internal pressure once
again drops leading to a repeat collapse. This
phenomenon is called vascular flutter which can be
heard on a stethoscope. This may result in a heart
attack.
(IX) Blowing off the roofs during wind storm :
The difference in lateral pressure, which causes a

spinning ball to take a curved path which is convex
towards the greater pressure side, is called magnus During certain wind storm or cyclone, the roofs of some
houses are blown off without damaging the other parts
effect. This effect was first noticed by German scientist
of the house. The high wind blowing over the roof
(VII) Aerofoil : Lift of an aircraft wing : Aerofoil is the name creates a low pressure P 2 in accordance with
Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure P 1 below the roof
given to a solid object shaped to provide an upward vertical
is equal to the atmospheric pressure which is larger
force as it moves horizontally through air .this upward than P2 . The difference of pressure (P1 – P2) causes
force (dynamic lift) makes aeroplanes fly. an upward thrust and the roof is lifted up. Once the roof
As shown in figure, the cross- section of the wing of an is lifted up, it is blown off with the wind.
aeroplane looks like an aerofoil. The wing is so
designed that its upper surface is more curved (and
PAGE # 171
18. A rain drop of radius 0.3 mm falls through air with a
VISCOSITY terminal velocity of 1 m/s. The viscosity of air is 18 × 10–5
, Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of which an poise. Find the viscous force on the rain drop.
Sol. F = 6rv
internal force of friction comes into play when a fluid is
= 6 × 3.142 × 18 × 10–5 × 0.03 × 100
in motion, a friction force which opposes the relative
= 1.018 × 10–2 dyne.
motion between its different layers. The backward
dragging force called viscous drag or viscous force,
19. An iron ball of radius 0.3 cm falls through a column of
acts tangentially on the layers of the fluid in motion and oil of density 0.94 g cm–3. It is found to attain a terminal
tends to destroy its motion. velocity of 0.5 cm/s. Determine the viscosity of the oil.
(a) Coefficient of Viscosity : Given that density of iron is 7.8 g/cm3
F  – A
dv 2 r2
Sol.  = (  ) g
dx 9 v
It depends on the nature of the liquid and gives a
2
measure of viscosity. Negative sign shows that the 2  0.3  7.8  0.94   980
= = 268.9 poise.
viscous force acts in a direction opposite to the 9  0.5
direction of motion of the liquid.
dv EXERCISE-1
If A = 1 and =1
dx
then, F =  PRES SURE & RELATI VE DEN SITY
Hence coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined
as the tangential viscous force required to maintain a 1. Pressure varies with force as :
unit velocity gradient between its two parallel layers
each of unit area.
1
(A) F (B)
F
(b) Units of Coefficient of Viscosity :
CGS  poise 1
SI  poiseuille or decapoise (C) F2 (D)
F2
and 1 poiseuille = 10 poise
2. Pressure exerted by a sharp needle on a surface is :
(c) Stokes’ Law :
(A) more than the pressure exerted by blunt needle
According to stokes’ law, the backward viscous force (B) less than the pressure exerted by a blunt needle
acting on a small spherical body of radius r moving (C) equal to the pressure exerted by a blunt needle
with uniform velocity v through fluid of viscosity  is (D) none of these
given by
F = 6  rv 3. If a force of 10N acts on two surfaces (area in the ratio
1 : 2), then the ratio of thrusts will be :
TERMINAL VLEOCITY (A) 1 : 2 (B) 2 : 1
(C) 3 : 1 (D) 1 : 1
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body
while falling through a viscous medium is called 4. The height of mercury which exerts the same pressure
terminal velocity it is given by as 20 cm of water column, is equal to :
(A) 1.47 cm (B) 14.8 cm
(C) 148 cm (D) None of these
5. Pressure varies with area (A) as :
1
(A) A (B)
A
1
(C) A2 (D)
A2
6. A force of 50 N is applied on a nail of area 0.001 sq.cm.
Then the thrust is :
2 (A) 50 N (B) 100 N
2 r (  )g
v= . (C) 0.05 N (D) 10 N
9 
Where, 7. The S.I. unit of pressure is :
 = density of body,  = density of liquid (A) atmosphere (B) dyne/cm2
 = radius spherical body. (C) pascal (D) mm of Hg
PAGE # 172
8. The pressure exerted by a liquid at depth h is given by : 19. A boat full of iron nail is floating on water in a lake.
h When the iron nails are removed, the water level :
(A) (B) hdg (A) rises
dg
(B) remains same
h (C) falls
(C) (D) hg
d (D) nothing can be said
9. The S.I. unit of thrust :

20. A cylinder of wood floats vertically in water with one-
(A) N (B) dyne
(C) Nm2 (D) Nm–2 fourth of its length out of water. The density of wood is :
(A) 0.25 g/cm3 (B) 0.5 g/cm3
10. Pressure cannot be measured in :
(C) 0.75 g/cm3 (D) 1 g/cm3
(A) Nm-2 (B) bar
(C) Pa (D) kg.wt.
21. A siphon in use is demonstrated in the following figure.
11. A piece of wood is held under water. The upthrust on it
The density of the liquid flowing in siphon is 1.5 gm/cc.
is :
The pressure difference between the point P and S
(A) equal to the weight of the wood
(B) less than the weight of the wood will be :
(C) more than the weight of wood
(D) zero
12. Archimedes principle states that when a body is totally
or partially immersed in a fluid the upthrust is equal to :
(A) the weight of the fluid displaced.
(B) the weight of the body.
(C) volume of the fluid displaced.
(D) volume of the body.
13. S.I. unit of density is :
(A) kgm-2 (B) kgm-3
(C) m2kg-1 (D) N kg-1
14. Unit of relative density is :
(A) kgm-3 (A) 105 N/m (B) 2 × 105 N/m
(B) gcm-3 (C) Zero (D) Infinity
(C) g litre-1
(D) it does not have a unit 22. Figure here shown the vertical cross-section of a vessel
15. Relative density of a solid is 0.6. It floats in water with : filled with a liquid of density r. The normal thrust per
(A) whole of its volume inside water unit area on the walls of the vessel at point. P, as
(B) 60% volume inside water shown, will be
(C) 60% volume outside water
(D) 40% volume inside water.
16. Buoyant force acting on a body due to different fluids is :
(A) same (B) different
(C) zero (D) none of these
17. The relative density of silver is 10.5, if the density of
water is 1000 kgm-3, then density of silver will be :
(A) 10.5 kgm-3 (B) 1050 kgm-3
-3
(C) 105 kgm (D) 10500 kgm-3
1 (A) h r g (B) Hr g
18. A body floats with rd of its volume outside water and (C) (H – h) rg (D) (H – h)r g cos
3
3 23. In a hydraulic lift, used at a service station the radius of

th of its volume outside liquid, then the density of
4 the large and small piston are in the ratio of 20 : 1.
liquid is : What weight placed on the small piston will be sufficient
to lift a car of mass 1500 kg ?
3 8 (A) 3.75 kg (B) 37.5 kg
(A) g/cm3 (B) g/cm3
8 3 (C) 7.5 kg (D) 75 kg.
9 4
(C) g/cm3 (D) g/cm3
4 9
PAGE # 173
24. Two vessels A and B of different shapes have the same 33. The Reynolds number of a flow is the ratio of
base area and are filled with water up to the same (A) Gravity to viscous force
(B) Gravity force to pressure force
height h (see figure). The force exerted by water on the
(C) Inertia forces to viscous force
base is FA for vessel A and FB for vessel B. The respective (D) Viscous forces to pressure forces
weights of the water filled in vessels are W A and W B .
Then 34. Two water pipes of diameters 2 cm and 4 cm are
connected with the main supply line. The velocity of
flow of water in the pipe of 2 cm diameter is
(A) 4 time that in the other pipe
1
(B) times that in the other pipe
4
(C) 2 times that in the other pipe
(A) FA > FB ; W A > W B (B) FA = FB ; W A > W B

1
(D) times that in the other pipe
(C) FA = FB ; W A < W B (D) FA > FB ; W A = W B 2
35. Water is moving with a speed of 5.18 ms-1 through a

pipe with a cross-sectional area of 4.20 cm2. The water
CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLIE’S level gradually descends 9.66 m as the pipe increase
in area to 7.60 cm2 , Thespeed of flow at the lower level
25. Bernoulli’s principle is based on the law of conservation
is
of :
(A) mass (B) momentum (A) 3.0 ms-1 (B) 5.7 ms-1
-1
(C) energy (D) none of these (C) 3.82 ms (D) 2.86 ms-1
26. Action of paint-gun is based on: 36. A tank is filled with water up to height H. W ater is
(A) Bernoulli’s principle
allowed to come out of a hole P in one of the walls at
(B) Boyle’s law
(C) Faraday’s law a depth D below the surface of water. Express the
(D) Archimedes’s principle horizontal distance x in terms of H and D :
27. Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to points:
(A) in a steadily flowing liquid
(B) in a stream line
(C) in a straight line perpendicular to a stream line
(D) for ideal liquid stream line flow on a stream line
28. Bernoulli’s equation is based upon:

(A) isochoric process
(B) isobaric process
(C) isothermal process
(D) adiabatic process
29. The horizontal flow of fluid depends upon

(A) pressure difference (B) amount of fluid (A) x = D(H  D )
(C) density of fluid (D) all the above
30. In steady horizontal flow:

D(H  D)
(A) the pressure is greatest where the speed is least (B) x =
(B) the pressure is independent of speed 2
(C) the pressure is least where the speed is least
(D) (a) and (c) are correct
(C) x = 2 D(H  D )
31. In a laminar flow the velocity of the liquid in contact
with the walls of the tube is
(A) Zero (D) x = 4 D(H  D )
(B) Maximum
37. A fixed cylindrical vessel is filled with water up to height
(C) In between zero and maximum
(D) Equal to critical velocity H. A hole is bored in the wall at a depth h from the free
surface of water. For maximum horizontal range h is
32. In a turbulent flow, the velocity of the liquid molecules
in contact with the walls of the tube is – equal to :
(A) Zero (A) H (B) 3H/4
(B) Maximum
(C) H/2 (D) H/4
(C) Equal to critical velocity
(D) May have any value
PAGE # 174
38. An incompressible liquid flows through a horizontal 41. The diagram shows a cup of tea seen from above. The
tube as shown in the figure. Then the velocity ' v ' of the tea has been stirred and is now rotating without
fluid is : turbulence. A graph showing the speed v with which
the liquid is crossing points at a distance X from O
along a radius XO would look like
(A) 3.0 m/s (B) 1.5 m/s

(C) 1.0 m/s (D) 2.25 m/s
39. For a fluid which is flowing steadily, the level in the

vertical tubes is best represented by
(A) (B)
(A)
(B) (C) (D)
42. Water flows through a frictionless duct with a cross-

section varying as shown in fig. Pressure p at points
(C) along the axis is represented by
(D)
(A) (B)
40. There are two identical small holes on the opposite
sides of a tank containing a liquid. The tank is open at
the top. The difference in height between the two holes
is h. As the liquid comes out of the two holes, the tank
will experience a net horizontal force proportional to:
(C) (D)
(A) h1/2 (B) h

(C) h3/2 (D) h2
PAGE # 175
6. An air bubble situated at the bottom of an open
EXERCISE-2 kerosene tank rises to the top surface. It is observed
that at the top the volume of the bubble is thrice its
COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS initial volume. If the atmospheric pressure is 72 cm of
Hg, and mercury is 17 times heavier than kerosene,
1. A liquid flowing with speed v through a horizontal pipe
the depth of the tank must be : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
of cross sectional area A enters into another pipe of
double the area of cross section. Now, the speed of (A) 2.16 m (B) 2.88 m
the liquid is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007) (C) 12.24 m (D) 24.48 m
(A) v (B) 2 v
(C) v/2 (D) v/4 7. A block of wood is floating on oil with half of its volume
submerged. If the density of oil 840 kg m–3, the relative
2. A rubber balloon of negligible mass is filled with 500 g density of wood (relative to water) is : (KVPY/2008)
of water. Its weight in water will be : (A) 0.84 (B) 0.42
(IAO/Jr.Stage-I/2007) (C) 0.21 (D) 1.00
(A) 250 g (B) 500 g
(C) zero (D) 100 g
8. A rubber pipe with a diameter of 10 cm is connected to
a nozzle 2 cm in diameter. Water flowing through the
3. A buggy ABC of shape as shown in the figure is filled
with water. Which of the following statements is NOT pipe at a speed of 0.6 ms–1 comes out like a jet through
correct ? (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008) the nozzle. The backward force of the nozzle is about :
(KVPY/2008)
(A) 7.7 N (B) 67.9 N
(C) zero (D) 2.8 N
A C
9. A beaker containing water is placed on the platform of
a digital weighing machine. It reads 1100 g. A metal
B
body of density 8g /cc and mass 200 g is suspended
in water in the beaker (without touching the walls of the
(A) Average pressure on surfaces A and C is the same. beaker). It is attached by a suitable string fixed to some
(B) Pressure on surface B is greater than average support. Now the reading of weighing machine will be :
pressure on surface A. (IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
(C) Force due to hydrostatic pressure on surface C is (A) 1100g (B) 1125 g
greater than that on surface A.
(C) 1275 (D) 1300 g
(D) The buggy moves to the right on its own.
10. Two immiscible liquids, A and B are kept in a U-tube. If
4. There is a steady water flow in a horizontal tube in
the density of liquid A is smaller than the density of
which one part has cross sectional area A 1 and the
liquid B, then the equilibrium situation is: (KVPY/2009)
other part has cross sectional area A 2. Assume that
water is incompressible.
If A1/A2 = 16, the ratio of the speed u1 in part 1 and the
speed u2 in part 2, i.e. u1/u2 is : (KVPY/2008) A A
1
(A) (B) 4 (A) (B)
16
1
(C) (D) 1
4
5. An iceberg is floating in ocean. W hat fraction of its
volume is above the water ?
(Given : density of ice = 900 kg/m3 and density of ocean A
3
water = 1030 kg / m ) (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
(C) (D) None of these
(A) 90 / 103 (B) 13 / 103
(C) 10 / 103 (D) 1 / 103
PAGE # 176
11. A spring balance A reads 2 kg with a block of mass m 14. A solid cube and a solid sphere both made of same
suspended from it. Another balance B reads 3 kg when material are completely submerged in water but to
a beaker with a liquid is put on its pan. The two different depths. The sphere and the cube have same
balances are now so arranged that the hanging mass surface area. The buoyant force is :
m is fully immersed inside the liquid in the beaker as (KVPY/SA/2012)
(A) greater for the cube than the sphere
shown in the figure. In this situation. (KVPY/2009)
(B) greater for the sphere than the cube
(C) same for the sphere and the cube
A (D) greater for the object that is submerged deeper
15. A tall tank filled with water has an irregular shape as
shown. The wall CD makes an angle of 45° with the
horizontal; the wall AB is normal to the base BC. The
lengths AB and CD are much smaller than the height h
of water (figure not to scale). (KVPY/SA/2013)
(A) the balance A will read 2 kg and B will read 5 kg.

(B) the balance A will read 2 kg and B will read 3 kg.
(C) the balance A will read less than 2 kg and B will
read between 3 kg and 5 kg.
(D) the balance A will read less than 2 kg and B will
read 3 kg.
12. We sit in the room with windows open. Then :
(KVPY/2011)
Let P1, P2 and P3 be the pressures exerted by the water
(A) Air pressure on the floor of the room equals the
on the wall AB, base BC and the wall CD respectively.
atmospheric pressure but the air pressure on the Density of water is  and g is acceleration due to gravity.
ceiling is negligible Then, approximately
(B) Air pressure is nearly the same on the floor, the (A) P1 = P2 = P3
walls and ceiling 1
(B) P1 = 0, P3 = P2
(C) Air pressure on the floor equals the weight of the 2
air column inside the room (from floor to ceiling) per 1
(C) P1 = P3 = P2
unit area 2
(D) Air pressure on the walls is zero since the weight of (D) P1 = P3 = 0, P2 = hg
air acts downward 16. An inclined plane of inclination  is placed in water as
shown in figure given below. Consider a small area
13. The pressure at the bottom of the four vessels (A) around point P at a depth h. If Density of water is 
filled with water to the same level is P1, P2, P3 and acceleration due to gravity is g the force
and P4 respectively. Then which of the following
experienced by A due to hydrostatic pressure is :
conclusion is correct. (IJSO Stage-I/2012)
(IJSO Stage-I/2013)
P1 P2
(A) gh(A)/2 (B) gh(A) sin
P3 P4 (C) gh (A) (D) gh(A) sec
(A) P1 > P2 > P3 > P4 (B) P1 < P2 < P3 <P4

(C) P1 = P4 = P2 > P3 (D) P1 = P2 = P3 = P4
PAGE # 177
17. A liquid (A) of density 1.6gcm–3 and liquid (B) of unknown 22. Figure given below shows a small boat, containing
density is poured into a U-tube as shown in the figure. some iron balls. floating on a still lake. These iron
blocks are now dropped into the lake. Select the wrong
The liquids are immiscible. If height of A is hA = 26.6cm
statement. (IJSO/Stage-II/2015)
and height of B is hB = 50cm the density of B is :
(IJSO Stage-I/2013) boat Ground level
Lake
(A) Level of the lake will fall, with ground reference

–3 –3 (B) The boat will rise, with water reference
(A) 0.85 g cm (B) 3.01 g cm
(C) Level of the boat will rise, with ground reference
(C) 0.33 g cm–3 (D) 1.18 g cm–3 (D) W ater level will not change, from the ground
reference
18. Three identical vessels carrying equal amount of water
are placed in three lifts. Lift A is accelerating upwards, 23. Weights of a metal ball recorded in air, in water and in
lift B is accelerating downwards while lift C is moving a liquid are 56N, 49N and 42N respectively. Specific
up with constant velocity. The pressure at a depth h gravity (or relative density) of the solid and that of the
liquid is respectively: (IJSO/Stage-II/2016)
from free surface in the three vessel is measured as
(A) 8 & 6 (B) 8 & 2
pA, pB and pC then which of the following is true :
(C) 8 & 1.4 (D) 7 & 0.6
(IJSO Stage-I/2014)
(A) pA = pC > pB (B) pA > pC > pB
24. A piece of ice, with a stone (denser than water)
(C) pA = pC = pB (D) pA > pC = pB embedded inside, is kept in a vessel containing water.
Size and mass of the stone is such that the stone - ice
19. An inflated balloon with a heavy rock tied to it submerges combination is floating on water. When the ice melts,
in water. As the ballon sinks deeper and deeper, the what will happen to the level of water in the beaker ?
buoyant force acting it : (IJSO Stage-I/2014) (IJSO/Stage-II/2016)
(A) increases (A) Water level will rise.
(B) remains nearly unchaged (B) Water level will fall
(C) decreases (C) Water level will remain unchanged.
(D) Initially increases and then decreases (D) Final level of water will depend upon actual density
of the stone.
25. Object A is completely immmersed in water. True

20. A machine is blowing spherical soap bubbles of
weight of object A is W A. Weight of water with
different raddi filled with helium gas. It is found that if
beaker is W B. Let B be the buoyant force. W 1 and
the bubbles have a radius smaller than 1 cm, then
W 2 are scale readings of spring balance and
they sink to the floor in still air. Larger bubbles float in
weighing scale respectively.
the air. Assume that the thickness of the soap film in
(IJSO Stage-I/2016)
all bubbles is uniform and equal. Assume that the
density of soap solution is same as that of water (=
1000 kgm-3). The density of helium inside the bubbles
and air are 0.18 kg m-3 and 1.23 kg m-3, respectively.
Then the thickness of the soap film of the bubbles is
(note 1  m = 10-6m) (KVPY/SA/2014)
(A) 0.50  m (B) 1.50  m
(C) 7.00  m (D) 3.50  m
21. A cube of side 4 cm made of wood is floating in water

of density 1.00gcc –1 . W hen a small steel ball is
embedded in the cube it just immerses in water. If
density of wood is 0.76gcc–1, then mass of the steel
ball is (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
(A) 12.65g (B) 3.84g
(C) 15.36g (D) 22.98g
(A) W 1 = W A (B) W 1 = W A + B
(C) W 2 = W B (D) W 2 = W B + B
PAGE # 178
26. U-tube contains some amount of mercury.
Immiscible liquid X is poured in left immiscible
liquid Y is poured in the right arm. length of liquid
X is 8 cm, length Y is 10 cm and upper levels of X
and Yare equal. If density of Y is 3.36 g·cm-3 and
13.6 g·cm-3 then density of X is
(IJSO Stage-I/2016)
(A) 0.8 g-cm–3 (B) 1.2 g·cm–3

(C) 1.4 g·cm–3 (D) 1.6 g. cm–3
27. A food packet of mass 20 kg is dropped from a

helicopter at rest, in air. The packet falls under gravity.
It gains a kinetic energy of 5000 J when it acquires
terminal velocity (constant velocity) due to air resistance.
The force of air resistance F is given by F = –kv.
Calculate the value of k. (IJSO/Stage-II/2015/Sub.)

PAGE # 179
9. S.H.M , WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion :

The necessary and sufficient condition for SHM is F = – kx
(a) Periodic Motion :
Where k = Force constant or spring constant
When a body or a moving particle repeats its motion x = displacement from mean position.
along a definite path after regular intervals of time, its or ma = – kx
motion is said to be Periodic Motion and interval of k
time is called time period or harmonic motion period a=– x
m
(T). The path of periodic motion may be linear, circular, Here negative sign show that F will always be towards
elliptical or any other curve. mean position or F and x are in opposite direction.
Eg.: Rotation of earth about the sun.
k
 a = –2x ( Where  = )
(b) Oscillatory Motion : m
It is the equation of SHM.
‘To and Fro’ type of motion is called an Oscillatory
Motion. It need not be periodic and need not have fixed
extreme positions. CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM
Eg. : Motion of pendulum of a wall clock. (a) Displacement :

The oscillatory motions in which energy is conserved
It is defined as the distance of the particle from the
are also periodic.
mean position at that instant. Displacement in SHM at
The force/torque (directed towards equilibrium point)
time t is given by x = A sin (t +), here  is initial
acting in oscillatory motion is called restoring force/
phase.
torque.
Damped oscillations are those in which energy is
consumed due to some resistive forces and hence extreme equilibrium extreme
postion postion
total mechanical energy decreases. postion
(c) Definition of Simple Harmonic Motion :
If the restoring force/torque acting on the body in
oscillatory motion is directly proportional to the
displacement of body/particle and is always directed
A
towards equilibrium position then the motion is called B Amplitude Amplitude
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). It is the simplest (easy
to analyses) form of oscillatory motion.
 NOTE : In the figure shown, path of the particle is a
straight line.
TYPES OF SHM
(b) Ampl itude :
(a) Linear SHM :
It is the maximum value of displacement of the particle
When a particle moves to and fro about an equilibrium from the equilibrium position.
point, along a straight line, then its motion is known as 1
linear SHM. A and B are extreme positions and M is Amplitude = [distance between two extreme
2
mean position. positions]
AM = MB = Amplitude It depends on the energy of the system.
M (c) Angular Frequency () :
A B
2π
=  2 πf and its units is rad/s.
(b) Angular SHM : T
(d) Frequency (f) :
When body/particle is free to rotate about a given axis
executing angular oscillations, then its motion is known Number of oscillations completed in unit time interval
as angular SHM. is called frequency of oscillations.
1 ω
f=  , its units is Hz or s–1 .
T 2π
PAGE # 180
(e) Time period (T) : (iii) Simple pendulum performs angular S.H.M. but due
to small angular displacement, it can be considered
The smallest time interval after which the oscillation as linear S.H.M.
repeats itself is called the time period.
(iv) If time period of clock based on simple pendulum,
2π m increases then clock will be slow, if time period
T=  2π
ω k decrease then clock will be fast.
(v) If g remains constant and  is change in length,
ILLUSTRATIONS
T 1 
then  100   100
1. For a particle performing SHM, equation of motion is T 2 
given as a + 4x = 0. Find the time period ?
(vi) If  is constant and g is change in acceleration
(Here a is acceleration of particle)
then,
Sol. a = –4x, 2 = 4,  = 2 T 1 g
 100    100
2π T 2 g
T= = .
ω 2. A simple pendulum of length 40 cm oscillates with an
angular amplitude of 0.04 rad. Find time period of the
APPLICATIONS OF S.H.M bob. (Take g = 10 m/s2).
(a) Simple Pendulum : Sol. The angular frequency is
If a heavy point-mass is suspended by a weightless, 10 m / s 2
inextensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid = g/ = = 5 s–1
0.4m
support, then this arrangement is called a simple
The time period,
pendulum.
Derivation for Time period of Simple Pendulum : 2 2
T= = = 1.26 s.
Restoring force acting on pendulum  5 s 1
F = – mg sin (b) Simple Pendulum of very large length :
From figure, sin   = OA /SA = y/ 
In deriving the formula T0 = 2 (L / g) we have asumed
that length of the pendulum L is much less than the
radius of the earth R so that ‘g’ always remain vertical.
However, if length of pendulum is comparable to the
radius of earth, ‘g’ will not remain vertical but will be
directed towards the centre of the earth.
So in the light of figure.
F = – mg (y/  ) (If k = mg/  )

F = – ky .....(i)
It is force law :
It proves that simple pendulum performs S.H.M. if
displacement is negligible.
Time period of simple pendulum,
L T
m
T = 2π
k
A B
On putting the value of k
m 
T = 2 T = 2π
mg mg
g
 NOTE : Earth
R
(i) On increasing length of simple pendulum, time
period increases, but time period of simple pendulum
of infinite length is 84.6 minutes which is maximum.
(ii) Time period of second pendulum is 2 s and
 = 0.993 m.
O Earth's center
PAGE # 181
 = –mg AB = – mgL sin (+)  –mgL( + )
 
 = –mgL  1  
  k
m
(ii) T = 2
 y /R  k
or  = –mgL 1 
y / L 

 m
d2  L
or mL 2 = –mgL 1  R  
dt 2   3. A particle of mass 200 g executes a simple harmonic
motion. The restoring force is provided by a spring of
d2 1 1 spring constant 80 N/m. Find the time period.
or = –2 with 2 = g L  R 
dt 2  
Sol. The time period is
1 m 200  10 3 kg
2 T = 2 = 2
so T = = 2 g 1  1  (< To) k 80 N / m
 L R 
 
= 2× 0.05 s = 0.31 s.
From this expression it is clear that
4. The friction coefficient between the two blocks shown
(i) If L << R, (1/L) >> (1/R) so T = 2 (L / g) which is in figure is µ and the horizontal plane is smooth.
expected. If the system is slightly displaced and released, find
(ii) If L >> R(   ) (1/L) < (1/R) so the time period.
R 6.4  10 6
T = 2 = 2 = 800  2 sec.
g 10
 84.6 minute
And it is also the maximum time period which an Sol. For small amplitude, the two blocks oscillate together.
oscillating simple pendulum can have. The angular frequency is
(iii) If L is comparable to R (say L = R), T = 2 R / 2g k

=
Mm
= 1 Hr.
Mm
and so the time period T = 2 .
TIME PERIOD OF SPRING-MASS SYSTEM k
A spring is made of a coiled metallic wire having a 5. The system is in equilibrium and at rest. Now mass
definite length. W hen it is neither pushed nor pulled m is removed from m . Find the time period and
1 2
then its length is called natural length. At natural length amplitude of resultant motion. Spring constant is k.
the spring does not exert any force on the objects
attached to its ends.f the spring is pulled at the ends,
its length becomes larger than its natural length, it is //////////////////////////
known as stretched or extended spring. Extended

spring pulls objects attached to its ends.
If the spring is pushed at the ends, its length becomes
less than natural length. It is known as compressed
spring. A compressed spring pushes the objects
attached to its ends. m1
m2
(i) Sol. Initial extension in the spring

smooth surface
(m1  m2 ) g
x=
m k
T = 2
k
Now, if we remove m , equilibrium position (E.P.) of m
1 2
m2 g
will be below natural length of spring.
k
PAGE # 182
It is force law so mass will execute S.H.M., its time
period,
////////////////////////// //////////////////////////
m m(k1  k 2 )
T = 2  T = 2
k k1k 2
N.L  NOTE :
m2g
(m1+m2)g k
k E.P (i) In series combination, tension is same in all the
m1g springs but extension will be different. (If k is same
k
then deformation is also same )
(ii) In series combination, extension of springs will be

reciprocal of its spring constant.
At the initial position, since velocity is zero i.e. it is the (iii) Spring constant of spring is reciprocal of its natural
extreme position. length
m1 g  k  1/
Hence Amplitude =
k  k1 1 = k2 2 = k3 3
m2 (iv) If a spring is cut in ‘n’ pieces then spring constant

Time period = 2 of one piece will be nk.
k
(b) Parallel combination :
COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
(a) Series Combination :
Extension is same for both springs but force acting

will be different.
Total displacement x = x1 + x2 .....(i) Force acting on the system, F = F1 + F2 .....(i)
For first spring,
Force on both springs is same
F1 = – k1x
F For second spring,
For first spring, F = – k1 x1 or x1 = –
k1
F2 = – k2x
From equation (i)
K1 K2
F
For second spring, F = – k2 x2 or x2 = – F = – (k1 x + k2 x)
k2
 F = – (k1 + k2 ) x
m
If k= k1 + k2 then,
From equation (i) F = – kx .....(ii)
F F k1
x=   It is force law so mass will execute S.H.M., its time
k1 k 2
peroid,
 1 1 k2 m
x = – F    m
 k1 k 2  T = 2  T = 2
k (k1  k 2 )
m
x
or F=
1 1
  
k
 1 k 2 
1 1 1
If  
k1 k 2 k
then, F = – kx
PAGE # 183
(ii) Electromagnetic waves
WAVE MOTION
Those waves which do not need a material medium
(a) Introduction : for their propagation and can travel even through a
When a pebble is thrown in a pond of still water, circular vacuum, are called electromagnetic waves because
ripples called waves or pulses move outward on the they do not require a material medium (like solid, liquid
or gas) for their propagation.
surface of water as shown in the figure . These waves
Examples of electromagnetic waves are (i) Radio
are in the form of disturbance that travels outward, and
waves (ii) Infra-red waves (iii) Visible (light) waves.
no portion of the medium (water in this case) is
transported from one part to another part of the (iii) Difference Between Mechanical or Elastic Waves
and Electromagnetic Waves :
medium. The particles of the medium simply vibrate
about their mean positions. The main points of difference between elastic waves
and electromagnetic waves are given below. Please
note that elastic waves include sound waves and wa-
ter waves whereas electromagnetic waves include light
waves and radio waves.
(i) Elastic waves (or mechanical waves) are due to

the vibrations of the particles of the medium through
which they pass whereas electromagnetic waves are
due to the varying electric and magnetic fields in space.
Thus, wave is a form of disturbance which travels (ii) Elastic waves (or mechanical waves) have a low
through a material medium due to the repeated peri- speed. On the other hand, all the electromagnetic
odic motion of the particles of the medium about their waves have a high speed of 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum.
mean positions. The disturbance is handed over from (iii) Elastic waves (or mechanical waves) have usu-
one particle to another particle of the medium without ally low frequency and large wavelength. On the other
the actual movement of the particles of the medium.
hand, electromagnetic waves have very high frequency
(b) Definition : and extremely short wavelength.
A wave motion is a means of transferring energy from (iv) Elastic waves (or mechanical waves) can be trans-
one point to another without any actual transportation verse waves or longitudinal waves but electromagnetic
of matter between these points. waves are only transverse waves.
In a wave motion, disturbance travels through some (b) Dependi ng upon the d irection of vi bra-
medium, but the medium does not travel along with tion of medium, particles waves are classi-
the disturbance.
fied as :
CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES (i) Transverse waves
(ii) Longitudinal waves

( a) Dep endi ng on me di um r eq ui re me nt ,
waves can be classified as : (i) Transverse wave
(i) Mechanical waves A wave motion in which an individual particle of the

medium vibrates in a direction at right angles to the
(ii) Non Mechanical or Electromagnetic waves
direction of propagation of wave is called transverse
(i) Mechanical wave : wave motion.
CREST CREST
Those waves which need a material medium (like solid,
liquid or gas) for their propagation, are called mechani-
cal waves or elastic waves.
A mechanical wave cannot travel through vacuum. TROUGH TROUGH
Examples of mechanical waves : (a) Water waves show crests and troughs
(i) Sound waves in air.

(ii) Water waves.
(iii) Waves produced in a stretched string.
(iv) Waves produced in spring.
PAGE # 184
(b) Transverse waves on a stretched string
(b) Wavelength :
In the case of waves formed over the surface of water, Wavelength is defined in following different ways :
the individual particles of water oscillate in a direction at (A) It is the distance travelled by a wave during one
right angles to the direction of propagation of wave complete vibration of the vibrating particle.
figure (a). Similarly, if a heavy rope with one of its ends (B) It is the distance between two nearest particles in
tied to a hook H in the wall is stretched along the length the same phase.
of the room and is given an upward and downward (C) It is the distance between two consecutive crests
jerk at the free end A, a wave is seen to travel along the or troughs of a transverse wave.
length of the room as shown in figure(b). Every part of (D) It is the distance between two consecutive
rope vibrates up and down while wave train travels rarefactions or compressions of a longitudinal wave.
along the rope. (E) It is the length of one complete wave.
(ii) Longitudinal Wave : Wavelength is denoted by  (lambda). Its unit is metre (m).
A wave motion in which the particles of the medium
vibrate about their mean position along the direction of Crest
propagation of the wave is called longitudinal wave B F
motion. a
E G I
For example, sound wave in air (340 m/s). A
C
a
W hen a longitudinal wave travels in a medium then
the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth in D Trough H
the same direction in which the wave travels.
At any instant there are points in space where pressure
or density is maximum, called as compression and
there are points where pressure or density is minimum (c) Time-period :
called as rarefaction. These compressions and 1
rarefactions occur one after the other. From a Time taken by a vibrating particle to make one complete
compression to a rarefaction the pressure or density vibration is called its time-period. Also, time taken by a
continually varies from a maximum to a minimum. wave to move a distance equal to its wavelength  is
Figure below shows the propagation of a longitudinal called the time-period of the wave.
wave in, say, air.
It is denoted by T. Its unit is second (s).
(d) Frequency :
The number of vibrations completed by a particle in
one second is called its frequency.
C R C R C R C Frequency is also defined as the number of waves (or
( C) Diffe re nc es b et we en t ra ns ve rs e and crests) passing a given point in one second.
Longitudi nal w ave
It is denoted by n or N or f. Its unit is hertz (Hz).
S.No. Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
Particles of medium vibrate Particles of medium
1 perpendicular to the direction of wave vibrate in the direction of RELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND TIME PERIOD
propagation wave propagation
Transverse mechanical waves They can propagate
2 can propagate through solids and over through solids, liquids and Let Frequency = n
liquid surfaces gases
Examples are sound
 Time taken to complete n vibrations = 1 second
Examples are electromagnetic
3 waves, waves on slinky
waves, water, waves, etc. 1
etc. or Time taken to complete 1 vibration = second
n
But the time taken to complete one vibration is called
SOME DEFINITIONS
time-period T, hence
(a) Amplitude : 1
T=
n
The maximum displacement of vibrating particles from or n.T=1
its mean position is known as amplitude. It is denoted
by a or A.
 Frequency × Time period = 1
PAGE # 185
(a ) Rel at ion be tw ee n Wav e Ve loci ty, produced in one second.
Frequency and Wavelength :
 Frequency (n) = 10 Hz.
(ii) W e know that the distance between consecutive
W ave-velocity is defined as the distance travelled by
trough and crest is equal to /2.
the wave in one second.
 /2 = 15 cm
Distance travelled by one wave or 30 cm
 
Wave-velocity =
Time taken by one wave
(iii) Velocity v = n
Wavelength = 10 × 30 = 300 cm s–1
= v = 3 ms–1
Time  period

or v=
T
Sound is a form of energy which effects our sensation
1
But n= of hearing through the ear. The sensation is produced
T
by longitudinal waves in an elastic medium, where the
 v = n
vibrations (oscillations) of the particles are in the same
or Wave-velocity = Frequency × wavelength
direction in which the wave propagates.
(b) Characteristics of Wave Motion : PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES

(i) W ave is a disturbance travelling through the me-
dium. In laboratory sound is produced by a tuning fork by
striking its one prong on a soft rubber pad. Sound can
(ii) Only energy (and no particle) is transferred in a
wave motion. also be produced by plucking a stretched string (violin),
by blowing flute, by striking tabla and many other ways.
(iii) Energy transfer takes place with a constant speed,
if medium properties are homogenous.
(iv) Wave velocity ( v  f ) is constant throughout the PROPAGATION OF SOUND

medium while the velocity of particle is different at dif-
ferent positions (maximum at mean, zero at extreme Take a tuning fork (a source of standard frequency). It
position). is set into vibrations and its prongs A and B are kept
(v) There is a continuous phase difference amongst vertical. The prongs move in and out from their mean
the successive particles of the medium. position and have a transverse vibratory motion.
(vi) W ave motion is possible in a medium which
When the prongs are in mean position, the air in their
possesses the property of elasticity and inertia.
surroundings has normal density. (It is shown in figure
(a) with equidistant lines).
6. The linear distance between the compression and the
next rarefaction is 0.8 m. Find the wavelength of the
longitudinal wave.
Sol. The wavelength of the longitudinal wave is the distance

between two consecutive compressions or rarefac-
tions.
 = 2 × distance between the compression and next
rarefaction = 2 × 0.8 = 1.6 m
7. In a ripple tank, 10 full ripples are produced in one

second. The distance between a trough and a crest is
15 cm. Calculate :
(i) the frequency,
(ii) the wavelength and
(iii) the velocity of the ripples As the right prong moves out towards right, it pushes
the air layers to the right. This produces a compression
Sol. (i) W e know, frequency is the number of ripples (It is shown in figure (b) with closer lines).
PAGE # 186
SOUND NEEDS A MATERIAL MEDIUM
FOR ITS PROPAGATION
An electric bell is enclosed inside an inverted bell jar
by hanging from the rubber cork. The jar is closed at
the bottom by an airtight plate with a hole in the centre.
A pipe through the hole leads out to a vacuum pump
(pump which draws the air out of a vessel).
The prong returns inwardly to mean position. The

compression moves to the right. The air near the prong
again has normal density as shown in figure (c).
The bell is connected to a battery through a key.

The bell is started by closing the key. Initially when jar
As the prong continues moving towards extreme left, has normal air inside it, sound waves produced by the
vacating the space, density of air falls in the region and ringing bell heard outside the jar.
a rarefaction is produced (It is shown in figure( d) with The vacuum pump is started and the air from inside
spread lines). the jar is gradually drawn out. With decrease air inside
the jar, sound heard becomes weaker and weaker.
After sometime no sound is heard, though the bell
hammer is seen in vibration.
Conclusion :
In the absence of medium (air) around the source,
sound is not being propagated.
A natural fact : Moon has no atmosphere. The space
above the atmosphere is also vacuum. If some
explosion takes place on moon, sound of the explosion
will not be propagated to the earth. So the sound waves
never reach the earth.
WAVE TERMINOLOGY
As the prong moves back to right extreme, it completes
one vibration. Also the motion of the prong produces a (a) Pitch :
new compression. This completes one wave.
Pitch is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the
Since one vibration of the prong has generated one frequency of an emitted sound.
wave in the medium (air), in one second as many waves
Faster the vibration of the source, higher is the
will be generated as the number of vibrations that the
frequency and higher is the pitch. Similarly low pitch
tuning fork will make in one second. This number is
sound corresponds to low frequency.
called frequency of the tuning fork (This number is
A high pitch sound is called a shrill sound (Eg : humming
engraved on the tuning fork near the bend). Hence we
of a bee, sound of guitar etc).
conclude that the wave frequency (the number of waves
being generated per second) is equal to the frequency A low pitch sound is called a hoarse sound (Eg : roar of
of the tuning fork. a lion, car horn etc.)
PAGE # 187
Following figure shows the wave forms of two sounds
of same loudness and same frequency, but emitted by
two different types of sources. They produce different
Displacement
sensations on the ears because they differ in wave

form.
Time
(a) Low Pitch (Frequency = f)

Displacement
Time
(b) High Pitc (Frequency = 2f)

(d) Intensity :
(b) Loudness or softness :
Intensity of a sound is defined as the sound energy
Loudness or softness of a sound wave is the
transferred per unit time per unit area placed
sensation that depends upon its amplitude. When we
strike a table top with more force, it vibrates and perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of
produces loud sound waves which have more sound.
amplitude. When struck with smaller force, vibrating Sound energy
table top produces soft sound waves which have less That is, intensity of sound =
Time  Area
amplitude. A loud sound wave carries more energy
and can be heard at large distance. Reduction in Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity. It
amplitude at large distance, makes the sound soft. does not depend on the response of our ears.
The S.I. unit of intensity of sound is joule s-1 m-2 or watt m-2
( 1 Js-1 = 1W)
Difference between
S.No. loudness and intensity
Loudness Intensityofofsound
a sound:
Loudness is a subjective quantity. Intensity of a sound is an
It depends upon the sensitivity of objective physical
the human ear. A sound may be quantity.It does not
1 loud for a person but the same depend on the sensitivity
sound may be feeble for another of a human ear.
who is hard of hearing.
Loudness cannot be measured as Intensity of a sound can
a physical quantity because it is be measured as a
2
just sensation which can be felt physical quantity.
only.
RANGE OF HEARING
(c) Timbre or quality :
The human ear is able to hear sound in a frequency
Quality or timbre is a characteristic of a sound which
range of about 20Hz to 20kHz. We can not hear sounds
enables us to distinguish between the sounds of same
loudness and pitch. This characteristic of sound helps of frequencies less than 20Hz or more than 20kHz,
us to recognise our friend from his voice without seeing these limits vary from person to person and with age.
him. The quality of two sounds of same loudness and Children can hear sounds of somewhat higher
pitch produced by two different sources are frequencies, say upto 30 kHz. With age, our ability to
distinguishable because of different wave forms hear high frequency sound diminishes. For the elders,
produced by them.
the upper limit often falls to 10-12 kHz. We take 20Hz-
Eg : The violin and flute (Bansuri). 20 kHz as the audible range for an average person.
PAGE # 188
Even in the audible range the human ear is not equally
sensitive for all frequency. It is most sensitive to
frequencies around 2000-3000 Hz.
Sound of frequencies less than 20 Hz is known as
infrasonic sound or infrasound. Sound of frequency
greater than 20kHz is known as ultrasonic or
ultrasound.
Different animals have different ranges of audible
frequencies. A dog can hear sounds of frequencies
upto about 50 kHz and a bat upto about 100kHz
Dolphins can hear sounds of even higher frequencies.
Animals such as elephants and whales can hear
sounds of frequencies less than 20 Hz. Some fishes
can hear sounds of frequencies as low as 1-25 Hz.
SONIC BOOM
Figure -I
W hen a body moves with a speed which is greater Then slow–flying planes create air pressure
than the speed of sound in air, then it is said to be disturbances that move at the speed of sound,
travelling at supersonic speed Jet fighters, bullets, etc, travelling well in front of the plane. the airflow adjusts
often travel at supersonic speed. And when they do so, and disturbances disperse.
they produce a sharp, loud sound called a sonic boom. (ii) Case- II : When plan speed is equal to the speed of
sound.
The source moves at a speed greater than that of
sound, sound waves travelling at the speed of sound,
are left behind. The high-pressure layers due to sound
waves originating at different points bunch together as
shown in figure-III. Actually, these layers fall on the
surface of an imaginary cone of which OA, OB is a part.
The total pressure on the surface of this cone is very
high.
The source is at the apex of this cone. As the source
moves ahead, it drags the cone together with it. When
the surface of the cone reaches a person, the ears
experience a sudden increase in pressure. After the
surface crosses him, the pressure is suddenly
reduced. This causes the person to hear a sharp, loud
sound which is known as the sonic boom.
A region consisting of a very-high-pressure layer

followed by a lower-pressure layer travels through the Figure -II
space together with the cone. This is called a shock Then planes flying at the speed of sound experience
wave. This shock wave gives rise to the sonic boom a dramatic increase in their drag because
when it reaches a person. disturbances accumulate instead of disperse. The
airplane has almost caught up with the pressure
The shock waves produced by supersonic aircraft have
waves it is creating with its forward thrust.
enough energy to shatter glass and even damage weak
buildings.
To explain the sonic boom we take following cases :
(i) Case- I : When plan speed is less than speed of
sound.
PAGE # 189
(iii) Case- III : When plan speed is greater than the
speed of sound.
C
(c) Applications of Reflection of Sound :
(i) Mega phone or speaking tube :

When we have to call someone at a far off distance
(say 100m), we cup our hands and call the person
with maximum sound we can produce. The hands
prevent the sound energy from spreading in all
Figure -III
directions. In the same way, the people use horn
Then planes flying faster than the speed of sound shaped metal tubes, commonly called megaphones.
cause powerful shock waves because airflow has
The loud speakers have horn shaped openings. In all
no time to adjust for them. The sonic boom is the
these devices, the sound energy is prevented from
sound associated with the shock wave. spreading out by successive reflections from the horn
shaped tubes.
REFLECTION OF SOUND
When sound waves strike a surface, they return back

into the same medium. This phenomenon is called
reflection of sound.
The reflection of sound waves is similar to that of light

rays. The only difference is that sound waves being
larger in length, require bigger surfaces for reflection. (ii) Stethoscope :
(a) Laws of Reflection : It is an instrument used by the doctors for listening

sounds produced within the body, specially
(i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. in the heart and lungs. In the stethoscope, the sound
(ii) The incident wave, the reflected wave and the produced within the body of a patient to picked up by a
sensitive diaphragm and then reaches the doctors
normal, all lie in the same plane.
ears by multiple reflection.
(b) Verification of Laws of Reflection :
Take a smooth polished large wooden board and

mount it vertically on the table. At right angle to the
board, fix a wooden screen. On each side of the screen,
place a long, narrow and highly polished tube (inside).
Place a clock at the end of the tube A. Move the tube B
(iii) Sound board :
slightly from left to right, till a distinct tick of clock is
The sound waves obey the laws of reflection on the
heard. Measure the PCN and RCN between tubes
plane as well as curved reflecting surfaces.
and wooden screen. It is found PCN = RCN. This
experiment illustrates the laws of reflection. In order to spread sound evenly in big halls or
auditoriums, the speaker (S) is fixed at the
principal focus of the concave reflector. This concave
reflector is commonly called sounding board . The
sound waves striking the sound board get reflected
parallel to the principal axis.
PAGE # 190
ECHO
Echo is based on the reflection of sound. An echo is

defined as repetition of sound due to reflection. There
are a number of tourist places where echo points are
marked. If you speak something from there loudly you
will hear back your sound after sometime. This is called
an echo. At some places, you might listen a number of
echos one after the other. This is called as multiple
echo. It is not that you will hear an echo at any place.
There are certain conditions required for an echo to be
SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIUM heard. Before discussing these conditions we will firstly
talk about the term persistence of sound. The impact
Sound travels with different speed in different media of any sound heard by us does not vanish immediately.
It is due to this that a person can’t hear two sounds if
like solid, liquid and gas. This is because, sound travels
the time delay between them is less than the minimum
in a medium due to the transfer of energy from one required. It is found by scientists that if the time delay
particle to another particle of the medium. between the sounds is less than 1/10 sec, they are
Solid : heard as single sound. Thus to hear two sounds as
different sounds the time delay must be at least 1/10
Since the particles of solid are close to each other, so sec. This forms the basis of an important condition
transfer of energy from one particle to another takes needed to hear an echo.
place in less time (i.e. faster). Hence speed of sound
in solids is large. Conditions for formation of an echo :
Liquid : (a) The minimum distance between the source of
sound and the reflecting body should be 17 metres.
Speed of sound in liquids is less than in solids since (b) The wavelength of the sound should be less than
the particles are away from each other as compared to the height of the reflecting body.
solids. (c) The intensity of sound should be sufficient so that it
can be heard after reflection.
Gas :
Speed of sound in gases is less than the speed in
REVERBERATION
liquids and solids as the particles are far away as
compare to solids and liquids. W hen a sound is produced in a big hall, its waves
reflects from the walls and travel back and forth. Due to
Gas  Liquid  Solid this the sound does not vanish at once but it fades
away gradually, that is the sound persists even after its
Speed of sound increases from left to right production has been stopped. A small amount of re-
verberation is desirable in large halls or cinemas as it
makes the sound pleasant and more effective. How-
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE SPEED ever too much reverberation is undesirable as it makes
OF SOUND the sound confusing. To reduce reverberation the roof
and walls of the hall are covered with sound absorb-
Sound travels faster as the temperature of the medium ing materials like rough plaster and thick curtains. One
increases and vice-versa. This happens because as may define reverberation as the persistence of sound
due to repeated reflection and its gradual fading
temperature increases, the particles of the medium
away.
collide more frequently and hence the disturbance
spreads faster.
Speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s with every
10C increase in temperature. For example if speed of
sound in air at 00C is 330 m/s, then its speed at 250C
will be 345 m/s.
Speed of sound does not depend on the pressure of
the medium if temperature of the medium remains
constant.
PAGE # 191
ULTRASOUND
RELATION BETWEEN SPEED OF SOUND,
TIME OF HEARING ECHO AND DISTANCE
Sound of very high frequency (greater than 20 kHz) is
OF REFLECTING BODY :
called ultrasound.
Production :
If t is the time at which an echo is heard, d is the
distance between the source of sound and the These are produced by electronic oscillator using high
reflecting body and v is the speed of sound. The total frequency vibrations of quartz crystal.
distance travelled by the sound is 2d. Properties :
2d Sound wave of all frequencies carry energy with them,

Speed of sound, v = with increase in frequency, vibration becomes faster
t
and also energy contents and force increase. W hen
ultrasound travels in solid, liquid and gas it subjects
vt
or d= the particles of matter to face large force and energy.
2
(a) Applications of ultrasound :
Calculation of Minimum Distance of Hearing (i) Welding metal :
Echo :
They are used for welding metals like tungsten which
d is minimum distance required for hearing an echo cannot be welded by conventional methods. One of
1 the two pieces of the tungsten is held firmly against
when persistence of hearing is second.
10 the other piece and then vibrated with an ultrasonic
Since the velocity of sound (at room temperature) is 340 vibrator. The heat produced due to friction, at the point
m/sec. of contact, melts the metal. On stopping the vibrator,
the melted ends of metal fuse to form a tight weld.
vt 340 1 340 (ii) Medical purposes :
So, d= =  
2 2 10 2  10
The ultrasonic vibrations can be reflected from the
d  17 metre. boundaries between the materials of nearly
17 metre is the minimum distance of hearing echo. same density. The technique is used in scanning the
internal organs of human body. It is superior to the X-
ray scanning, as it does not cause any harm to human
cells, unlike X-rays.
AUDIBLE, ULTRASONIC AND INFRASONIC WAVES
The instrument which uses ultrasonic waves for getting
(a) Audible Wave : the images of internal organs of human body is called
ultrasound scanner . In this technique, the ultrasound
The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of waves travel through the tissues of the body and get
frequency between 20Hz to 20kHz. This range is known reflected from the region where there is change in
as audible range and these waves are known as density. These reflected waves are then converted into
audible waves. electrical signals. These signals are then displayed
on T.V. monitor or can be printed on a film.
Eg. : Waves produced by vibrating sitar, guitar, organ
pipes, flutes, shehnai etc. This technique is called ultrasonography and helps
doctors to detect abnormalities, such as stones in gall
(b) Ultrasonic Wave : bladder and kidney or tumours in different organs.
A longitudinal wave whose frequency is above the upper Ultrasound waves of high intensity are employed to
limit of audible range i.e. 20 kHz, is called ultrasonic break small stones in the kidney into fine grains. The
wave. It is generated by very small sources. fine grains then get flushed out with urine.
Eg. : Quartz crystal. (iii) Drilling holes or making cuts of desired shape :
(c) Infrasonic Wave : W e can use a hammer and a steel punch to make
holes in metal plates, plastic sheets or other solid
A longitudinal elastic wave whose frequency is below materials. Such holes can also be made using
the audible range i.e. 20Hz, is called an infrasonic wave. ultrasonic vibrations produced in a metallic rod, called
It is generally generated by a large source. a horn. The horn acts like a hammer, hammering the
Eg. : Earthquake. plate about hundred thousand times per second. The
shape of the hole is the same as that of the tip of the
PAGE # 192
horn. The shape of the tip can be designed as per the
(vii) Bats fly in the darkness of night without colliding
requirement of the application. Ultrasonic cutting and
drilling are very effective for fragile materials like glass, with other objects by the method of echolocation. Bats
for which ordinary methods do not give good results. emit high frequency ultrasonic squeaks while flying
and listen to the echoes produced by the reflection of
(iv) Ultrasonic cleaning :
their squeaks from the objects in their path. From the
We normally clean dirty clothes, plates or other large time taken by the echo to be heard, bats can judge the
objects by applying detergent or organic solutions, distance of the object in their path and hence avoid it
rubbing and washing. But for small parts such as those
by changing the direction. Bats search their prey at
used in watches, electronic components, odd-shaped
night by the method of echolocation.
parts such as a spiral tube and parts located in hard to
reach places, this method is inconvenient and
sometimes impossible. Such objects are placed in a
cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into
the solution. Because of vibrations at high frequencies,
all dirt and grease particles get detached from the
surface and object gets thoroughly cleaned.
(v) Ultrasonic detection of defects in metals :
Metallic components are used in buildings, bridges,

machines, scientific equipments and so on. If there
are cracks or holes inside the metal used, the strength
of the structure or component is reduced and it can
fail. Such defects are not visible from the outside.
Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect such defects. ILLUSTRATION
An echo is returned in 3s. What is the distance of the

reflecting surface from the source, given that the speed
of sound is 342 ms–1 ?
Sol. Given, Speed of sound, V = 342 ms–1
Time interval of echo return, t = 3 s
Let the distance of the reflecting surface be, S.
Sound travels a distance 2S in return journey.
 2S = Vt
Vt 342  3
S=  = 513 m
Ultrasonic waves are sent through the metallic object 2 2
under study. If there is no crack or cavity in its path, it S = 513 m
goes through the object. A detector placed on the other
side detects the transmitted wave. A defect present in SONAR
the path of the wave reflects the wave. Thus, the
The word ‘SONAR’ stands for ‘Sound Navigation and
intensity of the emerging waves falls in the region that
Ranging’.
is in line with the defect. When this happens, we know
that the object has defect inside. (a) Principle of Sonar :
Sonar is an apparatus which is used to find the depth
Ordinary sound is not used for this application because
of a sea or to locate the under water things like shoals
ordinary sound will bend considerably round the of fish, enemy submarines etc. Sonar works by sending
corners of cracks or cavities and will emerge on the short bursts of ultrasonic sound from a ship down into
other side at almost full intensity. sea-water and then picking up the echo produced by
the reflection of ultrasonic sound from under-water
(vi) Emulsions of immiscible liquids objects like bottom of sea, shoal of fish, a submarine.
When a strong beam of ultrasound is passed through
a liquid, it is heated to a very high temperature. This
fact is utilized in preparing homogeneous stable
emulsion of immiscible liquids. Ultrasound treated
honey does not crystallize.
PAGE # 193
(b) Working of Sonar : takes 2 seconds to travel from the ship to the bottom of
the sea.
Water
Ship Distance
Now, Speed =
Time
Transmitter Receiver
Distance
So, 1500 =
2
And, Distance = 1500 × 2 m = 3000 m
9. A submarine emits a sonar pulse which returns from

Reflected the underwater cliff in 1.02s. If the speed of sound in
Ultrasound ultrasound salt water is 1531 ms–1, how far away is the cliff ?
pulse pulse (Echo)
Sol. Given : Speed of sonar pulse, V = 1531 ms–1, Time

Bottom of sea interval of return journey of the pulse, t = 1.02 s
Let the distance of the underwater cliff be S.
For distance S of the cliff, the pulse travels a total dis-
A sonar apparatus consists of two parts :
tance of 2S in return journey.
(i) A transmitter (for emitting ultrasonic waves) and (ii) From relation, distance = speed × time
a receiver (for detecting ultrasonic waves). Now, 2S = Vt
suppose a sonar device is attached to the under-side
of a ship and we want to measure the depth of sea Vt
We have, S=
(below the ship). To do this, the transmitter of sonar is 2
made to emit a pulse of ultrasonic sound with a very
high frequency of about 50,000 hertz. This pulse of 1531 ms –1  1.02s
ultrasonic sound travels down in the sea-water towards S=
2
the bottom of the sea. When the ultrasonic sound pulse
strikes the bottom of the sea, it is reflected back to the S = 780.8 m
ship in the form of an echo. This echo produces an
electrical signal in the receiver part of the sonar device.
REASON FOR USING ULTRASONIC WAVES IN SONAR
The sonar device measures the time taken by the
ultrasonic sound pulse to travel from the ship to the
(i) Ultrasonic waves have a very high frequency due to
bottom of the sea and back to the ship. Half of this time
gives the time taken by the ultrasonic sound to travel which they can penetrate deep in sea water without
from the ship to the bottom of the sea. being absorbed.
Depth of sea
(ii) Ultrasonic waves cannot be confused with the
noises, such as the voice of engines of ship. It is
Velocity of sound in sea water  time recorded by the recorder because the ultrasonic waves are not perceived by
=
2
human ear.
vt
d= THE HUMAN EAR
2
The ears are the sense organs which help us in
8. The ultrasonic waves take 4 seconds to travel from the hearing sound.
ship to the bottom of the sea and back to the ship.
What is the depth of the sea? (Speed of sound in water (a) Structure of Human Ear :
= 1500 m/s.)
The ear consists of three compartments : outer ear,
Sol. The time taken by the ultrasonic sound waves to travel middle ear and inner ear.
from the ship to the sea-bed and back to the ship is 4 The part of ear which we see outside the head is called
seconds. So, the time taken by the ultrasonic sound to outer ear. The outer ear consists of broad part called
travel from the ship to sea-bed will be half of this time, pinna and about 2 to 3 centimeters long passage called
4 ear canal. At the end of ear canal there is a thin, elastic
which is = 2 seconds. This means that the sound
2 and circular membrane called ear-drum. The ear-drum
is also called tympanum. The outer ear contains air.
PAGE # 194
The middle ear contains three small and delicate liquid in the cochlea. Due to this, the liquid in the
bones called hammer, anvil and stirrup. These ear- cochlea begins to vibrate. The vibrating liquid of cochlea
sets up electrical impulses in the nerve cells present
bones are linked to one another. One end of the bone
in it. These electrical impulses are carried by auditory
called hammer is touching the ear-drum and its other
nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these electrical
end is connected to the second bone called anvil. The impulses as sound and we get the sensation of
other end of anvil is connected to the third bone called hearing.
stirrup and the free end of stirrup is held against the
membrane over the oval window of inner ear. The
REQUISITES OF THE MEDIUM
middle ear also contains air. The lower part of middle
The medium must possess the following properties
ear has a narrow tube called ‘eustachian tube’ going
for the propagation of waves.
to the throat. Eustachian tube connects the middle ear
(i) The medium should be able to return to its original
to throat and ensures that the air pressure inside the
position after being disturbed, i.e. the medium must
middle ear is the same as that on the outside. possess elasticity.
(ii) The medium must be capable of storing energy i.e.
the medium must have inertia.
(iii) The frictional resistance must be negligible so as
not to damp the oscillatory movement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVE MOTION
(i) Particles of the medium vibrate about their mean

position, while the wave moves forward.
(ii) Each particle of the medium takes energy from its
preceding particle and transmits it to the next particle.
(iii) In the medium, all waves travel with the same
speed.
(iv) The velocity of the wave is different from the velocity of
the particles with which they vibrate about their mean
The inner ear has a coiled tube called cochlea. One position.
side of cochlea is connected to the middle ear through
the elastic membrane over the oval window. The
cochlea is filled with a liquid. The liquid present in 10. If the period of small ripples on water is 0.1 s and their
wavelength is 5 cm, what is the speed of the waves ?
cochlea contains nerve cells which are sensitive to
sound. The other side of cochlea is connected to Sol. We know that, v = n 
auditory nerve which goes into the brain.
1 1
n= 
(b) Working of Human Ear : T 0.1
The sound waves (coming from a sound producing  = 5 cm = 0.05 m
body) are collected by the pinna of outer ear. These 1
sound waves pass through the ear canal and fall on v= × 0.05
0.1
the ear-drum. Sound waves consist of compressions
v = 0.5 ms–1
(high pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure
regions). When the compression of sound wave strikes 11. A sound wave has frequency 1000 Hz and wavelength
the ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum 33 cm. How long will it take to move through 1 km ?
increases and pushes the ear-drum inwards and when Sol. Given that,
the rarefaction of sound wave falls on the ear-drum, Frequency, n = 1000 Hz
the pressure on the outside of ear-drum decreases Wavelength, 33 cm = 0.33 m
and it moves outward. Thus, when the sound waves Distance, d = 1 km = 1000 m
fall on the ear-drum, the ear-drum starts vibrating back Velocity of wave is given by, v = n.
and forth rapidly. = 1000 × 0.33 ms–1
v = 330 ms–1
The vibrating ear-drum causes a small bone hammer
to vibrate. From hammer, vibrations are passed on to Distance 1000
Time taken =  = 3.03 s.
the second bone anvil and finally to the third bone Velocity 330
stirrup. The vibrating stirrup strikes on the membrane
of the oval window and passes its vibrations to the
PAGE # 195
12. In a ripple tank, 10 full ripples are produced in one (i) If the medium is solid
second. The distance between a trough and a crest is
4
15 cm. Calculate : B 
v= 3
(i) the frequency,

(ii) the wavelength and
(iii) the velocity of the ripples where, B,  and  are values of bulk modulus, modulus
of rigidity and density of the solid respectively.
Sol. (i) W e know, frequency is the number of ripples
If the solid is in the form of a long rod, then
produced in one second.
 Frequency (n) = 10 Hz. Y
(ii) W e know that the distance between consecutive v=
trough and crest is equal to /2. 
 /2 = 15 cm where, Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid
or 30 cm material.
(iii) Velocity v = n
= 10 × 30 = 300 cm s–1 (ii) In a liquid,
v = 3 ms–1
13. A source of sound produces waves of wavelength 0.80 B
v=
m in air. The same source of sound produces waves 
of wavelength 4.0 m in water. If the velocity of sound in
where, B is the bulk modulus of the liquid.
air = 332 ms–1. Find the velocity of sound in water.
Sol. We know that, velocity v=n
(iii) According to Newton’s formula, speed of sound
v in a gas is obtained by replacing B initial pressure P of
or n = the gas i.e., B = P.

Therefore, for water, v1 = n1  P
And for air, v2 = n2   v=

v2 = 332 ms–1
 = 0.80m
Laplace’s correction : According to Laplace, the
 = 4.0 m
formula for speed of sound in the gases should be
But, n1 = n2 (Since source of sound is same)
P RT
v1 4. 0 v= =
  M
332 0.80
where  = adiabatic index
332  4.0
or v1 = ms–1 After substituting the appropriate values in the relation,
0 .8
or v1= 1660 ms–1 we get the theoretical value of speed of sound in air at
NTP which is found to be 332.5 m/s which is in good
agreement with the experimental value.
P
(a) Speed of Transverse Waves : (iv) Effect of Density. v =

The expression for speed of transverse waves in a
solid can be obtained theoretically and verified For two different gases at same pressure and same
experimentally.
1
(i) If medium is solid, then
value of , v 
 , i.e. the speed of gas is more in

v= that gas which has low density and vice-versa.

where,  is modulus of rigidity and  is density of solid
material. (v) Effect of Temperature. As the velocity of sound
(ii) In a stretched string in air is directly proportional to square root of the
absolute temperature T, i.e.,
T
v=
m v T
Where, T is tension and m is linear mass
At STP, let the speed of sound of sound in air be v0
density of the string.
and let the speed of sound at temperature t ºC be v.
(b) Speed of Longitudinal Waves (Sound) : Now
Following are the expressions for the speed of v0  273

longitudinal waves in the different types of media :
and v  273  t
PAGE # 196
1/ 2
 t  n1  T1 
 v  v 0 1   n T or n =  
 273  2  T2 
For large values of t, this equation is used. where,  and m are constant.
(c ) Law of Mass :
Special Case : If t << 273, we can apply binomial
approximation. When  and T are constant, the frequency of vibration
of the wire varies inversely as the square root of mass
per unit length of the wire i.e.,
 t 
Hence, v = v0 1 
 546  1
n
We know that v0 = 332 m s–1 . Hence m
where,  and T are constant.
 t 
v = 332  1   1 1
 546  So, n  
 m
or v  332  0.61 t Hence, a graph between  and m is a straight line.
It must be remembered, however, this equation is

valid only for small values of t. WAVE FRONT
Hence, the velocity of sound in air increases by 0.61
m s–1 for every 1ºC rise in temperature. The imaginary surface drawn at any instant in a
medium such that the phases of oscillation of all the
(vi) Effect of Humidity. Increase of humidity in air
particles are the same is called the wave front.
increases the speed of sound. This is because the
or
gram molar mass M of air decreases with the
increase in water vapour. Locus of all the particles of medium oscillating in the
same phase is called the wave front.
Note : If however, water vapour is added to pure
hydrogen the velocity of sound decreases (because In the isotropic medium, (eg. : water, air, glass) the
of increase in the value of M). wave front of a wave is always perpendicular to the
(vii) Effect of Wind. In case the wind is blowing and direction of propagation of wave. Hence the line drawn
 is is the angle between speed of wind (W) and perpendicular to the waves front, represents the
speed of sound (v) , then the resultant speed of direction of propagation of wave. This is called ray
sound is
There are three types of wave front :
VR = v + W cos (a) Plane wave front
Special case : (a) if = 0º (b) Spherical wave front
then VR = v + W (c) Cylindrical wave front
(b) if = 180ºthen VR = v – W (a) Plane wave front :
If the waves are propagating in the medium in only one
LAWS OF VIBRATION OF STRETCHED STRING
direction, the particles of medium in the wave front
drawn at any instant oscillate in the same phase. In
(a ) Law of Length :
this state the wave front is plane and the rays are parallel
For a given wire under a given tension, the frequency to each other.
of wire varies inversely as its vibrating length i.e.,
1
n or n11 = n22

rays
( b ) Law of Tension :
For a uniform wire of given length and material, the

frequency of the wire varies directly as the square root
of tension Plane wave front
PAGE # 197
(b) Spherical Wave front : The principle of superposition is of central importance
The wave produced from a point source propagate in in all types of waves. When a person talks to us while
all the directions. Hence, the particles of medium on a we are listening to music, we can distinguish the
spherical surface are in the same phase. In this sound of speech and the sound of music from each
position the wave front will be spherical and the rays
other. This is precisely because according to principle
are radial lines.
of superposition, two different waves can travel in a
medium simultaneously without disturbing the other.
Superposition also applies to electromagnetic waves
Point
source S (such as light) and many other types of waves.
Spherical wave front Application of principal of superposition to harmonic

waves under specific conditions gives rise to :
(a) Complex Waves :
If in a medium a number of waves are propagating , by
Plane wavefront
principal of superposition the resultant will be
y = y1 + y2 +......
Now, if the component waves are not harmonic, or if in
different harmonics their frequencies do not bear a
from infinity
rays definite relationship among themselves, the resultant
complex wave will have no definite regularities i.e. will
not be periodic.
In case of sound, the sensation of such waves is not
pleasant to the ear and is called noise.
(b) Interference of Waves :
When two waves of same wavelength, superpose in a

(c) Cylindrical wave front : medium, there results a redistribution of their energies
If the source is in the form of a slit, then the particles of in the form of region of maximum and minimum
medium of the cylindrical surface drawn taking source intensities. For this to happen the waves must move in
as the axis, oscillate in the same phase. In this case,
same direction and sources should be coherent.
the wave front is cylindrical.
(c) Beats :
When two sound waves of nearly equal (but not exactly
equal) frequencies travel in same direction, at a given
rays
point due to their superposition, intensity alternately
increases and decreases periodically. This periodic
waxing and waning of sound at given position is called
beats. Beat frequency will be equal to difference in
frequencies of interfering waves i.e. if interfering
Cylindrical wavefront waves have frequencies f1 and f2 then beat frequency
will be
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
f = f1 - f2
Two or more waves can travel simultaneously in a (d) Stationary Waves :
medium without affecting the motion of one another.
W hen two waves having the same frequency and
Therefore, the resultant displacement of each particle
amplitude travelling along the same path in opposite
of the medium at any instant is equal to the vector sum
directions superpose, the resultant wave formed only
of the displacements produced by the two waves
expands and shrinks, but do not proceed in any
separately. This principle is called ‘principle of
superposition’. It holds for all types of waves, provided
the waves are not of very large amplitude.
PAGE # 198
direction. These waves are called stationary or standing This frequency is called fundamental tone or the first
waves. In these waves, there is no propagation of harmonic.
energy. In this case frequency of standing wave will (b) First Over Tone or Third Harmonic :
be equal to frequency of either of interfering wave. In this position two nodes and two antinodes are
formed. If the wavelength of the wave produced in this
* FOR II-STAGE :- situation is 2
3 2 4
thus,  = or 2 =
4 3
W hen a pipe is closed at one end and open at the

other end the it is called closed end organ pipe”
When we vibrate the open end of a closed organ pipe
by any means, the wave in the form of compression
and rarefaction (i.e. longitudinal waves) travels from
open end towards the closed end, thus wave is
reflected from closed end. Thus, two longitudinal
waves travel in air column in opposite direction and
their superposition produces the longitudinal stationary
waves. Since the air particles are free to vibrate at open
end there is always an antinode at the open end. In Hence the frequency
opposite to this node is formed at the closed end,
v 3v  v 
because the air particles are not free to vibrate at this n2 =  n2 = 3  
 2 4  4 
end.
(a) Fundamental Tone or First Harmonic :  v 

n2 = 3n1  n1  
 4 
In this position a tone of minimum frequency is emitted
from the pipe. The distance between antinode and the This frequency is called first over tone frequency since
the frequency of this tone is three times the frequency
nearest node is 1/4, when 1 is the wavelength then,
of fundamental tone, hence it is called third harmonic.
1 (c) Second Over Tone or Fifth Harmonic :

 or 1  4
4 In this figure, besides antinode at open end and node
at closed end, two nodes and two antinodes are
It v is the velocity of sound in air then the frequency will formed, if 3 be the wavelength in this case, then
be : 5 3 4
 or 3 =
4 5
Hence the frequency of the tone is emitted
N
v
nc = n1 =
1
v
n1 = ( 1 = 4  )
4
PAGE # 199
V 5V V
n3 = n3 = n2 =
3 4 2
V V
n3 = 5  n3 = 5 n1 n2 =
4 
V
(  n1 = )
4
2V
This frequency is called second over tone of the pipe n1 =
2
i.e. the frequency of this tone is five times the frequency
of fundamental tone. Hence it is called fifth harmonic. V
n2 = 2n1 (  n1 = )
Similarly, n1 : n2 : n3 : n4 ....... = 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 .... thus, only 2
odd harmonics are produced in closed organ pipe. So
the sound is not melodious. This frequency is called the first over tone and second
harmonic.
* FOR II-STAGE :-
(c) Second Overtone or Third Harmonics :
In this case three nodes and four antinodes are
VIBRATION IN AN OPEN END ORGAN PIPE
formed. In this case, If 3 be the wavelength of the wave
produced in the pipe then,
In open end organ pipe longitudinal stationary wave is
formed. Since, the particle at open ends are free to 3 3 2
vibrate, hence antinodes are formed at both the open
 3 =
2 3
ends and at least one node is formed between these
two ends.
(a) Fundamental Tone and First Harmonic :
In this case a tone of minimum frequency is produced

in such a way that two antinodes and one node is
1
formed, distance both antinodes is , Let  be the
2
length of the pipe then,
1
 =
2
or 1 = 2 
Hence the frequency
Then produced frequency
V 3V
n3 =
 3 = 2
V V
n1 = 
1 2
V
= 3   n2 = 3n1
V  2 
n1 =
2 This is called second over tone and third harmonics.
This frequency is called fundamental tone or first Similarly n1 : n2 : n3 : n4 ......... = 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 ........... i.e. an
harmonic of open end organ pipe. open end organ pipe produces both the even and the
(b) First Overtone or Second Harmonics : odd harmonics. So that it produces melodious sound.
In this case three antinodes and two nodes are formed, Relation between fundamental frequency of
if 2 is the produced wavelength. open end and close end organ pipe :
n 0 = 2nc
Thus,    2
Frequency produced will be
PAGE # 200
v = speed of sound,
INTENSITY OF SOUND AND ITS UNIT vs = speed of source
and Vo = speed of observer.
 J (a) Source is moving and observer at rest :

S.I. unit of intensity is W/m2  i.e.  . However,,
2
 sm  (i) If the source is coming towards the observer then
as human ear respond to sound intensities over a frequency heard will be
wide range i.e. from 10–12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2. Instead of
 v 
specifying intensity of sound in W /m 2 , we use a n’ = n  
logarithmic scale of intensity called the sound level  v  vs 
(SL) defined as
I (ii) If the source is going away from observer, then

SL = 10 log frequency heard
I0
When I0 is the threshold sound intensity of human ear  v 
n’ = n  
i.e. 10–12 W/m2. The sound level defined in this way is  v  vs 
expressed in Decible(dB).
A sound of intensity I = I0, has sound level
(b) Observer is moving and source at rest :
I0
SL = 10 log (i) When observer is coming towards the source then
I0 = 0dB apparent frequency
W hile sound at the upper range of human hearing  v  vo 
n’ = n  
called threshold of pain has a intensity of 1 W/m2 or a  v 
sound level.
(ii) When observer is going away from the source then
1 apparent frequency
SL = 10 log = 120 dB
10 12
 v  vo 
W e also use dB as a relative measures as for two n’ = n  
 v 
intensities 1 and 2
I1 I2 (c) Both observer and source are moving :

SL1 – SL2 = 10 Log – 10 Log
I0 I0
(i) If observer and source are moving in same
direction and observer is ahead the source, then
I1 apparent frequency
SL1 – SL2 = 10 Log
I2
 v  vo 
* FOR II-STAGE :- n’ = n  
 v  vs 
(ii) If both are moving in same direction and source is

If a wave source and a receiver are moving relative to ahead the observer, then apparent frequency
each other, the frequency observed by the receiver (n’)
is different from the actual source frequency (n). this  v  vo 
n’ = n  
phenomenon is called the Doppler’s effect.  v  vs 
Perhaps you might have noticed how sound of a
vehicle’s horn changes as the vehicle moves past you. (iii) If both are moving towards each other, then
The frequency (pitch) of the sound you hear as the apparent frequency
vehicle approaches you is higher than the frequency
you hear as it moves away from you. The Doppler’s
 v  vo 
n’ = n  
effect, applies to waves in general. Let us apply it to  v  vs 
sound waves. We consider the special case in which
(iv) If both are moving away from each other, then
the source and observer move along the line joining
apparent frequency
them. We will use the following symbols,
 v  vo 
n’ = n  
 v  vs 
PAGE # 201
3. Water in a bucket is whirled in a vertical circle with a
DOPPLER’S EFFECT IN LIGHT string attached to it. The water does not fall down even
when the bucket is inverted at the top of its path. We
The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency (or conclude that in this position.
wavelength) of the light due to the relative motion
between the source of light and the observer is called. mv 2
(A) mg =
Doppler’s effect in light. r
Due to relative motion between light source and
observer, there is shift in frequency or wavelength of mv 2
(B) mg is greater than
light known as Doppler’s shift. They are of two types : r
(a) The Red Shift :

mv 2
(C) mg is not greater than
When a light source is moving away from an observer r
with a relative velocity v, then frequency observed by
the observer is less than the frequency emitted by the mv 2
source or the apparent wavelength increases, i.e., shift (D) mg is not less than
r
towards the red end of the spectrum.
4. A large mass M hangs stationary at the end of a light
(b) The Blue Shift : string that passes through a smooth fixed tube to a
small mass m that moves around in a horizontal circular
W hen a light source is moving towards an observer
path. If  is the length of the string from m to the top end
with a relative velocity v, then frequency observed by of the tube and  is angle between this part and vertical
the observer is greater than the frequency emitted by part of the string as shown in the figure, then time
the source or the apparent wavelength decreases, i.e., taken by m to complete one circle is equal to :
shift towards the violet end of the spectrum.
 Note :
fractional increases in wavelength is
m
 v
=  
 c M
Here  is change in wavelength,  is wavelength of
light used and negative sign shows that on increasing
 
the distance between the source and observer  will (A) 2 (B) 2
increases. gsin gcos
m m
EXERCISE-1 (C) 2
gMsin
(D) 2
gM
SHM : 5. A stone of mass 1 kg tied to a light inextensible string
1. A rod of length L is pivoted at one end and is rotated 10

of length L = m , whirling in a circular path in a
with a uniform angular velocity in a horizontal plane. 3
Let T1 and T2 be the tensions at the points L/4 and 3L/ vertical plane. The ratio of maximum tension in the
4 away from the pivoted ends. string to the minimum tension in the string is 4. If g is
(A) T1 > T2 (B) T2 > T1 taken to be 10 m/s2 , the speed of the stone at the
highest point of the circle is :
(C) T1 = T2
(D) The relation between T 1 and T 2 depends on (A) 10 m/s (B) 5 2 m/s
whether the rod rotates clockwise or anticlockwise (C) 10 3 m/s (D) 20 m/s
2. A motorcycle is going on an overbridge of radius R. 6. A simple pendulum of length L and mass (bob) M is
The driver maintains a constant speed. As the oscillating in a plane about a vertical line between
motorcycle is ascending on the overbridge, the normal angular limits –  and . For an angular displacement
, [|| < ] the tension in the string and velocity of the
force on it :
bob are T and v respectively. The following relations
(A) Increase hold good under the above conditions :
(B) Decreases (A) T cos  = Mg
(C) Remains constant
(D) First increases then decreases Mv 2
(B) T – Mg cos =
L
(C) Tangential acceleration = g sin 
(D) T = Mg cos
PAGE # 202
7. A simple pendulum is made of a body which is a 12. Two identical springs of constant k are connected
hollow sphere containing mercury suspended by
means of a wire. If a little mercury is drained off, in series and parallel as shown in figure. A mass
the period of pendulum will : M is su sp en ded with them. T he ratio o f th eir
(A) remain unchanged frequencies of vertical oscillations will be :
(B) increase
(C) decrease
(D) become erratic
8 Two masses m 1 and m 2 are suspended together by
a massless spring of constant k. W hen the masses
are in equilibrium, m 1 is removed without disturbing
the system, the amplitude of vibration is :
(A) m 1g/k //////////////////////////
(B) m 2g/k
(m1  m2 ) g k
(C)
k
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2
(C) 1 : 4 (D) 4 : 1
(m2  m1) g m1
(D) m2
k 13. W h at will b e the force co nstant of th e spring
system shown in the figure ?
9. The velocity-time graph of a harmonic oscillator k1

(A)  k2
is shown in the following figure. 2
1
+4  1 1 k1 k1
(B)   
+2 0.04  2k1 k 2 
v(in m/s)
0
–2 0.01 0.02 0.03 t (in s)
–4
(C)
1

1
2k1 k 2
]
m
k2
The frequency of oscillation is :

(A) 25 Hz (B) 50 Hz
1
(C) 12.25 Hz (D) 33.3 Hz 2 1
(D)   
k
 1 k 2
10. Two springs of spring constant k 1 and k 2 are joined
14. A sound wave travels from east to west, in which
in series. The effective spring c onstant o f the
direction do the particles of air move :
combination is given by :
(A) East-west (B) North-south
(k 1  k 2 ) (C) Up and down (D) None of these
(A) k 1k 2 (B)
2
15. In which medium sound travels faster :
(A) Solid (B) Liquid
k1k 2 (C) Gas (D) None of these
(C) k 1 + k 2 (D)
k1  k 2
16. What is the name of short duration wave :
11. For a simple pendulum the graph between L and (A) Pulse (B) Frequency
T will be : (C) Time period (D) Velocity
(A) a hyperbola (B) a parabola
17. W hat is the velocity of sound in water at room
(C) a curved line (D) a straight line
temperature :
(A) 1500 m/s (B) 330 m/s
(C) 1500 km/s (D) 330 km/s
PAGE # 203
29. Mechanical waves can travel :
18. The unit of quantity on which pitch of the sound (A) In vacuum as well as in a medium
depends is : (B) In vacuum but not in a medium
(A) Hertz (B) metre (C) In a medium but not in vacuum
(C) metre/second (D) second (D) Neither in a medium nor in vacuum
19. The unit of quantity on which loudness of sound
depends is : 30. For the echo of the last syllable of the speech to be
(A) metre (B) Hertz heard the least distance of the reflector must be
(approximately) :
(C) metre/second (D) second (A) 17 metre (B) 58 metre
(C)110 metre (D) 340 metre
20. Nature of sound wave is :
31. During summer, an echo is heard :
(A) transverse (B) longitudinal
(A) Sooner than during winter
(C) electromagnetic (D) seismve (B) Later than during winter
(C) After same time as in winter
21. Pitch of high frequency sound is : (D) Rarely
(A) high (B) low 32. The velocity of sound in air at 30oC is approximately :
(C) zero (D) infinite (A) 332 ms–1 (B) 350 ms–1
(C) 530 ms–1 (D) 332 kms–1
22. Voice of a friend is recognised by its : 33. With the rise of temperature, the velocity of sound :
(A) pitch (B) quality (A) Decreases
(C) intensity (D) velocity (B) Increases
(C) Remains the same
23. Sound waves in air are : (D) Is independent of temperature
(A) Longitudinal waves
34. Infrasonic frequency range is
(B) Radio waves (A) Below 20 Hz (B) 20 Hz to 20 kHz
(C) Transverse waves (C) Above 20 kHz (D) No limit
(D) Electromagnetic waves 35. Ultrasonic frequency range is :
(A) Below 20 Hz (B) 20 Hz to 20 kHz
24. Sound waves can not pass through : (C) Above 20 kHz (D) No limit
(A) A solid liquid mixture 36. The speed of sound in air at constant temperature :
(A) Decreases with increase of pressure
(B) A liquid gas mixture
(B) Increase with increase of pressure
(C) An ideal gas (C) Remains the same with the increase in pressure
(D) A perfect vacuum (D) None of these
37. The frequency of sound waves in water is :
25. A periodic wave is characterized by : (A) Same as that of frequency of source
(A) Phase only (B) Wavelength only (B) Less than frequency of source
(C) More than frequency of source
(C) Frequency only (D) All the above
(D) None
26. The speed of sound is maximum in : 38. The sound propagates in a gaseous medium by :
(A) Air (B) Hydrogen (A) Transverse waves
(C) Water (D) Iron (B) Longitudinal waves
(C) Both A and B
27. When sound waves travelling in air enter into the medium (D) Neither A nor B
of water, the quantity which remains unchanged is : 39. Pitch of A is more than that of B, frequency of :
(A) Wavelength (B) Velocity (A) A = B (B) A > B
(C) Frequency (D) None (C) A < B (D) None of these
40. Sound takes sometime to travel from one place to an-
28. The density of medium through which longitudinal other. It will be maximum :
waves propagates is minimum in a region which is (A) At night
called : (B) During winter
(A) Crest (B) Compression (C) During summer
(D) Nothing can be said
(C) Trough (D) Rarefaction
41. Velocity of sound is maximum in :
(A) Iron (B) Mercury
(C) Water (D) Air
PAGE # 204
42. The frequency of a source of sound is 100 Hz. How 53. The speed of an object moving faster than the speed
many times does it vibrate in a minute : of sound in air is known as :
(A) 100 (B) 1000
(A) Infrasonic (B) Ultrasonic
(C) 600 (D) 6000
(C) Supersonic (D) None of these
43. Sound waves of wavelength  travels from a medium
in which their speed is V into a medium in which their 54. Waves produced by Supersonic jet planes are:
speed is 4 V. The wavelength of the sound in the sec-
(A) Shock waves (B) Infrasonic waves
ond medium is :
(A)  (B) 2  (C) Seismic waves (D) None of these
(C) 3  (D) 4 
44. The period of a periodic wave is 0.02 s. At a particular 55. Sonar is based on the principle of :
position, there is a crest at t = 0. A trough appears at (A) Echo
this position at t = : (B) Reverberation
(A) 0.005 s (B) 0.01 s
(C) Resonance
(D) 0.015 s (D) 0.02 s
45. The equipment (device) used for locating the position (D) Any one of the above
and distance of an object inside sea, using ultrasound
56. Human ears can sense sound waves travelling in air
is called :
(A) Pukar (B) Upkar having wavelength of :
(C) Radar (D) Sonar (A) 10–3 m (B) 10–2 m
(C) 1 m (D) 102 m
46. Human ear can hear :
(A) audible sound (B) infra sound 57. Ultrasonic waves are produced by :
(C) ultra sound (D) all the above (A) Piezo electric effect (B) Peltier effect
(C) Doppler effect (D) Coulomb’s law
47. A sonar echo takes 4.4s to return from a submarine. If 58. Galton’s whistle is based on :
the speed of sound in water is 1500 ms–1, then the (A) Ultrasonic waves (B) Infrasonic waves
distance of submarine from the sonar is : (C) Audible sound waves (D) All of these
(A) 1500 m (B) 3000 m 59. The minimum distance between the source of sound
(C) 3300 m (D) 3600 m and the obstacle for an echo to take place is (speed of
sound is 340 m/s) :
48. The eardrum is a : (A) 17 m (B) 172 m
(A) bone (B) coiled tube (C) 17 cm D) 34.4 m
(C) stretched membrane (D) fluid
60. In the inner ear the fluid which converts pressure
49. The part of the ear, that is filled with a liquid is the :
variations into electrical signals is known as :
(A) cochlea (B) ear canal
(A) Hammer (B) Anvil
(C) anVil (D) hammer (C) Stirrup (D) Cochlea
50. A fishing boat using sonar detects a shoal of fish 190

m below it. How much time elapsed between sending WAVE AND ITS CHAR ACTER ISTICS :
the ultra sonic signal which detected the fish and
61. Which is true for a wave ? (here n = frequency, T = time
receiving the signal’s echo ? (speed of sound in sea
period)
water is 1519 ms–1 ) :
n
(A) 0.25 s (B) 0.50 s (A) nT  1 (B) 2
T
(C) 0.75 s (D) 1.0 s (C) n  T (D) none of these
51. In a Stethoscope, sound of heartbeats travel to the 62. Which is not true for a wave ?
stethoscope tube : (A) Wave velocity v = n .
(A) By bending along the tube (B) Energy is transferred during wave motion.
(B) In a straight line (C) All waves can pass through vacuum.
(C) By undergoing multiple reflections (D) Unit of wave velocity is m/s.
(D) As a sonic boom 63. In the region of compression in longitudinal wave, the
density of the medium :
52. Ultrasonic waves are used in :
(A) Increases (B) Decreases
(A) SONAR (B) Emulsification (C) Remains same (D) None of these
(C) Sonography (D) All of these
PAGE # 205
64. The linear distance between the compression and the 74. W hen a wave travels from one medium to another,
adjacent rarefaction is 0.8 m. The wavelength of the which quantity does not change ?
longitudinal wave is : (A) Frequency (B) Wavelength
(A) 0.8 m (B) 1.6 m (C) Velocity (D) None of these
(C) 0.4 m (D) 3.2 m 75. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 500 m high
65. W hich of the following does not require medium to into a pond of water at the base of the tower. When is
propagate ? the splash heard at the top ? (Given g = 10 ms–2 and
(A) Radio-waves speed of sound = 340 ms–1) :
(B) Water-waves (A) 10 s (B) 11.47 s
(C) Sound-waves (C) 1.10 s (D) 20 s
(D) Waves in string
76. Time period of a sound wave having the wavelength
66. A sound wave is travelling from east to west. In which
0.2 m and frequency 10 Hz will be :
direction do the molecules in the air vibrate ?
(A) 2 s (B) 0.2 s
(A) West – east (B) North – south
(C) 0.1 s (D) 0.02 s
(C) Up – down (D) None of these
77. In the following table, match the column B according to
67. The distance between two consecutive compressions
column A :
is 1.4 m. The wavelength of the wave is :
Column–(A) Column–(B)
(A) 2.8 m (B) 1.4 m
(i) Pitch (a) waveform
(C) 0.7 m (D) 4.2 m
(ii) Quality (b) frequency
68. A broadcasting station transmits waves of frequency (iii) Loudness (c) amplitude
71×104 Hz with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s. The wavelength (A) (i)- (b), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(c)
of the wave is : (B) (i)- (a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c)
(A) 418.8m (B) 324.6 m (C) (i)- (c), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a)
(C) 208.4 m (D) 422.5 m (D) (i)- (b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a)
69. The moon is at a distance of 4×108 m from the earth. A 78. Decibel is :
radar signal is transmitted from the earth will reach the (A) a sound apparatus
moon in about : (B) a sound tone
(A) 2.6 s (B) 1.3 s (C) the unit of intensity of sound
(C) 5.2 s (D) 6.5 s (D) the wavelength of noise
70. In wave motion the particles of the medium : 79. Energy is not carried by :
(A) remain fixed (A)Transverse progressive waves
(B) vibrate to and fro about their mean position (B)Longitudinal progressive waves
(C) move along the wave (C)Stationary waves
(D) change their positions permanently (D)Electromagnetic waves
71. Waves on water surface are : ORGAN PIP E :

(A) longitudinal
80. Speed of sound in air is 350 ms –1 , fundamental
(B) transverse
frequency of an open organ pipe of 50 cm length will
(C) combination of longitudinal and transverse be :
(D) none of these (A) 175 Hz (B) 350 Hz
(C) 700 Hz (D) 500 Hz
72. Waves inside a gas are :
(A) longitudinal 81. An open pipe of length 33 cm resonates with frequency
of 1000 Hz. If the speed of sound is 330 ms–1, then this
(B) transverse
frequency is :
(C) partly longitudinal, partly transverse (A) The fundamental frequency of the pipe
(D) none of these (B) The first harmonic of the pipe
(C) The second harmonic of the pipe
73. A person is listening to a tone of 500 Hz sitting at a (D) The forth harmonic of the pipe
distance of 450 m from the source of the sound. What
82. The fundamental frequency of a open organ pipe is
is the time interval between the successive
300 Hz. The first overtone of this pipe is the same as
compression from the source ? the first overtone of a closed organ pipe. If the speed of
(A) 5 ms (B) 1 ms sound be 330 ms–1, then the length of the closed organ
(C) 2 ms (D) 2 s pipe is :
(A) 10 cm (B) 41 cm
(C) 82 cm (D) 164 cm
PAGE # 206
83. As an empty vessel is filled with water, its fundamental
frequency : 5. Which of the following can be used to detect a flaw
(A) increases (B) decreases inside a metal block ? (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009)
(C) remains the same (D) none of these (A) ultraviolet rays (B) X-rays
84. The natural voices of men, women and children are
(C) infrasonic waves (D) ultrasonic waves
different and can be distinguished.
A student makes three hypotheses
I. The amplitude of sounds emitted by them are  6. Which of the following statements is/are true in case of
different. waves ? (IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
II. The vocal cords are of different sizes. (A) Transverse vibrations are set on the string of a
III. The vocal cords vibrate with different frequencies. guitar.
The correct option is (B) As compared to light, a sound wave produced on
(A) I only (B) II only the moon will take a time about 10 6 times longer to
(C) III only (D) I and III only reach the earth.
(C) A sound note of wavelength 1 cm in air cannot be
85. On a hot, dry summer day a boy is standing between heard by a man.
plane parallel vertical cliffs separated by 75 m. He is (D) Sound travels faster in water than in air.
30 m away from one of the cliffs. Consider speed of
sound in air on that hot day to be 360m/s. The boy
7. Beats are heard due to interference of two sound
claps loudly and hears its successive echoes. The
waves. The intensity of sound changes from maximum
time in seconds at which he hears the first four echoes
to minimum in 100 ms. Therefore, the difference in
are respectively :
frequencies of the two waves is :(IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2009)
1 1 5 5 1 1 7 2 (A) 10 Hz (B) 5 Hz
(A) , , , (B) , , ,
6 4 12 12 6 4 12 3 (C) 2.5 Hz (D) 20 Hz
1 1 5 5 1 1 1 5 8. The note "Saa" on the Sarod and the Sitar have the
(C) , , , (D) , , ,
4 3 12 12 6 4 3 12 same pitch. The property of sound that is most important
in distinguishing between the two instruments is :
(KVPY/2009)
EXERCISE-2 (A) fundamental frequency
(B) displacement amplitude
(C) intensity
COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS : (D) waveform
1. When a stone is dropped in a pool of water, circular 9. The figure shows graphical representation of a sound
ripples are produced. These are : wave. The quantities on X and Y axes respectively are:
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007) (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) surface waves (B) transverse waves
(C) elastic waves (D) all the above
2. The depth of ocean at any place can be measured

(estimated) with the help of : (IJSO/Stage-I/2008)
(A) X rays
(B) ultrasonic waves (A) time and displacement
(C) radio waves
(D) ultraviolet rays (B) distance and pressure.
(C) distance and change in density
 3. Sound waves produced by a source are propagating (D) density and pressure.
in a medium. The quantity/quantities that change from
point to point is / are : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008) 10. A ripple is created in water. The amplitude at a distance
(A) pressure (B) density of 5 cm from the point where the sound ripple was
(C) temperature (D) elasticity created is 4 cm. lgnoring damping, what will be the
amplitude at the distance of 10 cm.
4. Consider the following sounds : G - conversation (IJSO/Stage-II/2011)
between two girls, P-sound produced by a peacock
and M- sound produced by a moving motorcycle. These (A) 16 cm (B) 8 cm
sounds in the increasing order of frequency are :
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009) (C) 4 cm (D) 2 cm
(A) G, P, M (B) P, M, G
(C) P, G, M (D) M, G, P
PAGE # 207
11. A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device which 15. Consider the following two statments. Statements 1 is
converts electrical signals into an active graphical an assertion of a concept while Statement-2 is the
reason.
representation on a fluorescent screen. The x axis is
Statement-1 : When red light travels from air to water,
always time axis, where the 1 cm is equal to a preset
for observer in water it appears to be still red.
time scale called time base. A sound wave is displayed Statement-2 : Colour of light is associated with
on the screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope. The time frequency and frequency does not change when is
base of the CRO is set at 2.5 ms/cm. travels in different medium.
(IJSO/Stage-II/2011) Choose the correct option (IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) Statement-1 is correct while statement -2 is wrong
(B) Statement-1 is wrong while statement (2) is correct.
(C) Statement-1 and 2 are correct.
(D) Statement-1 and 2 are wrong
16. A wave is sent along a string by oscillating at one end.

if the tension in the string is increased then speed of
the wave and wavelength of the wave.
(IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) speed increases, wavelength decreases
(B) both increase
(C) both decreases
(D) wavelength increases, speed decreases
17. A sound wave of fixed frequency is going through a
medium in the X direction. Ignore the velocities of
the particles due to thermal motion and assume
that the layers of the medium perform simple
What is the frequency of the sound wave ?
harmonic motions about their mean positions. Graph
(A) 50 Hz (B) 100 Hz in the figure represents displacements of the
(C) 200 Hz (D) 400 Hz particles from their mean positions (plotted on Y
12. Sound waves traveling in air enters water at an angle i axis) at a particular instant of time. Some of the
with the normal. It gets refracted at angle r with particles are labeled by alphabets a - s. Velocity of
(IJSO/Stage-I/2012) the particle G is directed negative at that instant.
(A) i > r Points C, I and 0 correspond to maximum
(B) r > i displacement at that instant. (IJSO/Stage-II/2017)
(C) i = r
(D) Sound waves do not get refracted
13. Consider the following two statements about light &

sound. Choose the most appropriate option:
(IJSO/Stage-I/2013)
(i) When light and sound travel air to water, light may
bend towards normal while sound may bend away
from normal.
(ii) Sound is longitudinal wave while light is transverse
wave.
(A) Statement (i) is correct while statement (ii) is I) The sound wave is travelling along the negative X
incorrect direction.
(B) Statement (i) and statement (ii) are both correct
II) The sound wave is travelling along the positive X
and statement (ii) is not the reason for statement (i) direction.
(C) Statement (i) and statement (ii) are incorrect III) Particles C, I and 0 are possessing maximum
(D) Statement (i) and statement (ii) are correct and
kinetic energy at the given instant.
Statement (ii) is the correct reason for statement (i) IV) Particles F, Land R are possessing maximum
kinetic energy at the given instant.
14. On a rainy wet day, a thunder is heard 6 second after (A) Only I and IV are correct.
lightening. If speed of sound is 350 ms–1 the altitude of (B) Only II and III are correct.
the clouds is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2013) (C) Only I and III are correct.
(A) 1.8 km (B) 1.9 km (D) Only II and IV are correct.
(C) 2.1 km (D) 2.5 km
PAGE # 208
10. ELECTRICITY
The body having more electron affinity attracts some of
ELECTRIC CHARGE the electrons from other body. Both the bodies develop
(a) Definition : equal and opposite charges by this method.
Electric charge may be defined as the intrinsic property POSITIVE CHARGE NEGATIVE CHARGE
of certain fundamental particles (electron, proton, etc.)
due to which they produce electric and magnetic 1. Glass Rod 1. Silk cloth
effects. 2. Ebonite, Amber,
2. Fur or woolen cloth
(b) Charge on a Macrobody : Rubber rod
Excess or deficiency of electrons in a body is equal to 3. Woolen coat 3. Plastic seat

the charge on a macrobody. A body having excess of 4. Woolen carpet 4. Rubber shoes
electrons is negatively charged and a body having
deficiency of electrons is positively charged. 5. Nylon or Acetate 5. Cloth
From the study of atomic structure, we know that an 6. Dry hair 6. Com b
atom consists of a central part called nucleus and
around the nucleus there are a number of electrons Note : The object in above table must be in given pair.
revolving in different paths or orbits. The nucleus (e) Properties of Electric Charge :
contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively
(i) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each
charged particle while a neutron has no charge.
other.
Therefore, the nucleus of an atom bears a positive
charge. An electron is a negatively charged particle
////////////////////////////
having negative charge equal to the positive charge on
Attraction
a proton. Normally, the number of electrons is equal to
the number of protons in an atom. Therefore, an atom
+ –
is neutral as a whole; the negative charge on electrons + Repulsion +
cancelling the positive charge on protons. This leads
to the conclusion that under ordinary conditions, a body (ii) Charge is a scalar quantity :
is neutral i.e. it exhibits no charge. (iii) Charge is always quantized : The amount of charge
When this equity or balance is disturbed by removing on a charged body is always in integral multiple of the
or supplying electrons, the body acquires a net charge. elementary charge the fractional multiple is not posible.
The body will acquire a positive or negative charge (iv) Charge is conserved.
depending upon whether electrons are removed from (v) Charge is always associated with mass.
it or added to it. (vi) Total charge of system remains conserved .
(c) Types of Electric Charge : (f) Unit of Charge :
There are two types of charges. They are : The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb abbreviated as C.
(i) Positive charge - A body having deficiency of One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on 625
electrons. × 1016 electrons.
(ii) Negative charge- A body having excess of 1 coulomb = charge on 625 × 1016 electrons
electrons. or 6.25× 1018 electrons
Thus, when we say that a body has a positive charge
(d) Charging of a body : of one coulomb (i.e. + 1C) it means that the body has a
There are a number of methods to charge a body as: deficit of 625 × 1016 electrons from the normal due to
(i) Charging by friction share.
(ii) Charging by conduction
STATIC AND CURRENT ELECTRICITY
(iii) Charging by induction etc.
(a) Static electricity :
We will discuss charging by friction:
Whenever two bodies (at least one non conductor) are A branch of physics which deals with the study of the
rubbed against each other, heat is produced due to electric charges at rest and their effects is known as
friction present between them. Due to this heat electrostatic or static electricity.
produced, electrons in both the bodies are excited. (b) Current electricity
A branch of physics which deals with the study of the
electric charges in motion and their effects is known
as current electricity.
PAGE # 209
(b) Electric Potential :
ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is
The flow of electricity in a circuit can be regarded very defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit
much similar to the flow of water in a pipe. The water +ve charge from infinity to that point, without acceleration
pipe is analogous to the electric conductor, while the or without a change in K.E., against the electric force
amount of water flowing through a given point per
due to the electric field.
second corresponds to electric current. Figure below
shows how the pump (P) builds up and maintains Mathematically,
pressure by lifting water from a tank (B) to the reservoir
W
(A) through the pipe (R). Note that along the pipe, V q
different points are at different pressure. Water in the
pipe flow from, say, a point C to D only when the
Since work is measured in joule and charge in
pressure at C is greater than that at D. Thus, when the
valve (v) is open, water would start flowing into the coulomb, therefore electric potential is measured in
reservoir. joule per coulomb (J/C). This unit occurs so often in
our study of electricity, so it has been named as volt, in
honour of the scientist Alessandra Volta (the inventor
of the voltaic cell).
1 Volt = 1 joule
1 coulomb
Potential is a scalar quantity, therefore it is added
algebraically. For a positively charged body potential is
positive and for a negatively charged body potential is
negative.
 W e can say potential is the electrical state of a

conductor which determines the direction of flow
charge when the two conductor are kept in contact.
(c) Electric Potential Difference :

In the same manner electrons will move along a wire
only if there is a difference of electric pressure called Consider a charge Q placed at a point P. Let A and B be
potential difference along the conductor. This difference
two other points (B being closer to A) as shown in
of potential is produced by the cell or a battery, which
figure.
acts like a water pump in the circuit.
The chemical action within the cell generates the Q B A q
difference in potential between the electrodes, which From infinity
P
sets the electrons in motion and produces the current.
(a) Electric Field : If a charge q is brought from infinity to A, work W A will be
Electric field due to a given charge is defined as the done.
space around the charge in which electrostatic force
of attraction or repulsion due to charge can be WA
experienced by any other charge. If a test charge The potential at A will then be, VA =
q
experiences no force at a point, the electric field at that
point must be zero. If charge q is brought from infinity to B, the work done
Electric field intensity at any point is the strength of will be W B.
electric field at that point. It is defined as the force
experienced by unit positive charge placed at that point. WB
The potential at B will then be, VB =
If F is the force acting on a test charge +q0 at any point q
then electric field intensity at this point is given by
The quantity VB – VA is called the potential difference
F
E between points A and B in the electric field of charge Q.
q Mathematically we have,
0
Electric field is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is WB WA
Newton per coulomb (N/C). VB – VA  
q q
PAGE # 210
Electric potential difference is also measured in volt.
1 q1q2 2
42mr
Sol. = mr = '
COULOMB’S LAW 4 0 r 2 T2
Charles Augustine de Coulomb studied the interaction ( 4 0 )r 2 ( 42mr )

forces of charged particles in detail in 1784. He used a T2 =
q1q2
torsion balance. On the basis of his experiments he
established Coulomb’s law. According to this law the
 0mr
magnitude of the electric force between two point or T = 4r
charges is directly proportional to the product of the q1q2
magnitude of the two charges and inversely and also we can say that
proportional to the square of the distance between
them and acts along the straight line joining the two q1q 2 mv 2 q1q2
=  V=
charges. 4  0r 2
r 4 0mr
In mathematical terms, the force that each of the two
point charges q1 and q2 at a distance r apart exerts on
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
the other can be expressed as–
q1q2 Consider a charge Q placed at a point P as shown in

F= k figure. If another charge q of the same sign is now
r2
brought from a very far away distance (infinity) to point
This force is repulsive for like charges and attractive
O near P, then charge q will experience a force of
for unlike charges.
repulsion due to charge Q. If charge q is still pushed
1 towards P, work is done. This work done is the potential
Where k is a constant of proportionality. k = energy of the system of these two charges.
4  0 ,
here 0 is absolute permittivity of free space. Q
q q
The force is directed along the line joining the centres r
of the two charged particles.
From infinity
P O
For any other medium except air, free space or vacuum
coulomb’s law reduces to Thus, the electric potential energy of a system of
charges is defined as the amount of work done in
1 q1q2 bringing the various charges from infinite separation
F =
4 r 2 to their present positions to form the required
 = Permittivity of the medium system. It is denoted by U. For the system of two
and  = 0r charges separated by distance r as shown in figure,
the electric potential energy is given by :
r = relative Permittivity or dielectric constant of the
kQq
medium. U=
Coulomb’s law is based on physical observation and r
it is not logically derived from any other concept.
Electric potential energy is the from of energy, therefore
it is measured in joule (J).
ILLUSTRATIONS
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
1. Find out the electrostatics force between two point
charges placed in air (each of +1 C) if they are
(i) It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same
separated by 1m .
as the force experienced by positive charge.
kq1q2 9  10 9  1 1 (ii) Electric field due to positive charge is always
Sol. F e = = = 9×10 9 N
r2 12 away from it while due to negative charge always
Note : From the above result we can say that 1 C towards it.
charge is too large to realize. In nature, charge is
(iii) Its S.. unit is Newton/Coulomb.
usually of the order of C
(iv) Electric force on a charge q placed in a region
2. A particle of mass m carrying charge q 1 is revolving of electric field at a point where the electric field
around a fixed charge –q 2 in a circular path of radius   
r. Calculate the period of revolution and its speed intensity is E is given by F  qE .
also.
PAGE # 211
Electric force on point charge is in the same FR  0
direction of electric field on positive charge  
Now if f is the force due to sixth charge and F due to
and in opposite direction on a negative charge.
remaining five charges.
(v) It obeys the superposition principle, that is, the    
field intensity at a point due to a system of charges is F + f =0 i.e. F =–f
vector sum of the field intensities due to individual
1 qq 1 q2
point charges. or, |F| = |f| = =
    4 0 L2 4 0 L2
E  E1  E 2  E 3 + .....
(vi) It is produced by source charges. The electric

  1 q2
field will be a fixed value at a point unless we change =
FNet FOD = along OD
the distribution of source charges. 4   L2
ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
The position where the resultant force on a charged

particle becomes zero is called equilibrium position.
(a) Stable Equilibrium :
A charge is initially in equilibrium position and is
displaced by a small distance. If the charge tries to
return back to the same equilibrium position then this
equilibrium is called position of stable equilibrium. 4. Calculate the electric field intensity which would be
just sufficient to balance the weight of a particle of
(b) Unstable Equilibrium :
charge –10 c and mass 10 mg.
If charge is displaced by a small distance from its 
equilibrium position and the charge has no tendency Sol. As force on a charge q in an electric field E is
to return to the same equilibrium position. Instead it  
F q = qE
goes away from the equilibrium position.
So according to given problem Fe
(c) Neutral Equilibrium :
If charge is displaced by a small distance and it is still
in equilibrium condition then it is called neutral E
A q
equilibrium.  
| Fq |  | W | i.e., |q|E = mg
3. Five point charges, each of value q are placed on five
vertices of a regular hexagon of side L. W hat is the mg W
magnitude of the force on a point charge of value – q i.e., E = = 10 N/C., in downward direction.
| q|
coulomb placed at the centre of the hexagon?
5. Two equal positive point charges 'Q' are fixed at points
B(a, 0) and A(–a, 0). Another test charge q 0 is also
L placed at O(0, 0). Show that the equilibrium at 'O' is
E D (i) stable for displacement along X-axis.
q (ii) unstable for displacement along Y-axis.
q
q O
F C Sol. (i)
q
-q
q
A B
Sol. If there had been a sixth charge +q at the remaining

vertex of hexagon force due to all the six charges on –
q at O would be zero (as the forces due to individual
charges will balance each other), i.e.,
PAGE # 212
    KQq0
Initially FAO + FBO = 0  | FAO | = | FBO | =
a2
When charge is slightly shifted towards + x axis by a
small distance x, then.
 
| FAO | < | FBO |
Therefore the particle will move towards origin (its

original position) hence the equilibrium is stable.
(ii) W hen charge is shifted along y axis
After resolving components net force will be along y

axis so the particle will not return to its original
position so it is unstable equilibrium. Finally the (ii) The electric intensity at a point is the number
charge will move to infinity. of lines of force streaming through per unit area
normal to the direction of the intensity at that point.
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE (ELOF)
The intensity will be more where the density of
lines is more.
The line of force in an electric field is an imaginary
line, the tangent to which at any point on it
represents the direction of electric field at the given
point.
(a) Properties :
(i) Line of force originates out from a positive (iii) Number of lines originating (terminating) from
charge and terminates on a negative charge. If (on) is directly proportional to the magnitude of
there is only one positive charge then lines start the charge.
from positive charge and terminate at . If there (iv) ELOF of resultant electric field can never intersect
is only one negative charge then lines start from with each other.
 and terminates at negative charge.
(v) Electric lines of force produced by static
charges do not form close loop.
(v i) Elec tric lin es o f force end o r start
perpendicularly on the surface of a conductor.
(v ii) Elec tric lin es o f fo rce n ever enter into
conductors.
PAGE # 213
6. If number of electric lines of force from charge q 8. The electric field in a region is given by,
are 10 then find out number of electric lines of
 3  4  3
force from 2q charge. E  E 0 i  E 0 j with E0 = 2.0 × 10 N/C. Find the
5 5
Sol. No. of ELOF  charge
flux of this field through a rectangular surface of area
10  q
0.2m2 parallel to the Y–Z plane.
 20  2q
So number of ELOF will be 20.  
Sol. E = E  S
7. A charge + Q is fixed at a distance of d in front of
an infinite metal plate. Draw the lines of force  3  4  2
indicating the directions clearly. = E 0 i  E 0 j  . 0.2 î = 240 N  m
 
5 5  C
Sol. There will be induced charge on two surfaces of
conducting plate, so ELOF will start from +Q charge ELECTRIC CURRENT
and terminate at conductor and then will again start
(a) Charges in motion
from other surface of conductor.
W hen two charged bodies at different potentials are
connected by a conducting wire, electrons flow from
the body at lower potential to the one at higher poten-
tial till the potentials of both the bodies become equal
i.e., potential difference between the two bodies be-
ELECTRIC FLUX comes zero. Figure shows the two oppositely charged
conductors A and B which are held on stands. The
 positively charged conductor A is said to be at higher
Consider some surface in an electric field E . Let us
potential and the negatively charged conductor B is
select a small area element dS on this surface. said to be at lower potential.
The electric flux of the field over the
  High potential Low potential
area element is given by dE = E . ds ++ – –
+ Electron flows
–
++ +
– – –
++ +
– –
Direction of dS is normal to the surface. It is along
A Current B
+ +++ – – –
Positively Negatively
n̂ dS E charged Wire charged
or dE = EdS cos  conductor conductor
or dE = (E cos ) dS
or dE = En dS
Insulated
stands
where E n is the component of electric field in the

It means that there exists a potential difference between
direction of dS .
the conductors A and B. Therefore, on joining positively
If the electric field is uniform over that area then charged conductor A to negatively charged conductor
  B, negative charge starts flowing from conductor B to
E = E  S
conductor A. Flow of charge will stop when both the
(a) Physical Meaning : conductors A and B acquire the same potential.
The electric flux through a surface inside an electric This rate of flow electric charge from one body to another
field represents the total number of electric lines of through a conductor such as metal wire is called
force crossing the surface in a direction normal the electric current and its direction is opposite to direction
surface. It is a property of electric field of flow of electrons.
(b) Unit : or
The quantity of charge passing through a given point
(i) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm2 C–1 (gauss) or J
m C–1. of the conductor in one second is called electric
current.
(ii) Electric flux is a scalar quantity. (It can be positive,
negative or zero)
PAGE # 214
Thus, if Q is the charge which flows through a an electric force acts on the electrons present in the
conductor in time t, then the electric current is given wire. Since the electrons are negatively charged, they
by start moving from negative end to the positive end of
the wire and this flow of electrons constitutes the
Ch arg e (Q) electric current in the wire.
Current (I) =
Time ( t )
+ e– e– e– e– –
– – –
Q e e e e–
or I=
t Direction of conventional Current
+ –
or Q = It Cell
Note : The electric current is a scalar quantity.
(b) Unit of current : (e) How to get a Continuous flow of Electric
Current :
S.I. unit of current is ampere, which is denoted by letter A.
It is due to the potential difference between two points
Current is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of that an electric current flows between them. The
charge flows through any cross section of a conductor simplest way to maintain a potential difference between
in one second, i.e.
the two ends of a conductor so as to get a continuous
1 coulomb flow of current is to connect the conductor between the
1 ampere = terminals of a cell or a battery. Due to the chemical
1 sec ond
or 1 A = 1 C s-1 reactions going on inside the cell or battery, a potential
difference is maintained between its terminals and
Smaller units of current : this potential difference drives the current in a circuit.
1 milliampere (mA) = 10-3 A

9. An electric bulb is connected in an electric circuit. If 10 C
1 microampere (  A) = 10-6 A
charge flows through this bulb in 5 seconds, Find the
current flowing through the bulb.
(c) Direction of Electric Current :
When electricity was invented a long time back, it was Sol. Charge, Q = 10C
known that there are two types of charges : positive Time taken, t = 5s
charges and negative charges, but the electron had
Q 10
not been discovered at that time. So, electric current Current, I =  = 2A
t 5
was considered to be a flow of positive charges and
the direction of flow of the positive charges was taken
to be the direction of electric current. Thus, the conventional 10. A particle with a charge of 1.5 coulombs is taken
direction of electric current is from positive terminal of from a point at a potential of 50 V to another point at a
a cell (or battery) to the negative terminal through the potential of 120 V. Calculate the work done.
circuit.
Sol. We have W = Q (VB – VA)
(d) How the Current Flows in a Wire : = (1.5 ) (120 – 50) = (1.5 70) = 105 Joule
As electric current is the flow of electrons in a metal
wire (or conductor) when a cell or battery is connected 11. If ‘q’ coulombs of charge travel through a conductor of
across its ends. A metal wire has plenty of free electrons length ‘  ’ m with a velocity of ‘v’ m/s, what is the current
in it. When the metal wire has not been connected to a flowing through the conductor ?
source of electricity like a cell or a battery, then the Sol. Charge passing through the conductor = ‘q’ coulomb
electrons present in it move at random in all the
directions between the atoms of the metal wire as q
vm/s
shown in figure below.
i=?
–
e– e e–
e– e– q
Metal Wire We know that current, i = ....(i)
e
–
e– t
e–
 
and speed, v = t =
t v
When a source of electricity like a cell or a battery is
connected between the ends of the metal wire, then
PAGE # 215
Substituting the value of ‘t’ in equation (i) (a) Open Electric Circuit :
An electric circuit through which no electric current flows
q q q v
We get i = =  is known as open electric circuit. The electric circuit
t   will be open circuit if the plug of the key is taken out or
 
v if the connecting wires break from any point.
 The current flowing through conductor = qv/ 
12. An electron of charge ‘e’ C moves in a circular orbit at

a frequency of ‘n’ revolution per second. Then find the
strength of the current.
Sol. Let P be a reference point in the orbit
q P (b) Closed Circuit :

i = rate of flow charge =
t An electric circuit through which electric current flows
consider t = 1s continuously is known as closed circuit.
In 1 second the electron completes ‘n’ revolutions
( frequency is ‘n’ rev/s) + –
 In 1 second the electron passes through ‘P’ for ‘n’
times.
charge through ‘P’ in 1 second (q) = n.e., where ‘e’ is
charge of electron. K
Bulb
q ne
i= = = ne (amp.)
t 1 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
13. If a million electrons travel through a conductor in 1
micro second, how many nano amperes of current are
The various electrical symbols used in electric circuits
flowing through it ?
are given below :
Sol. Number of electrons ‘n’ = 1 million = 106 electrons
1 micro second = 10–6 s
Charge of 1 electron = 1.6 ×10–19 C (i) Cell +
q ne (ii) Battery +
We know that current, i = =
t t
(iii) Connecting wire
10 6  1.6  10 19 c
= = 1.6 ×10–7
10 6 s
(iv) A wire joint
= 1.6 ×10–7A .........(i)
we know that 10–9 A = 1 nA
(v) Wire crossing without contact
1
1A = nA = 109 nA .........(ii)
10 9 (vi) Fixed resistance (or Resistor)
substituting (ii) in (i), we get
i = 1.6 ×10–7 A = 1.6 × 10–7 ×109 nA C
(vii) Variable resistance (or Rheostat) A B
= 1.6 ×102 nA = 160 nA.
(viii) Ammeter A
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
(ix) Voltmeter V
A continuous path consisting of conducting wires and
other resistances (like lamps, bulbs etc.) between the (x) Galvanometer G
terminals of a battery, along which an electric current
flows, is called a circuit. (xi) An open switch (An open plug key)
V or ( )
Ammeter in series with Voltmeter
the circuit A Connected
in parallel (xii) A closed switch (A closed plug key)
Resistor with the
resistor or ( )
+ –
Connecting Wire Cell
(xiii) Electric bulb
PAGE # 216
–
OHM’S LAW +E1– +E2–
It states that the current passing through a conductor Rheostat

is directly proportional to the potential difference across Plug key
its ends, provided the temperature and other physical
conditions (mechanical strain etc.), remain unchanged Battery
i.e.,   V or V   or V = R resistance wire R
- + -
Connecting wire +
W here R is a constant called resistance of the
conductor.
The relation R = V/ is referred to as Ohm’s law, after
the German physicist George Simon Ohm (1789 - 1854),
who discovered it.
Ammeter Voltmeter
It is quite clear from the above equation that
Experimental setup for
(i) The current  is proportional to the potential difference verification of Ohms law
V between the ends of the resistor.
Now, plot a graph between the current and the potential
(ii) If V is constant, then current  is inversely difference. we will get a straight line graph.
proportional to the resistance.
Experimental verification of ohm’s law :
Set up a circuit as shown in the figure below consisting
of a wire AB, a current measuring instrument called 4V
x
ammeter, an instrument measuring the potential Potential 3V
x
difference called voltmeter and a number of cells, each difference (V)
2V
x
of which provides some constant potential difference
V
x
across the two points of a conductor. First, use one
cell and note the current in the circuit and the potential
difference across the wire AB. Suppose the cell Current (A)
produces a current  in the circuit and a potential
difference (V) across the wire AB. Repeat this
experiment with two cells, three cells and four cells. Derivation of Ohm’s Law :
Rheostat
+ – W e known that, vd = eE 
m
B Rh
()
K – eV
=
A m
+
eV
I = Anevd = Ane
V m
A R B Ane 2 V
I=
m
Note the successive readings in the ammeter and the
voltmeter. We will find that with two cells in the circuit, the V m

current would be 2 and the potential difference 2V. I Ane 2 
Similarly, with three cells the current is 3 and potential
difference 3V and so on. [The important precaution to V m
R= 
observe here is not to allow the current to flow in the wire I Ane 2 
continuously. This can be done by taking off the plug key
m
and closing it only when the current is to be drawn.]
R=
Ane 
2
 RA
R =   =
A 
 = m
ne 
2
PAGE # 217
 is called resistivity (it is also called specific The resistance of a conductor depends upon the
temperature. As the temperature increases, the
m 1 random motion of free electrons also increases. If
resistan ce), an d  = 2 = ,  is called
ne   the number density of charge carrier electrons
remains constant as in the case of a conductor, then
conductivity. Therefore current in conductors is
the increase of random motion increases the
proportional to potential difference applied across
resistivity. The variation of resistance with temperature
its ends. This is Ohm's Law. Units:    1m 1 is given by the following relation
also called siemens m –1 . 
R t  R 0 1  t  t 2 
where R t and R 0 are the resistance at t 0C and 0 0C
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE respectively and  and  are constants. The
The electric current is a flow of electrons through a constant  is very small so its may be assumed
conductor. When the electrons move from one part of negligible.
the conductor to the other part, they collide with other
electrons and with the atoms and ions present in the  R t  R 0 1  t 
body of the conductor. Due to these collisions, there is
some obstruction or opposition to the flow of electrons
R t  R0
or 
through the conductor. R0  t
This constant  is called as temperature coefficient
The property of a conductor due to which it opposes
of resistance of the substance.
the flow of current through it, is called resistance. The
If R 0 = 1 ohm, t = 1 0C, then
resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the
ratio of potential difference across its ends to the   R t  R 0 
current flowing through it. Thus, the temperature coefficient of resistance is
Potential difference equal to the increase in resistance of a conductor
 Resistance = having a resistance of one ohm on raising its
Current
temperature by 1 0C. The temperature coefficient of
V resistance may be positive or negative.
or R= From calculations it is found that for most of the
I
1 0
V metals the value of  is nearly / C . Hence
Slope of graph, tan = =R 273
I
substituting  in the above equation
Unit of Resistance :
The S.I. unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by  t 
R t  R 0 1  
the symbol  .  273 
When a potential difference of 1 volt is applied to the
ends of the conductor and a current of 1 ampere flows  273  t  T
through it, then resistance of the conductor will be 1
 R0    R0
 273  273
ohm.
where T is the absolute temperature of the conductor.
Fa ct or s affe ct ing the Re si st ance of a
Conduc tor :  Rt  T
Resistance depends upon the following factors:- Thus, the resistance of a pure metallic wire is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
(i) Length of the conductor. The graph drawn between the resistance R t and
R L temperature t is found to be a straight line
(ii) Area of cross-section of the conductor (or thickness
1
of the conductor). R 
A Rt
(iii) Nature of the material of the conductor.
R0
(iv) Temperature of the conductor.
tºC
PAGE # 218
RESISTIVITY Effect of temperature on resistivity :
It has been found by experiments that : The resistivity of conductors (like metals) is very low. The
resistivity of most of the metals increases with
(i) The resistance of a given conductor is directly
temperature. On the other hand the resistivity of semi-
proportional to its length i.e.
conductors like silicon and germanium is in between
R L ..........(i) those of conductors and insulators and decreases on
(ii) The resistance of a given conductor is inversely increasing the temperature. Semi-conductors are proving
proportional to its area of cross-section i.e.
to be of great practical importance because of their
1 marked change in conducting properties with
R ..........(ii) temperature and impurity concentration.
A
from (i) and (ii) 14. W hy alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high
L temperature ?
R  R = ρ L ..........(iii)
A A Sol. Because with the change in temperature their resistivity
changes less rapidly.
Where  (rho) is a constant known as resistivity of the
material of the conductor. Resistivity is also known as 15. Find the specific resistance of a wire of length 1.1m,
specific resistance. 0.4 mm in diameter and having a total resistance of
4.2.
By using this formula, we will now obtain the definition
of resistivity. Let us take a conductor having a unit area
 RA 4.2  d2
Sol. R =  = =
of cross-section of 1 m2 and a unit length of 1 m. So, A  1.1 4
putting A = 1 and L = 1 in equation (iv), we get:
d
Resistivity,  = R Here A = r2 and r = , d = 0.4 ×10–3m
2
Definition of resistivity : = 48 ×10–8  metre.
The resistivity of a substance is numerically equal to
16. A wire of resistance 4  is redrawn by pulling it doubled,
the resistance of a rod of that substance which is
what is its new resistance ?
1 metre long and 1 metre square in cross-section.
Unit of resistivity, Sol. Let L is the length of the wire before stretching, Lis the
length of the wire after stretching, A is the area of the
wire before stretching , A is the area of the wire after
ohm  (metre )2
‘ ’ = = ohm - metre stretching, R is the resistance of the wire before stretching,,
metre R is the resistance of the wire after stretching.
Since the volume of the wire remains constant,
The S.I. unit of resistivity is ohm-metre which is written
 AL = AL
in symbols as -m.
 L = 2L
Resistivity of a substance does not depend on its
AL AL A
length or thickness. It depends only on the nature of So, A  
the substance. The resistivity of a substance is its L 2L 2
characteristic property. So, we can use the resistivity to
compare the resistances of two or more substances R L A A L A 2L
    =   
R A  L A L A/2 L
Importance of resistivity :
R
A good conductor of electricity should have a low So, =4
R
resistivity and a poor conductor of electricity should
R = 4R
have a high resistivity. The resistivity of alloy are much
more higher than those of the pure metals.
 R = 4
Hence R= 4 × 4 = 16 .
It is due to their high resistivities that manganin and
constantan alloys are used to make resistance wires 17. A wire of radius 0.35 mm has a length of 2.2 cm. It is
used in electronic appliances to reduce the current in made of a material of specific resistance 1.4 ×10 –8
an electrical circuit. ohm cm. Its resistance is :
Nichrome alloy is used for making the heating Sol. Given : radius of the wire ‘r’=0.35 mm = 0.35 ×10–3m
elements of electrical appliances like electric irons, Length of the wire,  =2.2 cm = 2.2×10–2m
room-heaters, water-heaters and toasters etc.
specific resistance of the wire ‘’ = 1.4 ×10–8 cm
because it has very high resistivity and it does not
= 1.4 ×10-10 m
undergo oxidation (or burn) even when red-hot.
resistance of the wire ‘R’ ?
PAGE # 219
20. (a) Find the amount of current drawn from the
 battery when a copper block is connected
we know that R = .......(i)
A through it as shown in the figure (cu : 1m )
Area of cross section of the wire ‘A’ = r2
= (0.35 ×10–3 m)2
0.25m
Substituting the values of ,  and A in equation (i)
5m
1m
0. 2
1.4  10 10  2.2  10 2
R=  = 0.8 × 10–5 
(0.35  10 3 )2
16V
18. Two conductors X and Y of circular cross-section have
(b) Find the current when given cuboid is
radii in the ratio of 1 : 2, length in the ratio 1 : 3 and
connected vertically as shown in the figure
resistivity in the ratio of 3 : 1, then, their resistance are
in the ratio.
Sol. Given : A1 = r12 and A2 = 2r1)2 = 4 r12,1=32
and  2  3 1
1m

We know that, R =
A
0.
1 1
25
0.25m
m
resistance of conductor X, R1 = .....(i)
A1
 2 2
resistance of conductor Y, R2 = .....(ii) 16V
A2
Sol. (a) From figrue, area of cross section,
R1 1 1 / A1 32 1 / r12 A = 0.25 × 0.25 m2, length, L = 1 m, resistivity,
4
=1×m
R 2  2 2 / A 2 =
=
2 3 1 / 4r12
=
1
L 1 1
The resistance of the conductors X and Y are in the reisistance of wire, R =  = 16 
A 0.25  0.25
ratio 4 : 1
V 16
Current, I =  = 1A
19. Temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.00125 per R 16
ºC. Resistance at 300ºK is 1. W hat will be the (b) From figrue, area of cross section,
temperature in (ºK) when resistance becomes 2 ?
A = 0.25 ×1 m2, length, L = 0.25 m, resistivity,
=1×m
R 2  R1 L 1 0.25
Sol.  = reisistance of wire, R =  =1
R1t 2  R2 t1 A 1 0.25
V 16
2 1 Current, I =  = 16 A
0.00125 = [t1 = 300 K = 27ºC] R 1
1 t 2  2  27
 t2 = 854ºC 21. A wire has a resistance of 2 ohm at 273 K and a

t2 = 1127 K resistance of 2.5 ohm at 373 K. W hat is
the temperature coefficient of resistance of the
material?
R  R0 2.5  2
Sol.   
R 0 T  T0  2  373  273 
0 .5
  2.5  10 3 / 0K
200
PAGE # 220
If information of lengths before and after stretching
CONDUCTORS, RESISTORS AND INSULATORS
A1  2
is given, then use 
(i) Conductors : A2 1
Those substances which have very low electrical
2
resistance are called conductors. A conductor allows R2   2 
 
the electricity to flow through it easily. Silver metal is R1   1 
the best conductor of electricity. Copper and aluminium
metals are also good conductors. Electric wires are If information of radius r1 and r2 is given then use
made of copper or aluminium because they have very
2 A
low electrical resistance.  1
1 A 2
(ii) Resistors :
Those substances which have comparatively high 2 4
R 2  A1  r 
electrical resistance, are called resistors. The alloys     1 
R1  A 2   r2 
like nichrome, manganin and constantan (or ureka),
all have quite high resistances, so they are used to
make those electrical devices where high resistance CONDUCTIVITY
is required. A resistor reduces the current in the circuit.
(iii) Insulators : (a) Reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called

Those substances which have infinitely high electrical its conductivity. It is generally represented by  .
resistance are called insulators. An insulator does not
1
allow electricity to flow through it. Rubber is an excellent (b)  
insulator. Electricians wear rubber handgloves while 
working with electricity because rubber is an insulator
(c) Unit : ohm 1. metre 1
and protects them from electric shocks. Wood is also
a good insulator.
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
22. If a copper wire is stretched to make its radius Apart from potential difference, current in circuit
decrease by 0.15%, Find the percentage increase depends on resistance of the circuit. So, in the electrical
in resistance (approximately). circuits of radio, television and other similar things, it
is usually necessary to combine two or more
Sol. Due to stretching resistance changes are in the ratio
resistances to get the required current in the circuit.
4
R 2  r1 
  W e can combine the resistances lengthwise (called
R1  r2 
series) or we can put the resistances parallel to one
4 another. Thus, the resistances can be combined in
or R r
two ways :
R r
or  4 (i) series combination (ii) parallel combination
R r
 4  0.15 % = 0.60% (i) Series combination of resistors :
Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3

EFFECT OF STRETCHING OF A WIRE ON RESISTANCE
connected in series to cell of potential difference V as
shown in figure. Since the three resistors are
In stretching, the density of wire usually does not
connected in series therefore the current  through each
change. Therefore
of them is same.
Volume before stretching = Volume after stretching
 1A 1   2 A 2 By Ohm’s law the potential drop across each resistor
is given by V1 = R1,V2 = R2 and V3 = R3 .
R 2  2 A1 Since V is the total potential in the circuit, therefore by
and  
R1  1 A 2 conservation of energy we have
V = V1 + V2 + V3
PAGE # 221
Substituting for V1 , V 2 and V 3 in above equation we Since the resistors are connected in parallel therefore
have, the potential across each resistor must be same,
hence by Ohm’s law we have
V = R1 + R2 + R3 .....(i)
f R s is the equivalent resistance of the series V V

combination, then by Ohm’s law we have 1 = R and 2 = R
1 2
V = Rs .....(ii)
substituting in equation (i) we have,
Therefore from equations (i) and (ii) we have V V
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = R + R .....(ii)
1 2
Hence Rs = R1 + R2+ R3 Let R P be the equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination, then by Ohm’s law we have,
V
= R .....(iii)
P
Hence from equations (ii) and (iii) we have,
V V V 1 1 1
= + or = +
RP R1 R2 RP R1 R2
Thus in series combination the equivalent resistance
is the sum of the individual resistances. For more An extension of this analysis to three or more resistors
resistors, the above expression would have been- in parallel gives the following general expression
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 +..................
1  1  1  1 
.......... ..
 Features of series combination : R P R1 R 2 R 3
In a circuit, if the resistors are connected in series :  Features of parallel combination :
(A) The current is same in each resistor of the circuit. (A) The sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistance is equal to the reciprocal of equivalent
(B) The resistance of the combination of resistors is
resistance(R P ).
equal to sum of the individual resistors.
(B) The currents in various resistors are inversely
(C) The total voltage across the combination is equal
proportional to the resistances, higher the resistance
to the sum of the voltage drop across the individual
of a branch, the lower will be the current through it. The
resistors.
total current is the sum of the currents flowing in the
(D) The equivalent resistance is greater than that of different branches.
any individual resistance in the series combination.
(C) The voltage across each resistor of a parallel
(ii) Parallel combination of resistors : combination is the same and is also equal to the
voltage across the whole group considered as a unit.
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in parallel
as shown in figure. When the current  reaches point
‘a’, it splits into two parts  1 going through R 1 and  2  NOTE : For n equal resistances R s = n2
going through R2. If R1 is greater than R2, then  1 will be Rp
less than  2 i.e. the current will tend to take the path of
least resistance. 23. Three resistance of value 1 , 2  and 3 are
connected in parallel. If the effective resistance of the
circuit has to be 1, then find the value of the resistance
to be connected in series to this circuit.
Sol. Equivalent resistance is one ohm.
Since charge must be conserved, therefore the current R=?

I that enters at point ‘a’ must be equal to the current
that leaves that point. Therefore we have
 = 1 + 2 .....(i)
6/11 R
PAGE # 222
40
R1 = = 20
6 2
As per question +R=1 Substituting R1 = 20 in
11
R1 + R2 = 25 20 +R2 = 25
6 11 6 R2 = 25 – 20 R2 = 5
 R = 1– R=
11 11  the individual resistance of two coils are 20 and
5 respectively.
5
R= 
11
24. If the least resistance that can be obtained by SUPER CONDUCTOR AND ITS APPLICATIONS
combining resistance of 6 ohm, 3 ohm and x ohm is 1
Prof. K. Onnes in 1911 discovered that certain metals
ohm. Then find the value of x. and alloys at very low temperature lose their
Sol. W hen the resistors are combined in all the possible resistance considerably. This phenomenon is known
ways, the combination which has the least value is the as super-conductivity. As the temperature decreases,
parallel combination. the resistance of the material also decreases, but when
 When 6, 3and xare connected in parallel, we the temperature reaches a certain critical value (called
critical temperature or transition temperature), the
get the least resistance of value 1.
resistance of the material completely
disappears i.e. it becomes zero. Then the material
1 1 1 1
Apply    behaves as if it is a super-conductor and there will be
RP R1 R2 R 3
flow of electrons without any resistance whatsoever.
The critical temperature is different for different material.
1 1 1 1 It has been found that mercury at critical temperature
    4.2 K, lead at 7.25 K and niobium at critical temperature
1 6 3 x
9.2 K become super-conductor.
1 1 1 1 6  1 2 3 1 Applications of super conductors :

      
x 1 6 3 6 6 2 (i) Super conductors are used for making very strong
electromagnets.
x = 2
(ii) Super conductivity is playing an important role in
25. Two coils have a combined resistance of 25 ohm when material science research and high energy particle
physics.
connected in series and 4 ohm when connected in
(iii) Super conductivity is used to produce very high
parallel. Find their individual resistances.
speed computers.
Sol. Given : The combined resistance of two coils when
(iv) Super conductors are used for the transmission of
connected in series = Rs = R1 + R2 = 25 ......(i)
electric power.
R1R 2
When connected in parallel = RP =  4 ...(ii)
R1  R 2 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS
Substituting (i) in (ii), we have (a) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (Junction law) :
R1R2
=4 R1R2 = 25 ×4 = 100 ......(iii) This law is based on law of conservation of charge.
25 It states that "The algebraic sum of the currents
We know that meeting at a point of the circuit is zero" or total
(R1–R2)2 = (R1+R2)2 –4R1R2 current entering a junction is equal total current
(R1–R2)2 = (25)2 – 4 × 100 leaving the junction.
 (R1–R2)2 = 225   in =  out.
It is also known as KCL (Kirchhoff's current law).
R1– R2 = 225  15 ......(iv)
( b ) Ki rchhof f ’s Vol ta ge Law (Loop l aw) :
equation (i) and (iv) =
“The algebraic sum of all the potential differences
R1 + R2 = 25
along a closed loop is zero. IR + EMF =0”. The
R1 – R2 = 15 closed loop can be traversed in any direction. W hile
––––––––– traversing a loop if potential increases, put a positive
2R1 = 40 sign in expression and if potential decreases put
a negative sign.
PAGE # 223
Potential drop across R = Potential drop across AB
iR = 30
50
 .R = 30
20  R
 R = 30 
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
 V 1  V 2 + V 3  V 4 = 0. Boxes may contain resistor
or battery or any other element (linear or nonlinear). Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistors
It is also known as KVL in the shape of a quadrilateral which can be used to
measure unknown resistance in terms of the
26. Figure shows, current in a part of electrical circuit, what
will be the value of current (i) ? remaining three resistances.
The arrangement of W heatstone bridge is shown in

figure below. Out of four resistors, two resistances R1,
2A 1A R2 and R3, R4 are connected in series and are joined in
2A
parallel across two points a and c. A battery of emf E is
3A
1. connected across junctions a and c and a galvanometer
P Q R
S (G) between junction b and d. The keys K1 and K2 are
3A i
used for the flow of current in the various branches of
bridge.
Principle of Wheatstone Bridge :

2A 1A W hen key K 1 is closed, current i from the battery is
2A
i1 i2 A divided at junction a in two parts. A part i1 goes through
3
Sol. R 1. R1 and the rest i2 goes through R 3. When key K2 is
P Q
i3
S closed, galvanometer shows a deflection.
3A i
From KCL, current at junction P, i1 = 2 + 3 = 5 A

From KCL, current at junction Q, i2 = i1 + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6 A
From KCL, current at junction R, i3 = i2 – 2 = 6 – 2 = 4 A
From KCL, current at junction S, i = i3 – 1.3 = 4 – 1.3
= 2.7 A
27. In the circuit shown, calculate the value of R in ohm

that will result in no current through the 30 V battery.
The direction of deflection depends on the value of

potential difference between b and d. When the value
Sol. Applying KVL in loop CEFDC
of potential at b and d is same, then no current will flow
50 – iR – 20 i = 0
through galvanometer. This condition is known as the
50 condition of balanced bridge or null deflection
i =
20  R condition. This situation can be obtained by choosing
A C i E suitable values of the resistances. Thus, in null
50V deflection state, we have :
Va – Vb = Va – Vd
i or i1 R1 = i2 R3 ...(i)
R
20 Similarly :
Vb – Vc = Vd – Vc
B F or i1 R2 = i2 R4 ...(ii)
10 D i
PAGE # 224
On dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get desirable, are incandescent lamps, toasters, electric
irons and stoves. The tungsten filament of an
i1 R1 i2 R3 R1 R 3 incandescent lamp operates at a temperature of 27000C.
= or  ...(iii)
i1 R 2 i2 R 4 R2 R4 Here, we see electrical energy being converted into
both heat and light energy.
Equation (iii) states the condition of balanced bridge.
Thus, in null deflection condition the ratio of (a) Electric Energy :
resistances of adjacent arms of the bridge are same. The fact that conductors offer resistance to the flow of
The resistor of unknown resistance is usually current, means that work must be continuously done
connected in one of the arm of the bridge. The to maintain the current. The role of resistance in
resistance of one of the remaining three arms is electrical circuits is analogous to that of friction in
adjusted such that the galvanometer shows zero mechanics. The amount of work done by current ,
deflection. If resistance of unknown resistor is R4. Then flowing through a wire of resistance R during the time
t is calculated by -
 R2  W = QV
R4 = (R3)   but as Q=×t
 R1 
Therefore, the amount of work done, W is
For better accuracy of the bridge one should choose W=V××t
resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 of same order. By substituting the expression for V from Ohm’s law,
V = R
we finally get W =  2 Rt
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT
This shows that the electrical energy dissipated or
W hen the ends of a conductor are connected to a consumed depends on the product of the square of
battery, then free electrons move with drift velocity and the current I, flowing through the resistance R and the
electric current flows through the wire. These electrons time t.
collide continuously with the positive ions of the wire
and thus the energy taken from the battery is dissipated. (i) Commercial unit of electrical energy (Kilowatt -
To maintain the electric current in the wire, energy is hour) :
taken continuously from the battery. This energy is The S.I. unit of electrical energy is joule and we know
transferred to the ions of the wire by the electrons. This that for commercial purposes we use a bigger unit of
increases the thermal motion of the ions, as a result electrical energy which is called “kilowatt - hour”. One
the temperature of the wire rises. The effect of electric kilowatt - hour is the amount of electrical energy
current due to which heat is produced in a wire when consumed when an electrical appliance having a power
current is passed through it is called heating effect of rating of 1 kilowatt and is used for 1 hour.
current or Joule heating. In 1841 Joule found that when
(ii) Relation between kilowatt hour and Joule :
current is passed through a conductor the heat
produced across it is : Kilowatt-hour is the energy supplied by a rate of
working of 1000 watts for 1 hour.
(i) Directly proportional to the square of the current
1 kilowatt-hour = 3600000 joules
through the conductor i.e. H  I2
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
(ii) Directly proportional to the resistance of the
(b) Electric Power :
conductor i.e. H  R
The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or
(iii) Directly proportional to the time for which the current
consumed, is termed as electric power. The power P
is passed i.e. H  t is given by,
Combining the above three equations we have P = W/t = I2 R
H  I2Rt The unit of electric power is watt, which is the power
I2 Rt consumed when 1A of current flows at a potential
or H= (in calorie) difference of 1 V.
J
W here J is called Joule’s mechanical equivalent of (i) Unit of power :
heat and has a value of J = 4.18 J cal–1. The above The S.I. unit of electric power is ‘watt’ which is denoted
equation is called Joule’s law of heating. by the letter W. The power of 1 watt is a rate of working
In some cases, heating is desirable, while in many of 1 joule per second.
cases, such as electric motors, generators or A bigger unit of electric power is kilowatt.
transformers, it is highly undesirable. Some of the
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watt.
devices in which heating effect of an electric current is
PAGE # 225
Power of an agent is also expressed in horse power (hp).
1 hp = 746 watt
(ii) Formula for calculating electric power :
Work
We know, Power, P =
Time
and Work, W = V × I × t joule
V It
 P= P = V × I
t
It is an alloy of lead and tin (37% lead + 63% tin). It has
Power P in terms of I and R :
a low resistivity and low melting point. As soon as the
V safe limit of current exceeds, the fuse “blows” and the
Now from Ohm’s law we have, =R electric circuit is cut off.
I
V=I×R
28. 15 bulbs of 60W each, run for 6 hours daily and a
 P=I×R×I
refrigerator of 300 W runs for 5 hours daily. Work out
P = I2 × R
per day bill at 3 rupees per unit.
Power P in terms of V and R :
We know, P=V×I Sol. Total wattage of 15 bulbs = 15 × 60 W = 900 W
V  Electrical energy consumed by bulbs per day = P × t
From Ohm’s law I= = 900 × 6 = 5400 Wh
R
V And electrical energy consumed by refrigerator per day
P=V× P = V 2 = 300 × 5 = 1500 Wh
R R Total electrical energy consumed per day
(ii) Calculation of Electric bill : = (5400 + 1500)Wh = 6900 Wh
Energy consumued by electric appliances is given by 6900

 Electrical energy consumed per day = KWh
the formula. 1000
Electricity energy (in kWh) = = 6.9 KWh
no. of appliance  Power of appliance in watt  Time in hour)
(
1000 Here, per day bill = Rs. 6.9 × 3 = Rs. 20.70

( c) Pow er -Vol ta ge R at ing of E le ct ri ca l 29. Two lamps, one rated 100 W at 220 V and other 60 W
Ap pl ia nc es : at 220 V are connected in parallel to a 220 V supply.
What is current drawn from the supply line ?
Every electrical appliance like an electric bulb, radio or
fan has a label or engraved plate on it which tells us
the voltage (to be applied) and the electrical power Sol. Given that
consumed by it. For example, if we look at a particular V = 220 volt
bulb in our home, it may have the figures 220 V, 100 W
P1 = 100W and P2 = 60 W
written on it. Now, 220 V means that this bulb is to be
used on a voltage of 220 volts and 100 W which means, P1 100 5
it has a power consumption of 100 watts or 100 joules  Current 1 =   A
per second, when supplied a voltage of 220 volt. V 220 11
(d) Applications of Heating Effect of Current : Similarly,
Domestic electrical appliances such as electric bulb, P2 60 3

electric iron, geyser, room heater etc work on heating Current 2 =   A
V 220 11
effect of current and are rated in terms of voltage and
wattage. The coils of these devices are made of a Hence, total current drawn from the supply line =
material of a very high resistance, (for instance,
nichrome or tungsten) such that when a current passes 5 3 8
  A = 0.727 A.
through the coil, heat is generated. Generally the 11 11 11
potential difference applied to the electrical appliance
30. A resistance coil is made by joining in parallel two
is the same as that of the mains i.e. 220 - 230 V in
resistance each of 10  this is connected with a source
India and 110 V in U.S.A., Canada etc.
of 1 volt for 5 minutes. Calculate the heat produced in
(e) Electric Fuse : colonies.
An electric fuse is an easily fusible wire of short length (given : 1cal = 4.25)
put into an electrical circuit for protection
Sol. Here, R1 = 10, R2 = 10
purposes. It is arranged to melt (“blow”) at a definite
current. V = 1.0, t = 5×60
PAGE # 226
32. A piece of wire of resistance 20 is drawn out so that
R1R 2 10  10 its length is increased to twice its original length.
Effective resistance RP =
R1  R 2 = 10  10 = 5 Calculate the resistance of the wire in the new situation.
Sol. When the length is increased two times, the area of
V2
Heat produced =  t = 1 ×300 J 1
RP 5 cross section much become of its original value.
2
This is because
60
= cal = 14.3 cal A1 1  A 2 2 = V, the volume of wire (which has to
4.2
remain constant)
31. Two lamps, one rated 60 W at 220 V and the other 40 W 1

at 220 V, are connected in parallel to the electric supply  Since  2  2 1 , we have A2 = A
2 1
at 220 V.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram to show the connections. 1 2
Also R1 =  and R2 =
(b) Calculate the current drawn from the elctric supply. A1 A2
(c) Calculate the total energy consumed by the two
lamps together when they operate for one hour. R2  2 A1 1
 = .  2 4
Sol. (a) The required circuit diagram is as shown here R1 1 A 2 1/ 2
 R2 = 4 × 20 = 80 
Live wire
()
()
Switch Switch
CELL
60W
40W It converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
220V
220V Electrochemical cells are of three types :
(a) Primary cell (b) Secondary cell
(c) Fuel cell
Neutral wire
(a) Primary Cell :
It is an electrochemical cell, which cannot be recharged,
(b) Current drawn by the 40 W bulb but the chemicals have to be replaced after a long use.
The reactions taking place in the cell are irreversible.
Power 40 2
= = A A Eg. : Daniel cell, Lechlanche cell, Dry cell etc.
Voltage 220 11
(b) Secondary Cell :
Current drawn by the 60 W bulb
Electrical energy can be converted into chemical energy
Power 60 3 and chemical energy can be converted into electrical
= = A A
Voltage 220 11 energy in these cells, i.e. secondary cells can be
recharged after use. Chemical reaction taking place in
Total current drawn by the two bulbs
these cells are reversible.
2 3
=   A = 5 A = 0.4545 A Example : Lead accumulator, Edison cell (alkali cell)
 11 11  11 and iron nickel cell.
(c) Total power of the two bulbs (c) Electro Motive Force of a Cell (E.M.F.) :
= (40 + 60) W = 100W = 0.1 kW It is the maximum potential difference between the two
 Energy consumed in one hour = 0.1 kW × 1 hour electrodes of the cell when no current is drawn from
the cell or cell is in the open circuit.
= 0.1 kWh
(d) Potential Difference of a Cell :
or Energy consumed
= 100 W × 3600 s = 3.6 × 105 J. It is the difference of potential between two terminals
of the cell when current is drawn from it or the cell is in
closed circuit.
PAGE # 227
(e) Internal Resistance of a Cell :
E,r E,r E,r E,r
It is the resistance offered to the flow of current inside A B
the cell i.e. internal resistance is the resistance offered Upto n
to the flow of current by electrolyte. Internal resistance I
decreases with the increase of the area of plates and R
also with the decrease of the distance between plates.
Determination of internal resistance of a cell :
nE
So current in the circuit, I=
R  nr
There may by two cases :
nE
(i) If nr << R, then I = = n × current due to one cell.
R
So, series combination is advantageous.
E
(ii) If nr >> R, then I = = current due to one cell.
r
So, Series combination is not advantageous.
Connect a voltmeter to a cell through key K 1. Also Note : If polarity of m cells is reversed, then equivalent
connect a resistor R to cell through K2. First put in key e.m.f. = (n–2m) E while the equivalent resistance is
K1. The reading shown by voltmeter gives us the e.m.f. still nr + R, so current in R will be
of the cell since negligible current flows through cell
due to high resistance of the voltmeter. Insert key K2 (n  2m)E
i=
also so that current flows through resistor R. If r is the nr  R
internal resistance of the cell and V is the reading (b) Cells in Parallel :
shown by voltmeter, then
E If m cells each of emf E and internal resistance r be
I=  E = I (R + r)
R r connected in parallel and if this combination is
 E = IR + Ir connected to an external resistance then the emf of
Here, IR = V the potential difference
the circuit is E.
So, E = V + r
E–V r
r= .........(i) Internal resistance of the circuit = .
I m
V
 V = IR or I =
R
So for equation (i)
(E – V)R
r= ........(ii)
V
GROUPING OF CELLS E mE
and I = 
r mR  r
R
m
(a) Cells in Series : There may by two cases :
E1,r1 E2,r2 E3,r3 Enrn
mE
B (i) If mR << r, then I = = m × current due to one cell.
r
Eeq,req So, Parallel combination is advantageous.
A B
Equivalent EMF E
(ii) If mR >> r, then I = = current due to one cell.
Eeq = E1 + E2 + ......... + En (write EMF’s with polarity) R
Equivalent internal resistance req = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 + ........ rn
So, parallel combination is not advantageous.
If n cells each of emf E, are arranged in series and if r is
If emf and internal resistances of each cell are different,
internal resistance of each cell, then total emf = nE
then,
PAGE # 228
E1 / r1  E2 / r2  .....En / rn
Eeq = BATTERY
1/ r1  1/ r2  .....1/ rn
E1r2  E2r1 Battery is an arrangement that creates a constant
for two cells E = (Use emf with polarity) potential difference between its terminals. It is a
r1  r2
combination of a number of cells in series.
E1 r1
The impact of battery :
E2 r2
r3 With the discovery of voltaic cell, it was soon realised
E3
that if one constructs a number of cells and joins the
rn negative terminal of one with the positive terminal of
En
the other and so on, then the emf (which is the potential
difference between the electrodes in an open circuit)
(c) Cells in Multiple Arc :
of the combination of cells will be the sum of the emf’s
n = number of rows of the individual cells. This observation led to a burst of
m = number of cells in each row. scientific activity in 1802. Humphrey Davy, an English
chemist, made a battery of 60 pairs of zinc and copper
plates. The large emf thus produced, was used to get
high current, which could melt iron and platinum wires.
By 1807, he had a battery of almost 300 plates with
which he was able to decompose chemical salts. This
led to the discovery of new elements.
By 1808, Davy had assembled 2,000 pairs of plates.
W ith this battery, he created electric arcs and
mn = N (total number of identical cells) :
succeeded in extracting the elements like barium,
The combination of cells is equivalent to single cell of
calcium and magnesium from their compounds. Thus,
mr electricity took a front seat in exploring the nature of
emf = mE and internal resistance =
n matter.
mE GALVANOMETER
Current I = mr
R
n Galvanometer is a simple device, used to detect the
For maximum current, nR = mr current, to find direction of current and also to compare
the currents.
mr With the help of galvanometer we make two
or R = = internal resistance of the equivalent
n important devices known as Ammeter and voltmeter
battery. as discussed below.
nE mE (a) Ammeter :
Imax =  .
2r 2R Ammeter is an electrical instrument which measures
using mn = N in above equation we get number of the strength of current in ‘ampere’ in a circuit. Ammeter
is a pivoted coil galvanometer which is always
Nr connected in series in circuit so that total current (to be
rows n = measured) may pass through it. For an ammeter of
R
good quality, the resistance of its coil should be very
33. 9 cells, each having the same emf and 3 ohm internal low so that it may measure the strength of current
resistance, are used to draw maximum current through accurately (without affecting the current passing
an external resistance of 3 ohm. find the combination through the circuit). The resistance of an ideal ammeter
of cells. is zero (practically it should be minimum). So, to
Sol. For the condition of maximum current number of rows minimize the effective resistance of an ammeter, a low
value resistance (shunt) as per requirement is
Nr connected in parallel to the galvanometer to convert it
n=
R to ammeter of desired range.
In electric circuit, the positive terminal of an ammeter
93 is connected to positive plate and negative terminal is
so n = =3 connected to negative plate of battery.
3
Desired value of shunt depends on the range
so combination will be like 3 rows and 3 cells in each
(measurable maximum current) of ammeter converted
row.
from galvanometer.
PAGE # 229
If pivoted galvanometer of resistance G is to measure Connecting this value of high resistance in the series
current i (as an ammeter) then from figure. of galvanometer, it will be converted to a voltmeter of
range V. After connecting high resistance RH in series
G of galvanometer of resistance G, the effective resistance
i ig ig i
of voltmeter becomes RV = (RH + G) very high (high in
comparison to G).
is S Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance of its own. When
ig G ideal voltmeter is connected parallel to a part of an
ig G = (i – ig) S or S= electric circuit, it passes zero amount of current through
(i  ig )
itself from the circuit so that measurement of potential
W here ig is an amount of current required for full difference across the points of connection may be
deflection in galvanometer. By using a low value of perfectly accurate.
resistance S (shunt) in parallel to the galvanometer
(resistance G), the effective resistance of
GS EXERCISE-1
converted ammeter RA = becomes very low..
(G  S)
 NOTE : CHARGE AND COULOMB’ S LAW :
Shunt : If anyhow, the flowing current through 1. Conductivity of superconductor is :

galvanometer becomes more than its capacity, the coil (A) infinite (B) very large
has possibility of burning due to heat produced by (C) very small (D) zero
flowing current. Secondly, its pointer may break up due
to impact with ‘stop pin’ as its proportional deflection 2. Two charges of +1 C & + 5 C are placed 4 cm apart,
as per amount of flowing current. the ratio of the force exerted by both charges on each
In order to minimize these possibilities a low resistance other will be -
wire (or strip) is connected in parallel with galvanometer, (A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 5
which is known as shunt. (C) 5 : 1 (D) 25 : 1
(b) Voltmeter :
3. A body has 80 microcoulomb of charge. Number of
It is an electrical instrument which measures the
additional electrons on it will be :
potential difference in ‘volt’ between two points of
electric circuit. It’s construction is similar as that of (A) 8 x 10–5 (B) 80 x 1015
ammeter. The only difference between ammeter and (C) 5 x 10 14
(D) 1.28 x 10 –17
voltmeter is that ammeter has its negligible
(approximately zero) resistance so that it may measure 4. Which of the following relation is wrong ?
current of circuit passing through it more accurately (A) Q = It
giving the deflection accordingly, while the voltmeter
1Coulomb
passes negligible current through itself so that potential (B) 1 ampere =
1Second
difference developed due to maximum current passing
through circuit may be measured. Therefore, an (C) V = Wq
appropriate value of high resistance is required to be
connected in series of galvanometer to convert it into a W
(D) V =
voltmeter of desired range. q
Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the electric circuit.
5. Two particles having charges q1 and q2 when kept at a
If a galvanometer of resistance G is to be converted
into a voltmeter of range V, then required value of high certain distance, exert force F on each other. If distance
resistance RH will be is reduced to half, force between them becomes :
V = ig (RH + G) F
V (A) (B) 2F
  2
or RH =   – G
 Ig  F
V (C) 4F (D)
4
i 4
6. Coulomb of charge contains.............................
ig 25
G electrons :
RH
(A) 1015 (B) 1018
PAGE # 230
ELE CTRIC FILED AND POTENTIA L : 13. In how many parts (equal) a wire of 100  be cut so
that a resistance of 1  is obtained by connecting
7. If Q = 2 coloumb and force on it is F = 100 newton, them in parallel ?
then the value of field intensity will be: (A) 10 (B) 5
(A) 100 N/C (B) 50 N/C (C) 100 (D) 50
(C) 200 N/C (D) 10 N/C
14. If a wire of resistance 1  is stretched to double its
8. In the electric field of charge Q, another charge is
length, then the resistance will become :
carried from A to B. A to C, A to D and A to E, then work
1
done will be - (A)  (B) 2 
2
1
A (C)  (D) 4 
4
B
Q
centre + 15. Two copper wires, one of length 1 m and the other of
length 9 m, are found to have the same resistance.
Their diameters are in the ratio :
C D E (A) 3 : 1 (B) 1 : 9
(C) 9 : 1 (D) 1 : 3
(A) minimum along path AB.
16. Reading of ammeter in ampere for the following circuit
(B) minimum along path AD.
is :
(C) minimum along path AE.
(D) zero along all the paths.
RE SIS TA NCE :
9. There are three resistance 5, 6 and 8 connected in

parallel to a battery of 15 V and of negligible resistance.
The potential drop across 6 resistance is :
(A) 10 V (B) 15 V
(C) 20 V (D) 8 V
(A) 0.8 (B) 1
10. In the given circuit, the equivalent resistance between
(C) 0.4 (D) 2
points A and B will be.
17. Two resistors are joined in series, then their equivalent

resistance is 90  . W hen the same resistors are
joined in parallel, the equivalent resistance is 20  .
The resistances of the two resistors will be :
(A) 70 , 20  (B) 80 , 10 
(C) 60 , 30  (D) 50 , 40 
18. In the ladder network shown, current through the

8
(A) R (B) 4R resistor 3  is 0.25 A. The input voltage ‘V’ is equal
3
to
(C) 6R (D) 10R
11. Resistance of a conductor of length 75 cm is 3.25 .

What will be the length of a similar conductor whose
resistance is 13.25  ?
(A) 305.76 cm (B) 503.76 cm
(C) 200 cm (D) 610 cm
(A) 10 V (B) 20 V
12. A piece of wire of resistance 4 is bent through 1800
at its mid point and the two halves are twisted together, 15
(C) 5 V (D) V
then resistance is : 2
(A) 1  (B) 2 
(C) 5  (D) 8 
PAGE # 231
19. The reading of voltmeter is 25. The net resistance between points P and Q in the
circuit shown in fig. is
(A) 50V (B) 60 V

(C) 40V (D) 80 V (A) R/2 (B) 2R/5
(C) 3R/5 (D) R/3

20. The reading of ammeter in amper is :
CELL :
2
10
26. A cell of emf E is connected across a resistance R.
A The potential difference between the terminals of the
1.4A 1.4A cell is found to be V. The internal resistance of the cell
is given as :
25 5
EV
(A) R(E – V) (B)
R
(A) 0.4 (B) 1 (E  V ) (E  V )
(C) E (D) R
(C) 0.6 (D) 1.2 R V
21. Three identical bulbs are connected in parallel with a 27. 24 cells, each having the same e.m.f. and 2 ohm
battery. The current drawn from the battery is 6 A. internal resistance, are used to draw maximum current
If one of the bulbs gets fused, what will be the total through an external resistance of 3 ohm. The cells
current drawn from the battery ? should be connected
(A) 6A (B) 2A (A) in series
(C) 4A (D) 8A (B) in parallel
(C) in 4 rows, each row having 6 cells
22. A uniform wire of resistance R is uniformly compressed (D) in 6 rows, each row having 4 cells
along its length, until its radius becomes n times the
28. The cells are joined in parallel to get the maximum
original radius. Now, the resistance of the wire
current when
becomes :
(A) external resistance is very large as compared to
(A) R/n (B) R/n4
the total internal resistance
(C) R/n2 (D) n R
(B) internal resistance is very large as compared to
the external resistance
23. The resistance of a wire of cross-section ‘a’ and length (C) internal resistance and external resistance are
‘  ’ is R ohm. The resistance of another wire of the equal
same material and of the same length but cross- (D) emf of each cell is very large
section ‘4a’ will be
R 29. In secondary cells :
(A) 4R (B) (A) Chemical changes can be reversed by heating
4
electrodes
R
(C) (D) 16 R (B) Chemical changes can be reversed by passing
16 electric current
24. In the following circuit the value of total resistance (C) Current is produced by photo chemical reactions
between X and Y in ohm is : (D) None of these
X r r r 30. Three types of electric cells which provide current are :

r r r to  (A) Button cell, solar cell & secondary cell
(B) Solar cell, electrolytic cell, electro chemical cell
Y r r r (C) (A) and (B) both are correct
(D) Neither (A) nor (B) is correct
(A) (1 + 3 )r (B) ( 3 – 1)r
(C)  (D) 50 r
PAGE # 232
31. In which of the following cells, the potential difference CI RCUI T AN D OTHER :
between the terminals of a cell exceeds its emf.
40. A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by
connecting
(A) A high resistance in series with the galvanometer
(B) A high resistance in parallel with the galvanometer
(C) a low resistance in series with the galvanometer
(D) a low resistance in parallel with the galvanometer
EXERCISE-2
(A) a (B) b
(C) c (D) d 1. A battery of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is
ELECTRIC E NERGY A ND POW ER : connected across the diagonally opposite corner of a
cubical network consisting of 12 resistors each of
32. An electric iron of heating element of resistance 88 
resistance 1 . The total current in the circuit external
is used at 220 volt for 2 hours. The electric energy
to the network is : (KVPY/2007)
spent, in unit, will be :
(A) 0.8 (B) 1.1
(C) 2.2 (D) 8.8
33. Two identical heater wires are first connected in series
and then in parallel with a source of electricity. The
ratio of heat produced in the two cases is :
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2
(C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
A
34. You are given three bulbs 25 W, 40 W and 60 W . Which
of them has the lowest resistance? 10V
(A) 25 watt bulb (B) 40 watt bulb
(A) 0.83 A (B) 12 A
(C) 60 watt bulb (D) insufficient data
(C) 1 A (D) 4 A
35. If R1 and R2 are the filament resistances of a 200 W
bulb and a 100 W bulb respectively designed to operate  2. A current i reaching at a point in a circuit gets branched
and flows through two resistors R1 and R2. Then, the
on the same voltage, then :
current through R1 varies as : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) R1 = 2 R2 (B) R2 = 2 R1
(C) R2 = 4 R1 (D) R1 = 4 R2 (A) R1 (B) R2
(C) (R1+ R2) (D) 1l (R1 + R2)
36. If two bulbs, whose resistance are in the ratio of 1 : 2,
are connected in series. The power dissipated in them  3. In the circuit shown below, (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2007)
has the ratio of :
(A) 1 : 1 (B) 1 : 2
(C) 2 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
37. When a voltage of 20 volt is applied between the two 10V
ends of a coil, 800 cal/s heat is produced. The value of
X
resistance of the coil is :(1 calorie = 4.2 joule) :
(A) 1.2  (B) 1.4 
(C) 0.12  (D) 0.14 
38. You are given two fuse wires A and B with current rating
2.5 A and 6 A respectively. Which of the two wires would
you select for use with a 1100 W, 220 V room heater ?
(A) A (B) B
(C) A and B (D) none of these
Y
39. An electric current of 2.0 A passes through a wire of
resistance 25  . How much heat (in joule) will be
developed in 1 minute ? (A) current flowing in the circuit is 200 mA
(A) 6 (B) 6000 (B) power supplied by the battery is 2 watt
(C) 50 (D) 10 (C) current from X to Y is zero
(D) potential difference across 10 is equal to zero
PAGE # 233
4. The circuit shown has 3 identical light bulbs A, B, C 11. 5 charges each of magnitude 10–5 C and mass 1 kg
and 2 identical batteries E1, E2 . W hen the switch is
are placed (fixed) symmetrically about a movable
open, A and B glow with equal brightness. W hen the
switch is closed: (KVPY/2007) central charges of magnitude 5 × 10–5C and mass 0.5
kg as shown. The charges at P 1 is removed. The
C acceleration of the central charge is : (KVPY/2009)
E1 A
S
P1
E2 B P2 P5
O
(A) A and B will maintain their brightness and C will be P3 P4

dimmer than A and B.
(B) A and B will become dimmer and C will be brighter
than A and B. 1
(C) A and B will maintain their brightness and C will not [Given OP1 = OP2 = OP3 = OP4 = OP5 1 m ;
40 = 9 ×
glow.
(D) A, B and C will be equally bright. 109 in SI units]
5. A negatively charged particle initially at rest is placed in (A) 9 m s–2 upwards (B) 9 m s–2 downwards
an electric field that varies from point to point. There (C) 4.5 m s–2 upwards (D) 4.5 m s–2 downwards
are no other fields. Then : (KVPY/2008)
12. Two charges +q and –q are placed at a distance b
(A) the particle moves along the electric line of force
passing through it. apart as shown in the figure below. (KVPY/2009)
(B) the particle moves opposite to the electric line of
force passing through it.
(C) the direction of acceleration of the particle is B
tangential to the electric line of force at every instant.
(D) the direction of acceleration of the particle is normal P A
to the electric line of force at every instant.
C
 6. There are four resistors of 12 ohm each. Which of the b/2
following values is/are possible by their combinations
(series and / or parallel) ? (IJSO/Stage-I/2008) +q –q
(A) 9 ohm (B) 16 ohm b
(C) 12 ohm (D) 30 ohm
7. We are given n resistors, each of resistance R. The
ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance that can
be obtained by combining them is : (KVPY/2008)
The electric field at a point P on the perpendicular
(A) nn (B) n
(C) n2 (D) logn bisector as shown as :
8. Wires A and B are made from the same material. Wire (A) along vector 
A
(B) along vector 
B
A has length 12m and weight 50 g, while wire B is 18 m
(C) along vector  (D) Zero
long and weighs 40 g. Then the ratio (RA / RB) of their C
resistances will be : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
13. In case of the circuit arrangement shown below, the
(A) 16 / 45 (B) 4 / 5
(C) 8 / 15 (D) 4 / 9 equivalent resistance between A and B is :
9. A wire of resistance 10.0 ohm is stretched so as to
increase its length by 20%. Its resistance then would
be : (IAO/Sr/Stage-I/2008)
(A) 10.0 ohm (B) 12.0 ohm
(C) 14.4 ohm (D) 10.2 ohm
10. A neon lamp is connected to a voltage a.c. source. The
voltage is gradually increased from zero volt. It is A B
observed that the neon flashes at 50 V. The a.c. source
is now replaced by a variable dc source and the
experiment is repeated. The neon bulb will flash at :
(A) 50V (B) 70V (A) 10 (B) 2.5 
(C) 100V (D) 35V
40
(C)  (D) None of the above
3
PAGE # 234
14. In the circuit shown below, all the resistances are equal, 18. A cell, an ammeter and a voltmeter are all connected in
each equal to R. The equivalent resistance between series. The ammeter reads a current I and the
points A and C is : (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2009) voltmeter a potential difference V. If a torch bulb is
B C connected across the voltmeter, then.
R R R
(IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
R R (A) both I and V will increase
(B) both I and V will decrease
R
R R
(C) I will increase but V will decrease
A D
(A) R (B) 4R (D) I will decrease but V will increase
(C) R /2 (D) none of the above 19. Consider the circuit below. The bulb will light up if :
 15. In case of the circuit shown below, which of the following S1 (KVPY/2009)
statements is/are true ? (IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
+ –
S2
1 B
A • • 4
R1 R2 R3
2
3
(A) R1, R2 and R3 are in series. S3
(B) R2 and R3 are in series. ~
(C) R2 and R3 are in parallel.
(D) The equivalent resistance of the circuit is
R 2R3
R1+
R 2  R3
16. Two bulbs, one of 200W and the other of 100W, are
connected in series with a 100 V battery which has no (A) S1 S2 and S3 are all closed.
internal resistance. Then, (KVPY/2009) (B) S1 is closed but S2 and S3 are open.
100V (C) S1 and S3 are closed but S2 is open.
(D) none of these
20. Figure (a) below shows a Wheatstone bridge in which

P, Q, R, S are fixed resistances, G is a galvanometer
and B is a battery. For this particular case the
200W 100W galvanometer shows zero deflection. Now, only the
positions of B and G are interchanged,. as shown in
(A) the current passing through the 200W bulb is more
than that through the 100W bulb. figure (b). The new deflection of the galvanometer.
(B) the power dissipation in the 200W bulb is more (KVPY/2010)
than that In the 100 W bulb.
(C) the voltage drop across the 200W bulb is more
than that across the 100W bulb.
(D) the power dissipation In the 100W bulb is more
than that in the 200W bulb.
17. 12 positive charges of magnitude q are placed on a

circle of radius R in a manner that they are equally
spaced. A charge +Q is placed at the centre. If one of
the charges q is removed, then the force on Q is : (A) is to the left.
(KVPY/2010) (B) is to the right.
(A) zero (C) is zero.
qQ (D) depends on the values of P, Q, R, S
(B) away from the position of the removed
40R2 21. An electric heater consists of a nichrome coil and runs
charge. under 220 V, consuming 1 kW power. Part of its coil
11qQ burned out and it was reconnected after cutting off the
(C) away from the position of the removed
40R2 burnt portion. The power it will consume now is :
charge. (KVPY/SA/2010)
qQ (A) more than 1 kW
(D) towards the position of the removed (B) less than 1 kW, but not zero
40R2
charge. (C) 1 kW
(D) 0 kW
PAGE # 235
22. In a neon discharge tube 2.8 × 1018 Ne+ ions move to 26. The circuit given below is for the operation of an
the right per second while 1.2 ×1018 electrons move to industrial fan. The resistance of the fan is 3 ohms. The
the left per second. Therefore , the current in the regulator provided with the fan is a fixed resistor and a
discharge tube is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2011) variable resistor in parallel. (IJSO/Stage-II/2011)
(A) 0.64 A towards right
(B) 0.256 A towards right
(C) 0.64 A towards left
(D) 0.256 A towards left
23. Two charges +Q and -2Q are located at points A and B
on a horizontal line as shown below :
The electric field is zero at a point which is located at a

finite distance : (KVPY/2011)
(A) On the perpendicular bisector of AB Under what value of the variable resistance given
(B) left of A on the line below, Power transferred to the fans will be maximum?
(C) between A and B on the line The power source of the fan is a dc source with internal
(D) right of B on the line resistnace of 6 ohm.
(A) 3  (B) 0
24. In the circuit arrangement shown, if the point A and B are
(C)  (D) 6 
joined by a wire the current in this wire will be :
27. W hen all the resistances in the circuit are 1 each,
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
then the equivalent resistance across points A & B will
be : (IJSO/Stage-II/2011)
A
24Volt
(A) 1A. (B) 2A.

(C) 4A. (D) zero.
25. In the following circuit, each resistor has a resistance

of 15  and the battery has an e.m.f. of 12 V with
negligible internal resistance. (IJSO/Stage-II/2011)
(A) 5/6  (B) 1/2 

(C) 2/3  (D) 1/3 
28. A cylindrical copper rod has length L and resistance R.

If it is melted and formed into another rod of length 2L.
When a resistor of resistance R is connected between the resistance will be : (KVPY/2011)
D & F, no current flows through the galvanometer (not (A) R (B) 2R
shown in the figure) connected between C & F. (C) 4R (D) 8R
Calculate the value of R.
(A) 10  (B) 15 
(C) 5  (D) 30 
PAGE # 236
29. In the following circuit, the 1 resistor dissipates 32. Figure below shows a portion of an electric circuit with
power P. If the resistor is replaced by 9. the power the currents in ampere and their directions. The
magnitude and direction of the current in the portion
dissipated in it is : (KVPY/2011)
PQ is : (KVPY/2011)
(A) P (B) 3P (A) 0A (B) 3A from P to Q

(C) 4A from Q to P (D) 6A from Q to P
(C) 9P (D) P/3
33. In the process of electrostatic induction.
30. A certain network consists of two ideal and indentical (IJSO/Stage-II/2011)
voltage sources in series and a large number of ideal (A) a conductor is rubbed with an insulator.
(B) a charge is produced by friction.
resistor. The power consumed in one of the resistor is
(C) negative and positive charges are separated.
4W when either of the two sources is active and other (D) electrons are ‘sprayed’ on the object.
is replaced by a short circuit. The power consumed by
same resistor when both sources are simultaneously 34. An ideal cell of emf 10V is connected across the
active would be : (IJSO/Stage-II/2011) network of resistors as shown in the figure. The
(A) 0 or 16W (B) 4W or 8W value of the resistance R for which the power
(C) 0 or 8W (D) 8W or 16W dissipated by the parallel combination is same as
that in 10 resistance is. (IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
100
31. A student connects two lamps in the circuit shown.
The emf of the two batteries is different. 10
(IJSO/Stage-II/2011) R
10V
(A) 20  (B) 30 
(C) 22.22  (D) 11.11 
35. W hich of the following statements is true about the

flow of electrons in an electric circuit ?(KVPY/SA/2012)
(A) Electrons always flow from lower to higher potential
(B) Electrons always flow from higher to lower potential
(C) Electrons flow from lower to higher potential except
through power sources
(D) Electrons flow from higher to lower potential, except
W hich of the following statements are correct? through power sources
36. A girl brings a positively charged rod near a thin neutral
i. When keys1, 2, 3 and 4 are closed, bulbs A and B will stream of water from a tap. She observes that the water
both glow stream bends towards her. Instead, if she were to bring
ii. W hen key 2 and 4 are closed bulb A will glow a negatively charged rod near to the stream, it will :
iii. W hen 1 and 4 are closed, bulb A will glow (KVPY/SA/2012)
iv. W hen 2, 3 and 4 are closed, both A and B will glow (A) bend in the same direction
(A) only ii (B) only iv (B) bend in the opposite direction
(C) i, ii and iv (D) ii and iii (C) not bend at all
(D) bend in the opposite direction above and below
the rod
PAGE # 237
41. Consider the circuit shown in the figure below :
37. In the circuit shown, n identical resistors R are
(KVPY/SA/2013)
connected in parallel (n > 1) and the combination in
series to another resistor R0. In the adjoining circuit n
resistors of resistance R are all connected in series
along with R0 . (KVPY/SA/2012)
R0 R R R
R0
R
R
E
E All the resistors are identical. The ratio I/I’ is
(A) 8 (B) 6 (C) 5 (D) 4
The batteries in both circuits are identical and net power

42. A current of 0.1 A flows through a 25  resistor
dissipated in the n resistors in both circuit is same. represented by the circuit diagram. The current in the
The ratio R0/R is : 80  resistor is : (KVPY/SA/2013)
(A) 1 (B) n
(C) n2 (D) 1/n
38. Two bulbs of specifications 50W, 220 V and a 100W,
200V are connected first (i)n in parallel and then (ii) In
series across 220 V power supply.Choose the correct
statement : (IJSO STAGE-I/2013)
(A) (i) 50 W will glow brighter and in (ii) 100 W will glow
brighter
(B) In (i) 50 W will glow brighter and (ii) both will glow
equally brighter.
(A) 0.1 A (B) 0.2 A
(C) In (i) 100 W will glow brighter and (ii) 50 W will glow
(C) 0.3 A (D) 0.4 A
brighter
(D) In both cases the 50 W bulb will glow brighter. 43. If the current through a resistor in a circuit increases by
3%, the power dissipated by the resistor :
39. There three bodies A, B and C. Body A when brought
(KVPY/SA/2013)
closer to B, attract.When body B is brought closer to C (A) increases approximately by 3%
they repel. We can then conclude: (IJSO Stage-I/2013) (B) increases approximately by 6%
(A) Body A and B should have opposite charges while (C) increases approximately by 9%
body C should have the same charge as B. (D) decreases approximately by 3%
(B) Body B and C should have same kind of charge
44. An electron with an initial speed of 4.0 × 106 ms–1 is
while body A may have opposite charge.
brought to rest by an electric field. The mass and charge
(C) Body A and B should have same charge while body of an electron are 9 × 10 –31 kg and 1.6 × 10 –19 C,
C may have opposite charge. respectively. Identify the correct statement
(D) Body C is neutral while Body A and B should have (KVPY/SA/2013)
(A) The electron moves from a region of lower potential
opposite charge.
to higher potential through a potential difference of 11.4
40. In nuclear reactor, the electrons and protons are moving V.
in opposite direction across a small hole in 2 second. (B) The electron moves from a region of higher
If number of electron and protons are 2×1016 each, the potential to lower potential through a potential
current through the hole is given by : difference of 11.4 V.
(IJSO Stage-I/2013) (C) The electron moves from a region of lower potential
to higher potential through a potential difference of 45
(A) 1.6 mA (B) 0 mA
V.
(C) 6.4 mA (D) 3.2 mA (D) The electron moves from a region of higher
potential to lower potential through a potential
difference of 45 V
PAGE # 238
comparison to B3 in (ii)
45. Three different circuits (I, II and III) are constructed using 49. Three identical resistors each of resistance R are
identical batteries and resistors of R and 2R ohm. What
connected in the following four configurations. Rank
can be said about current I in arm AB of each circuit ?
the arrangment in the order of their equivalent resistors
(IJSO Stage-II/2014)
from highest to lowest. (IJSO Stage-I/2014)
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
(A) i, ii, iii & iv (B) iv, iii, ii & i

(C) ii, iv, iii, & i (D) i, iiii, iv & ii
50. A positively charged lnsulator is brought in contact

with an uncharged conductor then :
(IJSO Stage-I/2014)
(A) conductor acquires positive charge due to
(A) II > III > IIII (B) II < III < IIII conduction
(C) III < II < IIII (D) II = III = IIII (B) conductor acquires positive charge due to induction
46. In the following circuit the ammeter is ideal and reads
(C) conductor acquires negative charge due to
zero. Value of resistance R is : (IJSO Stage-II/2014)
induction
VVV (D) conductor cannot acquire any charge
A
2V 51. Two possitively charged spheres of masses m 1, and
VVV
R m2, are suspended from a common point at the ceiling

0
12V E2 by identical insulating massless strings of length l.
E2
Charges on the two spheres are q1 and q2, respectively.
(A) 500  (B) 100  At equilibrium both strings make the same angle 
(C) 25000  (D) 0.5 
with the vertical. Then : (KVPY/SA/2014)
47. Bulbs of rating 60W, 220V and 250W, 220V are
connected in series and their combination is (A) q1m1 = q2m2 (B) m1 = m2
connected to 440 V supply. Which bulb will fuse ? (C) m1 = m2sin  (D) q2m1 = q1m2.
(A) 60W (B) 250 W 52. A charged particle, initially at rest at O, When released
(C) Both (D) Neither. follows a trajectory as shown. Such a trajectory is
possible in the presence of : (KVPY/SA/2014)
48. In the circuit B1, B 2 and B3 represent identical bulbs.
Consider the case :
(i) With resistance R4
(IJSO Stage-I/2014) o
(ii) without the resistance R4 (A) Electric field of constant magnitude and varying
(R4 comparable with resistance of bulb) direction
B1 (B) Magnetic field of constant magnitude and varying
direction
(C) Electric field of constant magnitude and constant
B3 direction
B2 R4 (D) Electric and magnetic fields of constant
magnitudes and constant directions which are parallel
to each other
53. Two equal charges of magnitude Q each are placed at

(A) B1, B2 and B3 glow with equal brightness in both
a distance d apart. Their electrostatic energy is E. A
cases third charge -Q/2 is brough midway betway these two
(B) B2B3 brightest in case (i) and B1 becomes brighter charges.The electrostatic energy of the system is now
in (ii) (KVPY/SA/2014)
(C) B1 brightest in (i) and in (ii) B2 and B3 become brighter (A) –2E (B) –E
and B2 dimmer compared to case (i) (C) 0 (D) E
(D) B 1 brighter in (i) and B 2 becomes brighter in
PAGE # 239
54. Consider the circuit shown below where all 58. The circuit shown in adjacent figure consists of an
resistors are of 1k  (KVPY/SA/2014) external resistance of 10.0 connected across two
batteries of emfs 6.0V and 9.0V with internal resistance
P of 1.0 each. Find the power dissipated by the 10.0
resistor. (IJSO Stage-I/2015)
X
If a current of magnitude 1 mA flows through the

resistor marked X, what is the potential difference
measured between point P and Q?
(A) 21V (B) 68V
(C) 55V (D) 34V
55. The current I in the branch shown in the adjacent
(A) 6.5W (B) 5.1W
figure is : (IJSO Stage-I/2015)
(C) 3.5W (D) 5.5W
59. Three filament bulbs made from a metal of low thermal
coefficient of resistivity are arranged as shown in the
figure. The wattage of each bulb is the power output if
it is connected independently across 240V. The bulb
that glows brightest and least bright are respectively :
(A) 3.0A (B) 2.5A

(C) 4.0A (D) 4.5A
56. A closed circuit shown in the adjacent figure includes

a resistor of resistance 20.0 and battery of emf 3.0V
and internal resistance of 1. The internal resistance
of the battery can be considered in series with it. The
voltage drop across the resistor of resistance 20 is :
(A) P,Q (B) Q,R
(IJSO Stage-I/2015)
(C) Q,P (D) R,P
60. A conductor of length L has a varying cross section

with area 2A at P and A at Q as shown in the adja-
cent figure. If it carries a steady current I, then
(A) 2.857 V (B) 3.000 V

(C) 2.500 V (D)1.567 V
57. A circuit which is used for charging a battery is shown

in the adjacent figure. The battery 'B' has emf 6V and
internal resistance of 2. The charging battery 'A' has
an emf of 9V and internal resistance of 1. The voltage
across the points Pand Q: (IJSO Stage-I/2015) (A) Net charge per unit volume near P is more than
net charge per unit volume near Q
(B) Net charge per unit volume near Q is less than
net charge per unit volume.
(C) Current per unit area near P is more than current
per unit area near Q.
(D) Current per unit ara near P is less than current
per unit area near Q.
(A) 8V (B) 7V
(C) 4V (D) 4.2V
PAGE # 240
61. The effective resistance between A and D in the 64. Seven 1 resistances are connected as shown
cirucit shown in the adjacent figure is in the figure. Resistance of the conducting wires
is negligible. Effective resistance between A and
B is : (IJSO Stage-II/2017)
(A) (3/5)  (B) (3/7) 

(C) (19/7)  (D) 2/5 
(A) 5  (B) 10 
(C) 15  (D) 20  65. Imagine a conductor in cylindrical shape of radius R.
Two thin circular discs of radius R made up of non
62. Three bulbs B1, B2 and B3 having rated power conducting material, carrying charge + Q and – Q
respectively, are attached to the two ends of this cylinder,
100 W, 60 W and 60 W at 250 V are connected
consider following statements.
in a circuit as shown in the adjacent figure. If I. Free or conduction electrons in the conducting
W 1, W 2 and W 3 are the output powers of the cylinder will drift towards + Q
II. A constant current will be set up through cylinder.
bulbs B1 , B2 and B3 respectively, then
III. Constant current will flow for very short duration of
time.
(A) Only I is true
(B) Only II is true
(C) Only III is true
(D) Only I and III are true.
66. (a) Twelve identical wires are connected in the plane

as shown in the figure. The six outer wires make a
regular hexagon and the remaining six join the vertices
of this hexagon with common centre at C. Each wire
(A) W 1 > W 2 = W 3 (B) W 1 > W 2 > W 3
has a resistance of 20. Calculate effective resistance
(C) W 1 < W 2 = W 3 (D) W 1 < W 2 < W 3 between A and B. (If you connect a battery across A and
B, the currents in AC and CB are the same and those
in DC and CE are the same).
63. Rod AB of radius 2r is joined with rod BC of
radius r. They are of same material and are of
20
same length. The combination carries a cur-
rent I. Choose the correct statement A D
C
B E
(b) W hen 5 V are applied across the terminals of a

(A) VAB = 4VBC galvanometer, 100 mA current passes through its coil
(B) Current per unit area in AB and BCare equal and the galvanometer shows full scale deflection. With
(C) Resistance of AB is greater than that of BC suitable modification. it can be used to measure p.d.
or currents with certain sensitivities.
(D) VBC = 4VAB
PAGE # 241
A shunt resistance is now connected parallel to the 68.A. In the circuit diagram given, on removing the
galvanometer so that 80 % of the current approaching resistor R, it is necessary to have an additional
the coil goes through the shunt. This ammeter is used 6 resistance in series with the 6 resistance,
to measure current supplied by an ideal cell of emf 6 V, so that the current through 8 resistor is
connected across a bulb of resistance 40 unchanged. Determine R.
Calculate the error (percentage) in the measurement (IJSO Stage-II/2017/Sub.)
of current passing through the bulb ?
(IJSO Stage-II/2015/Sub.)
67. Whenever we charge a conductor, its electrical potential
goes a increasing (as work is done). At any instant, the
charge to potential always bear a constant ratio (q/V =
constant). This constant is defined as the capacitance
C of the conductor. Capacitor is just a mechanical
arrangement to increase the capacity of an isolated
conductor that makes it possible to store more charge
at less potential. Electron volt (1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J) is a
much smaller unit of energy. popularly used for
energies of electrons.
In detection of nuclear radiation, scintillation detector
is a very useful device which converts high energy
radiation into a more readable quantity like voltage.
This detector consists of a scintillator which converts B. A battery of mobile phone of rating 3.6 V, 3600
mAh (practically) loses its complete charge in
high energy radiation into low energy photons. For a
24 hrs when
material called Anthracene 15 photons are generated
connected to a mesh on the largest diagonal
per 1000 eV radiation absorbed. These low energy points (between A & C or between D & B) shown
photon are then incident on a photomultiplier which below. What is the value of resistance R of
generates electrons with an efficiency of 10% in its individual arm? (All arms have same resistance).
initial section. The number of electrons generated is How long will the battery last if it is connected
too low to be read by any device. To convert the number across one of the outer arms, say DC (or CB or
of electrons to measurable signal, later section of photo AB or BC)?
multiplier multiplies this number of electrons by a Assume that the battery voltage remains
multiplication factor ‘f’. These electron (basically
constant throughout its discharge.
charges) are then collected in a capacitor to produce a
voltage across capacitor V.
Now let 10 keV -particles be incident on such a
detector. Assume that all photons produced by the
scintillator reach the photomultiplier. If the capacitance
of the capacitor is 120 pF, and it produces a voltage of
2 mV, then find out the multiplication factor of
photomultiplier. (IJSO Stage-II/2016/Sub.)
PAGE # 242
11. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT AND E.M.I.
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD Geographical North N

Magnetic South
The earth behaves as a huge bar magnet with its magnetic
field on its surface and upto a height of about 3 × 104 km.
The magnetic field of the earth is attributed to one or S
more of the following causes:- Geographical Equator

(i) Another point of view attributes the earth’s magnetism N
is the presence of iron and nickel in the core of the
earth. It is assumed that the rotation of the earth about
its own axis causes the magnetisation of the iron and Magnetic North
S Geographical South
nickel and the earth behaves as a bar magnet.
(ii) Prof. Blackett, studied that the rotation of the earth

about its own axis causes earth’s magnetism. For
example, the presence of ions in the upper atmosphere ELEMENTS OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
constitutes a current due to the rotation of the earth
about its own axis. The following three quantities are called elements of
earth’s magnetic field.
Long ago, it has been known that earth has a magnetic
(a) Angle of declination :
field, which is very similar to the field produced by a
huge magnet which is supposed to be at its centre. Its (b) Angle of dip (or Inclination)
north pole lies towards the geographic south and south
(c) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
pole towards the geographic north. The axis of the
earth’s magnetic field does not coincide with the (a) Angle of Declination :
geographic axis, the angle between them being about The vertical plane passing through the axis of a freely
150. The positions of the magnetic poles are not well suspended magnet is called magnetic
defined on the globe, they are spread over an area. meridian. The direction of earth’s magnetic field lies
The magnetic pole in the northern hemisphere is in the magnetic meridian and may not be
located on a peninsula in northern Canada. The horizontal. The vertical plane passing through the true
opposite magnetic pole in the southern hemisphere geographical north and south (or geographical axis of
lies on the Antarctic continent, south of Australia. The earth) is called geographical meridian. The angle
earth’s magnetic field is supposed to arise from electric between the magnetic meridian and the geographic
currents in the molten iron rich outer core surrounding meridian at a place is called angle of declination at
the solid inner core of the earth. that place. The knowledge of declination at a place
helps in finding the true geographical directions at
Figure shows some field lines in the earth’s magnetic that place. In our country, the angle of declination is
field. The field lines usually dip towards or come out of zero in Pondicherry.
the earth’s surface at some angle. This angle is called
the magnetic inclination or the magnetic dip at that
place. At the magnetic poles, the angle of dip is 90º. Geographic G
meridian Angle of
The line on the earth’s surface passing through the
declination
places having angle of dip 0 0 is called the magnetic O
equator, it passes through Thumba in south India,
where the space research centre is located.
Magnetic
meridian
PAGE # 243
(b) Angle of Dip (or Angle of Inclination) : (c ) H or izonta l Comp one nt of Ea rt h’ s
Magnetic Field :
The angle between the axis of a freely suspended
magnetic needle (which is free to rotate in the vertical Let I be the total intensity of earth’s magnetic field. At a
plane) and the horizontal plane at a place is called the place the total intensity I of earth’s magnetic field can be
angle of dip (or inclination) at that place. resolved into two components i.e. horizontal component
H and vertical component V.
H = I cos .......(i)
Magnetic needle
V = I sin .......(ii)
Where is the angle of dip at a place.
Horizontal plane H
on dividing equation (ii) by (i)
Angle of dip
M V
tan = .......(iii)
H
Magnetic axis
(i) Angle of dip at the poles : The magnetic lines of

force at the poles of earth are vertical due to which the
magnetic needle becomes vertical. Thus the angle of
dip at the magnetic poles of the earth is 900.
from equation (i) and (ii)
0 900 60 I= V 2  H2 .......(iv)
60
–
–
0
0
30
30
–
0
Dip EVIDENCES OF EXISTENCE OF EARTH’S

00 00
–
Circle – MAGNETIC FIELD
30
0
–
30
Our earth itself has a magnetic field and it behaves

0
60
–
0
60
–
900 0 like a magnet. The existence of earth’s magnetic field

is based on the following facts:
(i) A freely suspended magnetic needle always rest in

geographic north-south direction – When a magnetic
needle is suspended such that it is free to rotate in
Angle of dip at the equator : The lines of force around
horizontal plane, it always rests indicating the
the magnetic equator of the earth are perfectly
geographic north-south direction. It is clear that the
horizontal. So, the magnetic needle will become
north pole of a magnet will point towards the
horizontal there. Thus, the angle of dip at the
geographic north only when there is a magnetic south
magnetic equator of the earth will be 00 as shown in
pole attracting it. Thus, there must be the south pole of
figure. The line on the earth’s surface passing through
the earth’s magnet in the geographic north and the
the places where the angle of dip is 0 0 is called
pole of the earth’s magnet in the geographic south.
magnetic equator.
(ii) An iron rod buried inside earth along north -south
direction becomes a magnet - If an iron rod is buried
90º 6 keeping it inside the earth, along the north-south
60º 0º
–
–
direction, after some days, the rod becomes a magnet.

30º
30
– It is possible only when the earth itself behaves like a

º
Dip – magnet.
Circle 0º 0º
– 30–
º
30
º (iii) Neutral points are obtained on plotting the field

–
º 60
60 lines of a magnet – W hen a magnet is placed in a
–
º 90º
horizontal plane with its north pole facing towards the
geographic north and the magnetic field lines are
plotted, we obtain two neutral points , one on either
side of the magnet, on its broad side-on either side of
the magnet, is placed in a horizontal plane with its
north pole facing towards the geographic south and
PAGE # 244
the magnetic field lines are plotted, we obtain two
neutral points , one on either side of the magnet in its TYPES OF MAGNET
end-on position. A t each neutral point, the resultant
magnetic field is zero (i.e., if a compass needle is
placed at the neutral point, it rests in any direction).
Magnet
The reason for zero resultant magnetic field at the
neutral point is that the magnetic field produced by the
magnet becomes equal and opposite to some other
magnetic field . This other magnetic field is actually 1. Natural magnet 2. Artificial or man
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. made magnet
(iv) A magnetic needle rests making different angles eg. Fe3O4 /magnetite/ eg. Bar magnet, Horse shoe
with the horizontal when suspended at different places black iron oxide/ magnet, Ball ended magnet
lodestone
of earth–At other places, it rests making different angles
with the horizontal as shown in Figure. It implies that
the earth itself has a magnetic field.
MAGNETISM
The study of the properties of the magnet is called

Magnetism. It was studied by an English doctor
named william Gilbert. For a substance to be called a
magnet.
 It should attract small pieces of iron.
 It should always come to rest in a N-S direction when

suspended freely.
(a) Classification of materials :
All substances that we see and touch can be

categorised as,
(i) Magnetic materials : The substances which are

The places where the magnetic needle becomes attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials.
vertical are called the magnetic poles and the line Eg. : Iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys.
joining the places where the magnetic needle becomes
horizontal, is called the magnetic equator. (ii) Non Magnetic materials : The substances which
are not attracted by a magnet are non magnetic
materials.
MAGNET
(b) Properties of magnet :
The substance which attract Ni, Fe, Co, etc and align William Gilbert of England was the first person to study
in geographical north south direction when suspended and record the properties of a magnet in a book titled
freely. “The magnet”. Let us study some important properties
of magnets.
ORIGIN OF THE MAGNET
(i) Attractive property :
Around 120 A.D. near Magnesia in Asia Minor, an ore of It attracts small pieces of iron towards it i.e. it has
iron Fe3O4 was found in abundance. This ore of iron, attractive property.
which was found attracting samll pieces of iron, was (A) Activity :
called Magnetite, Hence, the name ‘magnet’ was given Spread out some iron filings over a sheet of paper.
to the pieces that exhibited this property. Now, move a bar magnet over the filings taking care
that all parts of the magnet move through iron filings
and observe how the iron filings are distributed all over
the magnet.
You will notice that most of the iron filings cling near
the ends of the magnet while there are a few iron filings
near the middle (see figure).
PAGE # 245
THREAD
North pole
Iron Filing
S
S
Bar magnet N E
South pole
N N S
Bar magnet
Iron filings
Wooden block W
Horse shoe N S
magnet
Water trough
The end of the magnet that points towards the North is

N
called the North Pole (N-Pole) and the other end of the
magnet pointing towards the South is called the South
Pole Pole (S-Pole). A magnet always points in the north-
S
south direction when suspended freely.
(iii) Like poles repel each other :
Iron filings
like poles of magnet repel each other and unlike poles
attract each other.
No iron
filings here Activity :
Take two bar magnets. Suspend one magnet with a

C piece of thread. It will come to rest in the north-south
P P
direction. Hold the other magnet in your hand and bring
C
its north pole near the north pole of the suspended
magnet, as shown in figure(a) . What do you see ? You
Max. iron No iron Max. at will find that the north pole of the suspended magnet
filings here filings here poles
is repelled, i.e., north pole moves away.
Now bring the south pole of the magnet in the hand
Repeat the experiment with a horse–shoe magnet.
near the north pole of the suspended magnet (figure-b).
You will find that all magnets have maximum attractive
You will find that the north pole of the suspended
power at its end.
magnet will be attracted towards the south pole of the
(B) Poles of manget : other magnet, i.e., north pole of the suspended magnet
The points on the magnet which have maximum will come close to the south pole of the magnet in
attraction property are called poles of the magnet. The hand.
pole of the magnet lie slightly inside from the end.
(ii) Directional property :
Repulsion
W hen magnet suspended freely, it always points in Attraction
north-south direction. Thus magnet possesses S
N
directional property. S
N N
Activity :
Take a bar magnet and suspend it freely as shown in S
figure or float it on a block of wood in water. The magnet

comes to rest after sometime. Disturb it a little from its
position of rest and see what happens. You will find
that the magnet always comes to rest in the north- (a) (b)
south direction.
PAGE # 246
We, therefore, conclude from this activity that like poles
repel and unlike poles attract each other.
(iv) Magnetic poles always exist in pairs :
If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces you will see

that each piece behaves as a whole magnet. This
shows that new poles are formed at the broken ends
as shown in the figure. If these pieces are broken again,
each smaller piece still remains a whole magnet with
two opposite poles. Even a very small piece of a magnet
is a whole magnet. Thus, we see that even the smallest
piece of a magnet has north and south poles and we
cannot separate the two poles.
W e can visualise the magnetic field around a bar

magnet by sprinkling some iron filings near a bar
magnet and tapping the sheet on which the magnet is
placed. The iron filings will orient themselves
according to figure.
PLOTTING OF NON UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD OF

A STRONG BAR MAGNET AND NEUTAL POINTS
The magnetic field of a bar magnet or horse shoe

magnet is non-uniform. The magnetic field lines of a
W e, therefore, conclude that the poles of a magnet non-uniform magnetic field are not equi –spaced and
cannot be separated. Magnetic poles always exist in parallel, but they are either converging or diverging or
pairs. curved. Figure shows the non-uniform magnetic field
lines due to (a) a bar magnet, (b) horse shoe magnet,
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES (c) two unlike poles facing each other and (d) two like
poles facing each other.
Magnetic field line is an imaginary line such that tangent
to it at any point gives the direction of magnetic field at
that point in space. Magnetic field lines are drawn to
represent magnetic field. Magnetic field lines can be
drawn with the help of magnetic compass. Magnetic
field lines are also called as magnetic lines of force.
Properties of Magnetic field lines :
(i) Magnetic field lines are close curves that start from
north pole and end on south pole outside magnet.
Inside magnet the field lines start from south pole and
end on north pole.
(ii) No two magnetic field lines ever intersect because
if it is so, there will be two directions of magnetic field
We shall now plot the lines of non-uniform magnetic
at that point which is not possible.
field of a bar magnet placed in magnetic meridian
(iii) Magnetic field lines come closer to one another (i.e., along the direction in which a freely suspended
near the pole of a magnet but they are widely separated magnet rests) in the following two positions.
at other places. (i) When the given magnet is placed with its north pole
Magnetic field lines plotted for a bar magnet are as pointing towards north.
shown in figure. (ii) W hen the given magnet is placed with its south
pole pointing towards north.
PAGE # 247
(a ) When t he g iv en m ag ne t is p la ce d wi th
its north pole pointing towards north :
(i) The magnetic field lines in the vicinity of the magnet
are curved. They are mainly due to the magnetic field
of the magnet which is stronger than the magnetic
field of the earth. As the distance from magnet
increases, the magnetic field strength due to magnet
decreases and at distant points, it becomes weaker
than the earth’s magnetic field. The magnetic field lines
at distant points are therefore parallel lines due to the
earth’s magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD
The region or space around a bar magnet where its
magnetic effect can be felt is called its magnetic field.
(ii) There are two points equidistant from the centre of
the magnet marked as × in figure in the east and west  S.I. unit of strength of magnetic field is Tesla (T).
directions where the magnetic field of the magnet and  Its C.G.S. unit is Gauss (G). 1G = 10–4 T
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field  The direction of magnetic field at any point on the lines
are equal in magnitude and they are in opposite of force is that of the tangent drawn at that point.
direction such that they are in opposite directions such
that they neutralise each other. These are the neutral INDUCED MAGNETISM (MAGNETISM INDUCED BY
points . BAR MAGNET ON MAGNETIC MATERIALS)
(b) When the given magnet is placed with its south The magnetism acquired by a magnetic material when
pole pointing towards north : it is kept near (or in contact with) a magnet, is called
induced magnetism.
(i) The magnetic field lines in the vicinity of the magnet The process in which a piece of magnetic material
are curved and they are mainly due to the magnetic acquires the magnetic properties temporarily due to
field of the magnet which is much stronger than the the presence of another magnet near it, is called the
magnetic induction.
earth’s magnetic field. As the distance from the magnet
increases, the magnetic field strength due to the A magnetic pole induces an opposite polarity on the
magnet decreases and at distant points, it becomes near end and a similar polarity on the farther end of the
iron bar.
weaker than the earth’s magnetic field. The magnetic
field lines at the distant points from the magnet are This explains why an ordinary piece of iron is attracted
therefore mainly due to the earth’s magnetic field, and towards a magnet. W hen a piece of iron is brought
so they are nearly parallel straight lines from south to near one end of a magnet (or one end of a magnet is
brought near the piece of iron), the nearer end of the
north.
piece acquires the opposite polarity. Since unlike poles
(ii) There are two points equidistant from the centre of attract each other, therefore the iron piece is attracted
towards the end of the magnet. Thus, the piece of iron
the magnet marked as × in Figure in the north and
first becomes a magnet and then it is attracted. In other
south directions where the magnetic field of the magnet
words , induction precedes attraction.
and the horizontal component of the magnet and the
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field are MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
equal in magnitude and they are in opposite directions
such that the two fields neutralise each other. At these Oersted’s Experiment :
points, the compass needle remains unaffected and
the needle comes to rest pointing in any direction. Arrangement :
These points are the neutral points.
It is shown in figure(a). A straight wire AB is connected
to a battery and key K. The wire is held horizontally in
north-south direction over a magnetic needle.
PAGE # 248
Working : (a) Magnetic Field due to a Straight Current
Carrying Wire :
When key K is closed, current flows in the wire from B
When a current is passed through a conducting wire,
to A as shown in figure (18.8 b) and it was observed
a magnetic field is produced around it. The direction of
that the north pole of the needle deflects towards west. magnetic field due to a straight current carrying wire
When key is taken out and current in wire becomes can be checked by means of a small compass needle
zero, needle returns back to its initial position (N–S). or by iron fillings.
This shows that a magnetic field is associated with an Take a sheet of smooth cardboard with a hole at the
electric current. centre. Place it horizontally and pass a wire vertically
through the hole. Sprinkle some iron filings on the
E K – + cardboard and pass an electric current through the
wire. Gently tap the cardboard. We find that the iron
filings arrange themselves in concentric circles around
N S
the wire as shown in figure.
N S If a small compass needle is kept anywhere on the
W A B
board near the wire, the direction in which the north
pole of the needle points gives the direction of the
K – + magnetic field (i.e., magnetic lines of force) at that point.
A Compass needle
S Rheostat ..... . ......
+ –
( .) ...
A
N
B B Key Iron
Fillings
...... ....
Card board
When the direction of the current in the wire is reversed,
the direction of deflection of needle is also reversed. If The magnetic lines of force form concentric circles near
direction of current be kept same and wire be put under the wire, with their plane perpendicular to the straight
the needle, direction of deflection of needle again conductor and with their centres lying on its axis. If the
becomes reversed.
direction of current in the wire is reversed, the direction
Rule : of lines of force is also reversed.
(i) Position of the wire (conductor) carrying the current, On increasing the strength of current in the wire, the
direction of current and direction of deflection of the lines of force becomes denser and iron fillings are
needle can be related by SNOW rule given below : arranged in circles upto a larger distance from the wire,
If current flows in the conductor from South to North, showing that the magnetic field strength has increased
with conductor kept Over the needle, the north pole of
the needle will deflect towards West.

(ii) Ampere’s swimming rule : BIOT-SAVART’S LAW ( B DUE TO WIRE)
Imagine a man swimming along the wire in the
direction of current (such that the current enters at his It is an experimental law. Let current i flows in a wire
feet and leaves him at his head) facing towards a (may be straight or curved). Due to d length of the
magnetic needle kept underneath the wire, then the wire the magnetic field at P is :
magnetic field produced is such that the north pole of
dB  id  ....(i)
the needle will be deflected towards his left hand.
1
dB  ....(ii)
r2
dB  sin ....(iii)
Combining these equations, we get
id  sin 
dB 
r2 i
P

d r
  0  id sin 
dB =   2
 4  r
PAGE # 249
Vector representation 
 the figure. The direction of B at various points is as
 0  id  r
dB =  4  r 3 shown in the figure and magnetic field atpoint P
 0 upto 
Here r = position vector of the test point with respect
B= ×
4r
to (w.r.t.) d × ×
 
= angle between d and r .
×
Using this fundamental formula we can derive the
 90º ×
expression of B due to a long wire. P
r
 ×
(a) B due to a straight wire :
 RULES FOR FINDING DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Due to a straight wire PQ carrying a current I, the B at
P (i) Maxwell’s cork screw rule :

I Imagine a right handed cork screw lying with its axis
coincides with the current carrying wire. It is now rotated
2 such that it advances in the direction of the current, the
A direction in which the screw rotates gives the direction
1
of the magnetic lines of force.
by the formula :
PointA is given
Q
r
 0I 
B= (sin1 + sin2)  (i.e., direction of B is inward
4r
perpendicular to the plane of page)
Special case :
(i) If the wire is infinitely long then the magnetic field at
‘P’ (as shown in the figure) is given by (using 1 = 2 = 90º
and the formula of ‘B’ due to straight wire) (ii) Right hand thumb rule :
If we hold the current carrying conductor in the right
hand such that the thumb points in the direction of
× current, the fingers encircle the wire in the direction of
magnetic lines of force.
r ×

P ×
×
×
 0 
B  B
2r r

The direction of B at various is as shown in the figure.
The magnetic lines of force will be concentric
circles around the wire (as shown earlier)
(ii) If the wire is infinitely long but ‘P’ is as shown in
PAGE # 250
Sol. The current will be equally divided at A. The fields at the
ILLUSTRATIONS
centre due to the currents in the wires AB and DC will
be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The
resultant of these two fields will be zero. Similarly, the
1. A horizontal overhead power line carries a current of resultant of the fields due to the wires AD and BC will
90 A in east to west direction. What is the magnitude be zero. Hence, the net field at the centre will be zero.
and direction of the magnetic field due to the current
4. In the figure shown there are two parallel long wires
1.5 m below the line ?
(placed in the plane of paper) are carrying currents 2
Sol. I = 90º A, r = 1.5 m and  consider points A, C, D on the line perpendicular
to both the wires and also in the plane of the paper.
20 I 4  10 7  90 
B= = T The distances are mentioned. Find (i) B at A, C, D
4r 2  1.5 
(ii) position of point on line A C D where B is O.
E W
S 1 2
N B

A 2 C D
180
B=  10 7 T = 1.2 × 10–5T
1.5 a a/2 a
Magnetic field is towards south. a
2. Find resultant magnetic field at ‘C’ in the figure shown.
R
  
S Sol. (i) Let us call B due to (1) and (2) as B1 and B 2
C a respectively. Then
 
P
at A : B1 is and B 2 is ×
i Q
3a  0 2 0
B1 = and B2 =
2a 22a
Sol: It is clear that ‘B’ at ‘C’ due all the wires is directed . 3 0
Also B at ‘C’ due PQ and SR is same.  Bres = B1– B2 =
4 a
Also due to QR and PS is same  
 Bres = 2(BPQ + BSP) at C : B1 is × and B 2 also ×
 0i  0 2  0  6 0  3 0 
BPQ =
a
(sin 60º + sin 60º),  Bres = B1 + B2 =
a

a
=
2a
=
a
×
4 2 2
2 2 2
 0i  
Bsp = (sin 30º + sin 30º)
4
3a at D : B1 is × and B 2 is and both are equal in
2 magnitude.
 Bres = 0
 3  0i  0i  4 0i
   (ii) It is clear from the above solution that B = 0 at
Bres = 2 
 2a 2a 3  3 a point ‘D’.
3. Figure shows a square loop made from a uniform wire.
Find the magnetic field at the centre of the square if a (b) Magnetic Field due to Current Carrying
battery is connected between the points A and C. Circular Coil :
D C A piece of wire bent in the form of a ring (or coil) is
passed through a horizontal cardboard C at two points
P and Q at the opposite ends of a diameter of the ring
and then some iron fillings are scattered on the
B cardboard. The ends of the coil are connected to a
A
battery through a rheostat and a key. When a strong
PAGE # 251
electric current is passed through the coil by closing
the key and the cardboard is gently tapped we find that
the iron fillings arrange themselves in a definite pattern
representing the magnetic lines of force due to the
current carrying coil.
Circular
Circular coil current
carrying Another way to find the direction is to look into the loop
C
current along its axis. If the current is in anticlockwise direction,
the magnetic field is towards the viewer. If the current
is in clockwise direction, the field is away from the
P Q
viewer.
M Semicircular and Quarter of a circle :
I
T
Magnetic
line of
force 1
+ – N=
Key Rh I 4
we find that the concentric lines of force pass through B=
8R
the coil in the same direction. Further note that :
0i 
(i) The magnetic lines of force are nearly circular near Note : Magnetic field due to an arc is B = 
the wire. 2R 2
(ii) Within the space enclosed by the wire, the lines of

5. A long wire having a semi-circular loop of radius r
force are in the same direction.
carries a current I, as shown in Fig. 4.28. Find the
(iii) Near the centre of the coil, the lines of force are magnetic field due to entire wire at the point O.
nearly parallel and the magnetic field may be
assumed to be practically uniform for a small space
around the centre.
(iv) At the centre, the lines of force are along its axis
and at right angle to the plane of the coil.
Sol. Magnetic field due to linear portion. Any element dl of
(v) The magnetic field strength is increased if the linear portions like PQ or ST will make angles 0 or 
number of turns in the coil is increased or the
strength of current in the coil is increased. with the position vector r . Therefore, field at O due to
 linear portion is
(c ) B due to circular loop :
   Idl sin 
(i) At centre : Due to each d element of the loop, B B= . =0
4 r2
at point c is inwards (in this case). Magnetic field due to semi-circular portion Any
 Bresultant at point c is  . (inwards) element dl on this portion will be perpendicular to the
I
position vector r , therefore, field due to one such
  0NI 
B=  , element at point will be
 2R  c R
 IN
B= , N=1/2
2r
N = No. of the turns in the loop.
I
 Total magnetic field at point O = .
= ,  = length of the wire 4r
2R
6. A straight wire carrying a current of 2 A is bent ito a
 1 1 11  semicircular arc of radius 2.0 cm as shown in Figure
N can be fraction  , , etc.  or integer..
4 3 3  (a). What is the direction and magnitude of B at the
 centre of the arc? Would your answer change if the
Direction of B : The direction of the magnetic field at wire were bent into a semicircular arc of the same
the centre of a circular wire can be obtained using the radius but in the opposite way as shown in figure?
right-hand thumb rule. If the fingers are curled along
the current, the stretched thumb will point towards the
magnetic field (see figure ).
PAGE # 252
The magnetic field at O due to the circular segment PQ
is
 I
B1 = 
4 a 2
Sol. (i) Magnetic field at he centre of the arc is Here, l = length of arc PQ =  a
I   I
B= B1 = directed normally upward
4r 4 a
Here I= 12 A, r = 2.0cm = 0.02 m,
Similarly, the magnetic field at O due to the circular
  4  × 10–7 TmA–1
segment SR is
4  10 7  12   I
B= = 1.9 × 10–4 T..
4  0.02 B2 =
4 b
, directed normally downward.
According to right hand rule the direction of the field is
normally into the plane of paper. The resultant field at O is
(ii) The magnetic field will be of same magnitude,
B = 1.9 × 10–4 T. I  1 1
The direction of the field is normally out of the plane of B = B1–B2 =
4 a  b
 
paper.
7. A long wire is bent as shown in figure. What will be the I(b  a )

magnitude and direction of the field at the centre O of or B= directed normally upward
the circular portion , if a current I is passed through the
4ab
wire ? Assume that the various portions of the wire do
not touch at point P. ( d) M ag ne ti c Fi el d due to a Cur re nt Car ry ing
Solenoid :
If a conducting wire is wounded in the form of a

cylindrical coil whose diameter is less in comparison
to the length, then this coil is called a solenoid (it looks
like a helical spring).
The magnetic field lines in a solenoid, through which

Sol. The system consists of a straight conductor and a cir- current is passed, are as shown in figure.
cular loop Field due to straight conductor at point O is
B1 =  I , directed normally upward

2r
Field due to circular loop at point O is
I
B2 = , directed normally upward
2r
Total field at O is
I 1  1 
B = B1 +B2 =   , directed normally upward.
2r  
8. Figure shows a current loop having two circular seg-
ments and joined by two radial lines Find the mag-
The magnetic field, thus produced, is very much similar
netic field at the centre O.
to that of a bar magnet and one end of the coil acts like
I a magnetic north pole, while the other acts like a south
S R pole.
I
The lines of force inside the solenoid are nearly
P Q
b straight and parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
a
Sol. Since the point O lines SP and QR so the magnetic

field at O due to these straight portions is zero.
PAGE # 253
(i) Rule for determining polarity at the ends : Sol. Magnetic field at the centre due to AC and BC is zero.
If at any end, the current in the coil (or loop) is clockwise,

the magnetic field at the centre will only due to the
the face of the coil towards the observer behaves as a
3 I
south pole . th part of the circular loop.
4 I
If at any end the current in the coil is anticlockwise, the A r C
r
face of the coil towards the observer behaves as a
3 0 I 30 I
north pole . Magnetic field at C =  =
4 2r 8r
B
(i) Definition :
A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid
can be used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material
like soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid. The
(ii) Magnetic field inside the solenoid : magnet so formed is called an electromagnet.
(ii) Principle :
B = o n I [Here n is number of turns per unit length]
At the ends of the solenoid the magnetic field : It works on the phenomenon of magnetic effect of
current .
1 (iii) Construction :
Bend = onI
2 It consists of a large number of turns of an enamelled
 Magnetic field intensity depends on the nature of thick copper wire wrapped very closely on a soft iron
“core material” used in making solenoid : core.
Soft iron is chosen because it loses all its magnetism

The use of soft iron rod as core in a solenoid produces
when the current is switched off and some other factors
the strongest magnet.
which you will study in higher classes.
Their shapes and sizes depend upon the purpose for
9. If in a circular coil A of radius R, current i is flowing and
which they are to be used.
in another coil B of radius 2R a current 2i is flowing,
then, find the ratio of the magnetic fields, BA and B B
produced by them.
Enamelled Soft iron
Sol. copper wire core
Magnetic field in circular coil A is
u0Ni
Similarly BA =
2R
R is radius and i is current flowing in coil. S N
 0N 2i
Similarly, BB =
2. 2R
 0Ni
= + –
2R Key
BA 1 Electromagnet
= = =1 (iv) Working :
BB 2
When the switch is closed to make the strong current
10. A wire as shown in figure carries a current I ampere. pass through the wrapped copper coil, it becomes
The circular part has a radius r. Find the magnetic field strongly magnetised. W hen it is suspended vertically
at the centre C. by a strong crane and its lower end is touched with a
heavy iron sheet lying on the ground, it will stick to the
I
sheet. The crane can easily lift the iron sheet. To make
I the sheet free, the current is switched off.
r C
(v) Applications :
(A) In factories very strong electromagnets are used
with cranes for lifting very heavy iron ingots and steel
scraps, from one place to other.
PAGE # 254
(B) In hospitals they are used for removing small steel (iii) The length of air between its poles :
splinters from the eyes of a patient.
If we reduce the length of air gap between the poles of
(C) In office and houses they are used in electric bells. an electromagnet, then its strength increases.
(D) To separate iron ore from muddy impurities in For example, the air gap between the poles of a straight
metallurgical industries. bar type electromagnet is quite large, so a bar type
electromagnet is not very strong . On the other hand the
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet : air gap between the poles of a U-shaped electromagnet
is small, so it is a very strong electromagnet.
(i) The number of turns in the coil :
 Electromagnets are used in electric bells, telegraphs,
If we increase the number of turns in the coil, the
telephones and several other instruments. Since the
strength of electromagnet increases.
magnetisation depends on the current flowing through
the coil, it is possible to obtain very powerful electromagnets
(ii) The current flowing in the coil :
by increasing the current.
If the current in the coil is increased, the strength of  Soft iron can be easily magnetised even by a weak
electromagnet increases.
magnetic field, whereas steel can be magnetised only
by a strong magnetic field.
Difference between a Bar Magnet (or Permanent Magnet) and an Electromagnet :
S. No. Bar magnet (or permanent magnet) Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet. Its

magnetism is only for the duration for which current
(1) The bar magnet is a permanent magnet. passes through it, so the magnetism of an
electromagnet can be switched on or switched
off as desired.
An electromagnet can produce very strong

A permanent magnet produces a comparatively weak
(2) magnetic force.
force of attraction.
The strength of an electromagnet can be changed

The strength of a permanent magnet cannot be
(3) by changing the number of turns in its coil or by
changed.
changing the current passing through it.
The (north-south) polarity of permanent magnet is fixed The polarity of an electromagnet can be changed
(4)
and cannot be changed. by changing the direction of current in its coil.
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR (a) Magnitude of Force :

IN A MAGNETIC FIELD In a above figure AB is a conductor of length  . It carries
Immediately after Oersted’s discovery of electric I current. it is kept in uniform magnetic field at angle .
currents producing magnetic fields and exerting forces then the force acting on the conductor by magnetic
field.
on magnets, Ampere suggested that magnet must also
exert equal and opposite force on a current-carrying F = IB sin 
conductor. When a current carrying conductor is kept
 Direction of force is perpendicular to both the conductor
in a magnetic field (not parallel to it), a force acts on it.
(wires) and magnetic field B. Direction of F can be find
This force is created due to the interaction of magnetic out by Fleming’s left hand rule.
field of the current in the conductor and the external Case-I : If  = 0 or 180, sin0º = 0, sin180º = 0
magnetic field on the conductor. As a result of this So, F = 0
superposition, the resultant magnetic field on one side Case-II :  = 90º
of conductor is weaker than on the other side. Hence F = IB sin 90 º
the conductor experiences a resultant force in one F = IB  (Maximum)
direction.
PAGE # 255
(b) Dir ection of Forc e on Current Carrying
Conduc tor :
v
The direction of force is obtained by the Fleming’s left
hand rule. B
q
(i) Fleming’s left hand rule :
If we stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb F = qvBsin
of our left hand in such a way that mutually perpendicular
 
 = Angle between
to each other as shown in figure the forefinger indicates v and B
the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger This force is called Lorentz force
indicates the direction of current, then the thumb will Case-I : If  = 0 or 180, sin0º = 0, sin180º = 0
indicate the direction of motion (i.e., force) on the So, F = 0
conductor. Then also particle will move in same direction in
straight line with same speed.
Case-II : If  = 90 B
F = qvB sin90º = qvB (maximum)
In this case the charged particle will move in circular

path and the plane of the circle is perpendicular to B.
Case-III : If  lies between 0º and 90º.
Then the path of the particle is helical or helix (like a
spring.
v
(ii) Right hand palm rule : B B
q
If we stretch our right hand such that thumb is at right
angles to the fingers, then if fingers represent the
direction of external magnetic field (B) and the thumb, (a) Direction of Lorentz Force :
the direction of current, then the force acting on the The direction of force is obtained by the Fleming’s left
conductor is represented by the force acting outside hand rule.
and normal to the palm.
Fleming’s left hand rule :
If we stretch the forefinger, middle finger and the thumb
of our left hand in such a way that mutually perpendicular
to each other as shown in figure the forefinger indicates
the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger
is in the direction of velocity of the charge, then lorentz
force will act in the direction of thumb.
 NOTE :
(i) Force on a current - carrying conductor placed
parallel or antiparallel to magnetic field is zero.
(ii) Force experienced by the conductor is maximum
when placed perpendicular to magnetic field.
(iii) If B = 0, F = 0 i.e. the coil placed in field free area
doesn’t experience any force.
MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN A

MAGNETIC FILED(LORENTZ FORCE) 11. When charge q enter into transverse mag. field B then,
find the frequency.
W hen a charged particle of chare q is moving with
velocity v in a magnetic field B at an angle ,then force mv 2 R M
Sol. qVB =  =
acting on the particle. R V qB
2R 2M
T = =
V qB
1 qB
Frequency n = =
T 2m
PAGE # 256
12. An infinitely long straight conductor ‘XY’ is carrying a
current of 5 A. An electron is moving with a speed of 105 MAGNETIC FLUX
m/s parallel to the conductor in air from point A to B, as
shown in figure. The perpendicular distance between If we consider a plane perpendicular to a uniform
the electron and the conductor ‘XY’ is 20 cm. Calculate magnetic field, then the product of the magnitude of
the magnitude of the force experienced by the electron. the field and the area of the plane is called the magnetic
Write the direction of the force. flux () linked with that plane. The magnetic flux linked
electron B with this plane is given by
A
 = BA
20cm 
If the magnetic field B , instead of being perpendicular
to the plane, makes an angle  with the perpendicular
x 5A Y to the plane as shown in figure, then the magnetic flux
linked with the plane will be equal to the product of the
Sol. Magnetic field at a distance of 20 cm from current
carrying conductor XY is component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the
plane and the area of the plane.
20 I
B= Thus,  = (B cos) A = BA cos .......(i)
4r
2  10 7  5
B= T
20  10 2
electron B
A
20cm Case I : If  = 0º, then from equation (i)

 = BA cos0= BA (outgoing flux)
x 5A Y
B = 5 × 10–6 T
Force experienced by the electron is
F = evB (  = 90º)
= 1.6 ×10–19 × 105 × 5 × 10–6 N
= 8 × 10–20 N Case II : If  = 90º, then from equation (i)
According to Fleming’s left hand rule direction of force  = BA cos90= 0
will be upwards. A
13. A charged particle of mass 5 mg and charge q = +2C B

has velocity v  2 î  3 ĵ  4k̂ . Find out the magnetic
force on the charged particle and its acceleration at
 
this instant due to magnetic field B  3 ĵ  2k̂ . v and

B are in m/s and Wb/m2 respectively.. , Case III : If  = 180º, then from equation (i)
    = BA cos180= – BA (incoming flux)
Sol. F  qv  B = 2 × 10–6 ( 2 î  3 ĵ  4k̂ ) × (3 ĵ  2k̂ )
= 2 × 10–6 [–6 î + 4 ĵ + 6 k̂ ] N A

 F 2  10 6
By Newton’s Law a  = (6 î  4 ĵ  6k̂ )
m 5  10 6

= 0.8 (  3 î  2 ĵ  3k̂ ) m/s2

B
PAGE # 257
Direction of Induced e.m.f. :
 is positive if the outward normal to the plane is in the
 The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence the direction
same direction as B . It is negative if the outward normal of induced current) can be obtained by any of the
 following rules :
is opposite to B .
(i) Fleming’s right hand rule (ii) Lenz’s law
S.I. unit of B and : (i) Fleming’s right hand rule :
The S.I. unit of magnetic flux  is weber (Wb). Since Stretch the thumb, middle finger and the forefinger of
your right hand in such a way that mutually
B = /A, the magnetic field is also expressed in
perpendicular to each other as shown in figure. If the
weber/metre2, (Wb-m–2). That is why the magnetic field
forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field
induction B is also called the magnetic flux density. and the thumb indicates the direction of motion of the
Definition of magnetic flux density (B) : conductor, then the middle finger will indicate the
direction of induced current.

B = , if A = 1 metre2, then B = 
A
In a magnetic field the number of lines of force (flux)

passing through per metre2 perpendicular to the field
is equal to the magnetic flux density.
14. The plane of a coil of area 1m2 and having 50 turns is

perpendicular to a magnetic field of 3 × 10 –5 weber/
m2. Find the magnetic flux linked with it.
Sol. = NBA cos
but N = 50, B = 3 × 10–5 wb/m2, LENZ’S LAW
A = 1m2, = 0 or = NBA According to this law, e.m.f. will be induced in such a
–5 way that it will oppose the cause which has produced
= 50 × 3 ×10 × 1
it. Figure shows a magnet approaching a ring with its
= 150 × 10–5 weber north pole towards the ring.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

INDUCTION
(i) When magnetic flux passing through a loop changes

with time or magnetic lines of force are cut by a
conducting wire then an e.m.f. is produced in the loop
or in that wire. This e.m.f. is called induced e.m.f.
If the circuit is closed then the current will be called We know that magnetic field lines come out of the north
induced current. pole and magnetic field intensity increases as we move
towards the magnet.
(ii) In case of loop, the magnitude of induced e.m.f. is
equal to the rate of change of flux w.r.t. time . In case of If we consider the approach of North pole to be the
a wire it is equal to the rate at which magnetic lines of cause of flux change, the lenz’s law suggests that the
side of the coil towards the magnet will behave as
force are cut by a wire.
North pole and will repel the magnet. We know that a
current carrying coil will behave like North pole if current
d
E= – in it flows anticlockwise, as seen in figure.
dt If we consider the approach of magnet as the cause of
(–) sign indicates that the e.m.f. will be induced in such the flux change, Lenz’s law suggest that a force
a way that it will oppose the change of flux. S.I. unit of opposite to the motion of magnet will act on the magnet,
whatever be the mechanism. Lenz’s law tells that if the
magnetic flux is weber, so S.I. unit of induced e.m.f. is
coil is set free, it will move away from magnet, because
Wb in doing so it will oppose the ‘approach’ of magnet
= Volt
Second If the magnet is given some initial velocity towards the
coil and is released, it will slow down. It can be
explained as the following.
PAGE # 258
The current induced in the coil will produce heat. From
the energy conservation, if heat is produced, there must
be an equal decrease of energy in some other form,
here it is the kinetic energy of the moving magnet. Thus
the magnet must slow down. So we can justify that the
lenz’s law is conservation of energy principle.
15. A coil is placed in a constant magnetic field .The mag-
netic field is parallel to the plane of the coil as shown
in figure. Find the emf induced in the coil .
B In this way the phenomenon, in which, on changing

the current in a coil or circuit an induced e.m.f. is set up
in that coil or circuit, is called self induction. This induced
Sol.  = 0 (always) since area is perpendicular to magnetic
e.m.f. is called back e.m.f.
field.
 emf = 0 ( a) Coe ffic ie nt of Se lf Induct ion or S el f
Induct ance :
16. Find the emf induced in the coil shown in figure. The When current I flows in a circuit, associated magnetic
magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil flux  is proportional to the current flowing i.e.,
and is constant.
 or = L .....(i)
Area=A Here, L is a constant of proportionality, called the
Coefficient of self-induction or self-inductance.
B
Self-inductance of a coil depends on its area, number
of turns and the medium inside it (material of core).
Sol.
= BA (always) If  = 1A, then L =  . Hence, self-inductance of a coil is
= const. equal to the magnetic flux associated with the coil when
 emf = 0 unit current flows through it.
17. Find the direction of induced current in the coil shown In equation (i), on changing the current ,  will also
in figure. Magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of change and an induced e.m.f. E is produced in the
coil and it is increasing with time. circuit i.e.,
d() d(L ) d
E=   L
dt dt dt
d
or L = |E| if = 1 A/s
Sol. Inward flux is increasing with time. To opposite it out- dt
ward magnetic field should be induced. Hence cur- Hence, the coefficient of self induction in a circuit is
rent will flow anticlockwise. numerically equal to the induced e.m.f. produced in
the circuit when the rate of change of current is 1 A/s.
SELF INDUCTANCE When flow of current in the circuit starts, induced e.m.f.
opposes this change.
When current flows through a coil or circuit, magnetic
field is produced and hence a magnetic flux gets
18. An average induced e.m.f. of 0.20 V appears in a coil
associated with this coil or circuit. This magnetic flux
when the current in it is changed from 5.0 A in one
is directly proportional to the current flowing in the circuit
(If other factors remain constant). If current through direction to 5.0 A in the opposite direction in 0.20s.
the coil is changed, the magnetic field is produced Find the self-inductance of the coil.
and hence the magnetic flux associated with it
changes and as a result of which, an e.m.f. is induced dI ( 5.0 A )  (5.0 A )
Sol. Average = = – 50 A/s
in the coil or circuit, According to Lenz’s law the direction dt 0.20 s
of induced e.m.f. is such as that it always opposes
change due to which it is produced. As shown in figure, dI
Using E = – L ,
if current increases in circuit, induced e.m.f. is set up dt
in such a way that it will decrease the current i.e., 0.2 V = L (50 A/s)
induced current produced due to induced e.m.f. flows
0.2V
opposite to the main current. Similarly, if main current or, L =  4.0mH
decreases in the circuit, induced e.m.f. will increase it. 50 A / s
Now, the induced current due to induced e.m.f. will
flow in the direction of main current.
PAGE # 259
19. Two conducting circular loops of radii R 1 and R 2 are
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE placed in the same plane with their centres coinciding.
Find the mutual inductance between them assuming
Consider two arbitrary conducting loops 1 and 2. R2 << R1.
Suppose that I1 is the instantaneous current flowing in Sol. Suppose a current i is established in the outer loop.
loop 1. This current generates a magnetic field B1 which The magnetic field at the centre will be :
links the second circuit, giving rise to a magnetic flux 2 0I
through the second circuit. B=
2R1
As the radius R2 of the inner coil is small compared to R1,
the flux of magnetic field through it will be approximately
 0I
= R 22
2R1
So that the mutual inductance is
  o R22
Furthermore, it is obvious that the flux through the M= 
I 2R1
second circuit is zero whenever the current flowing
around the first circuit is zero. It follows that the flux 2
TRANSFORMER
through the second circuit is directly proportional to
the current I1 flowing around the first circuit. Hence ,we It is a device which raises or lowers the voltage in AC
can write 2 = M21I1 where the constant of proportionality circuits through mutual induction. It consists of two
M21 is called the mutual inductance of circuit 2 with coils wound on the same core. The coil which is
respect to circuit 1. Similarly, the flux 1 through the first connected to the source (i.e. to which input is applied)
circuit due to the instantaneous current I2 flowing is called primary coil while the other which is connected
around the second circuit is directly proportional to that to the load (i.e. from which output is taken) is called
current, so we can write 1 =M 12I2 where M 12 is the secondary coil. The alternating current passing through
the primary coil creates a continuously changing flux
mutual inductance of circuit 1 with respect to circuit 2.
through the core. This changing flux induces an
It can be shown that M21 = M12.
alternating e.m.f. in the secondary coil. As magnetic
Note: M is a purely geometric quantity, depending only lines of force are closed curves, the flux per turn of the
on the size, number of turns, relative position and primary must be equal to the flux per turn of the
relative orientation of the two circuits. The S.I. unit of secondary coil.
mutual inductance is called Henry (H). One henry is
equal to a volt-second per ampere.
Suppose that the current flowing around circuit 1
changes by an amount I1 in a small time interval t.
The flux linking circuit 2 changes by an amount 2 =
MI1 in the same time interval. According to Faraday’s
2
law, an e.m.f. E 2 = – is generated around the
t
second circuit due to the changing magnetic flux linking
that circuit, Since, 2 = MI1, this e.m.f. can also be
I1
written E2 = – M
t
Thus, the emf generated around the second circuit P and S are the flux passing through the primary and
due to the current flowing around the first circuit is secondary coils, NP and NS are the number of the turns
directly proportional to the rate at which that current
in primary and secondary coils respectively,
changes. Likewise, if the current I2 flowing around the
then,
second circuit changes by an amount I1 in a time
interval t then the e.m.f. generated around the first S 
 P
NS NP
circuit is E1 = –M I2 .
t The number of turns in each coil is constant, if dP and
Note that there is no direct physical connection dS are the changes in flux in time dt in primary and
(coupling) between the two circuits the coupling is due secondary coils respectively,
entirely due to the magnetic field generated by the then,
currents flowing around the circuits.
1 d S 1 d P

NS dt NP dt
PAGE # 260
ES NS e N
or  s s
EP NP Sol. e  N
p p
 d 
as E  dt  220 N
   s
And as in an ideal transformer there is no loss of 2200 Np
power, so P = EI = constant, therefore
Ns = 500
ES IP NS
 
EP IS NP 21. The primary winding of a transformer has 500 turns
whereas its secondary has 5000 turns. The primary is
connected to an AC supply of 20 V, 50 Hz. What will be
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER output of secondary coil ?
Transformer can be divided mainly into two types: Sol. We know that
(a) Step up transformer (b) Step down transformer
NS ES 5000 E S
(a) Step up transformer :  or =
NP EP 500 20
If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns
than the primary (Ns > Np), the voltage is stepped up
(Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-up 5000  20
or Es = = 200 V
transformer. In this arrangement, there is less current 500
in the secondary than in the primary (N p/N s < 1 and
Is< Ip ). Frequency remains same.
Eg.: If the primary coil of a transformer has 100 turns

an the secondary has 200 turns, then
GENERATOR
Ns Np 1
Np = 2 and = . Thus, a 220 V input at 10 A will
Ns 2 This is a device which convert mechanical energy into
step-up to 440 V output at 5.0 A. electrical energy using the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It is of two types :
(b) Step down Transformer :
If the secondary coil has less number of turns than the (a) AC Generator or Dynamo :
primary (N s < N p ), the voltage is stepped down
(Vs < V p). This type of arrangement is called a step- When a coil (conductor) is rotated in a magnetic field,
down transformer. In this arrangement, current in the the magnetic flux linked with it changes and
secondary coil is more increased than in the primary therefore an alternating e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
(Np/Ns < 1 and Is> Ip ).
Construction : The main parts of a dynamo are:-
Efficiency of Transformer :
Efficiency of transformer, (i) Field magnets :
It is a strong horse shoe permanent magnet. An
Power output Po
% = electromagnet run by a DC source can also be used
=
Power input Pi ×100
for high power generators.
 NOTE : (ii) Armature :
Regarding a transformer it is worth noting that : It is a soft iron core on which a coil ABCD having a large
(i) It works on AC only and never on DC number of turns of insulated copper wire is wound. This
(ii) It can increase or decrease either voltage or current armature (or coil) is rotated rapidly in the magnetic field
but not both simultaneously (as power = constant). between the poles of the magnet.
(iii) Slip rings :
(iii) Some power is always lost due to flux leakage,
hysteresis, eddy currents, humming and heating of coils. The ends of the armature (or the coil) are connected to
20. A step-down transformer converts a supply line voltage two coaxial metallic slip rings S1 and S2 which rotate
of 2200 volt into 220 volt. The primary coil has 5000 along with the coil.
turns. The efficiency and power transmitted by the
(iv) Brushes :
transformer are 90% and 8 kilowatt respectively.
Calculate the number of turns in the secondary coil. Two brushes B1 and B2 made of carbon, press against
the slip rings S1 and S2 respectively. The external circuit
(i.e. load) is connected between the other ends of
brushes. The brushes B1 and B2 do not rotate along
with the coil.
PAGE # 261
Working of an AC generator :
Suppose that the generator coil ABCD is initially in the

horizontal position. Again suppose that the coil
ABCD is being rotated in the anticlockwise direction
between the poles N and S of a horse-shoe type
magnet.
(i) As the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the

side AB of the coil moves down cutting the magnetic
lines of force near the N-pole of the magnet and side
CD moves up, cutting the lines of force near the S-pole
of the magnet. Due to this, induced current is produced
in the sides AB and DC of the coil. On applying
Fleming’s right-hand rule to the sides AB and DC of
the coil, we find that the currents are in the directions B After every half revolution, each side of the generator
to A and D to C. Thus, the induced currents in the two coil starts moving in the opposite direction in the
sides of the coil are in the same direction and we get magnetic field. The side of the coil which was initially
an effective induced current in the direction BADC. moving upwards, after half revolution, it starts moving
downwards. Due to the change in the direction of motion
(ii) After half revolution, the sides AB and DC of the of the two sides of the coil in the magnetic field after
coil will interchange their positions. The side AB will every half revolution, the direction of current produced
in them also changes after every half revolution.
come on the right hand side and side DC will come on
the left hand side. So, after half a revolution, side AB (b) DC Generator (or DC Dynamo) :
starts moving up and side DC starts moving down. As “DC generator” means “Direct Current generator”. That
a result of this, the direction of induced current in each is, a DC generator produces direct current.
side of the coil is reversed after half a revolution. Since Construction of a DC Generator :
the direction of induced current in the coil is reversed
A simple DC generator consists of a rectangular coil
after half revolution so that polarity (positive and ABCD which can be rotated rapidly between the poles
negative) of the two ends of the coil also changes after north and south of a strong horseshoe type magnet M.
half revolution. The end of coil which was positive in
The generator coil is made of a large number of turns
the first half of rotation becomes negative in the second
of insulated copper wire. The two ends of the coil are
half. And the end which was negative in the first-half connected to the two copper half rings (or split rings)
revolution becomes positive in the second half of R 1 and R 2 of a commutator. There are two carbon
revolution. Thus, in 1 revolution of the coil, the current brushes B1 and B2 which press lightly against the two
changes its direction 2 times. half rings. When the coil is rotated, the two half rings
R1 and R2 touch the two carbon brushes B1 and B2 one
The alternating current (AC ) produced in India has a by one. So, the current produced in the rotating coil can
frequency of 50 Hz. That is, the coil is rotated at the rate be tapped out through the commutator half rings into
of 50 revolutions per second. Since in 1 revolution of the carbon brushes. From the carbon brushes B1 and
B2, we can take the current into the various electrical
coil, the current changes its direction 2 times, so in 50
appliances like radio, T.V., electric iron, bulbs, etc.
revolutions of coil, the current changes its direction 2 ×
50 = 100 times. Thus, the AC supply in India changes Antclockwise
its direction 100 times in 1 second. Another way of

saying this is that the alternating current produced in
India changes its direction every 1/100 second. That
is, each terminal of the coil is positive (+) for 1/100 of a
second and negative (-) for the next 1/100 of a second.
Commutator
(Split ring) + –
B1 B2
y
Load D.C.
Carbon VVVV
brushes
Permanent Rectangular Coil
magnet D.C. Rotation
Generator
of coil anticlockwise
PAGE # 262
Working of a DC generator :
(a) Principle of a Motor :
Suppose that the generator coil ABCD is initially in the
An electric motor utilizes the magnetic effect of current.
horizontal position. Again suppose that the coil ABCD
A motor works on the principle that when a rectangular
is being rotated in the anticlockwise direction between
coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed
the poles N and S of a horseshoes type magnet.
through it, a torque acts on the coil which rotates it
(i) As the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the continuously. When the coil rotates, the shaft attached
side AB of the coil moves down cutting the magnetic to it also rotates. In this way the electrical energy
lines of force near the N-pole of the magnet and side supplied to the motor is converted into the mechanical
DC moves up, cutting the lines of force near the S-pole energy of rotation.
of the magnet in figure. Due to this, induced current is (b) Construction of a Motor :
produced in the sides AB and DC of the coil. On applying
An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil ABCD
Fleming’s right-hand rule to the sides AB and DC of
of insulated copper wire, wound on a soft iron core
the coil we find that the currents in them are in the
called armature. The soft iron core has not been shown
directions B to A and D to C respectively. Thus, we get
in figure to make things simple. The coil is mounted
an effective induced current in the direction BADC. Due
between the curved poles of a U-shaped permanent
to this the brush B1 becomes a positive (+) pole and magnet in such a way that it can rotate between the
brush B2 becomes negative (-) pole of the generator. poles N and S. The two ends of the coil are soldered
(ii) After half revolution the sides AB and DC of the coil (or welded) permanently to the two half rings X and Y of
will interchange their positions. The side AB will come a commutator.
on the right hand side and start moving up whereas Antclockwise
side DC will come on the left-hand side and start
moving down. But when sides of the coil interchange
their positions, then the two commutator half rings R1
F
and R2 automatically change their contacts from one F
carbon brush to the other. Due to this change, the current

keeps flowing in the same direction in the circuit. The
brush B1 will always remain positive terminal and brush
Commutator
B2 will always remain negative terminal of the generator. (Split ring) P Q
y
Thus, a DC generator supplies a current in one
– +
direction by the use of a commutator consisting of two Carbon
brushes Battery
Permanent Rectangular Coil
half-rings of copper. magnet An electricRotation
motor of coil anticlockwise
Difference between a DC generator and an AC

generator :
A commutator is a copper ring split into two parts X and
In a DC generator we connect the two ends of the coil Y, these two parts are insulated from one another and
mounted on the shaft of the motor.
to a commutator consisting of two, half rings of copper.
On the other hand, in an AC generator, we connect the End A of the coil is welded to part X of the commutator
two ends of the coil to two full rings of copper called and end D of the coil is welded to part Y of the
commutator. The commutator rings are mounted on
slip rings.
the shaft of the coil and they also rotate when the coil
rotates.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
The function of commutator rings is to reverse the
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy direction of current flowing through the coil every time
into mechanical energy. Every motor has a shaft or the coil just passes the vertical position during a
spindle which rotates continuously when current is revolution.
passed into it. The rotation of its shafts is used to drive
the various types of machines in homes and industry. W e cannot join the battery wires directly to the two
Electric motor is used in electric fans, washing commutator’s half rings to pass current into the coil
machines, refrigerators, mixer and grinder and many because if we do so, then the connecting wires will get
other appliances. A common electric motor works on twisted when the coil rotates. So, to pass the electric
direct current. So, it is also called DC motor, which current to the coil, we use two carbon strips P and Q
means a “Direct Current motor”. The electric motor known as brushes. The carbon brushes P and Q are
which we are going to discuss now is actually a DC fixed to the base of the motor and they press lightly
motor. against the two half rings of the commutator.
PAGE # 263
The function of carbon brushes is to make contact with the Difference between A.C. Generator & D.C. Motor:
rotating rings of the commutator and through them to
supply current to the coil. It should be noted that any S. No. A. C. GENERATOR D. C. MOTOR
one brush touches only one ring at a time, so that A generator is a device which
It is a device which convert electrical
(1) converts the mechanical
when the coil rotates, the two brushes will touch both energy into electrical energy.
energy into mechanical energy.
the rings one by one. It works on the principle of force

It works on the principle of
(2) acting on a current carrying
electro magnetic induction.
(c) Working of a Motor : conductor placed in a magnetic field.
In a generator the mechanical In a d.c. motor, electrical energy is

Suppose that initially the coil ABCD is in the horizontal energy is used in rotating the provided by the d.c. source to flow
position as shown in figure. On pressing the switch, (3) armature coil in a magnetic current in the armature coil placed in
field so as to produce a magnetic field due to which the
the current enters the coil through carbon brush P and electrical energy. coil rotates.
commutator half ring X. The current flows in the direction A generator makes use of
A d.c. motor makes use of two parts
(4) of a slip ring which act as a
ABCD and leaves via ring Y and brush Q. two coaxial slip rings.
commutator.
(i) In side AB of the coil, the direction of current is from

A to B and the direction of magnetic field is from N to S
pole. So, by applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the
side AB of the coil we find that it will experience a force
in the upward direction. EXERCISE-1
(ii) In side DC of the coil, the direction of current is from
C to D towards but the direction of magnetic field EA RTH M AGN ETI SM :
remains the same from N to S pole as shown in figure.
So, by applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the side DC 1. In a plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian the
of the coil, we find that. It will experience a force in the dip needle will remain :
downward direction. (A) vertical
(B) horizontal
(iii) We find that the force acting on the side AB of the
(C) at an angle of 45º from horizontal
coil is in the upward direction whereas the force acting (D) at an angle of 60º from vertical
on the side DC of the coil is in the downward direction.
These two equal, opposite and parallel forces acting 2. The vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field is :
on the two sides of the coil form a couple (torque) and (A) zero at the magnetic pole
rotate the coil in the anticlockwise direction. (B) zero at the geographic pole
(iv) While rotating, when the coil reaches the vertical (C) same everywhere
position, then the brushes P and Q will touch the gap (D) zero at the magnetic equator
between the two commutator rings and current to the
3. A magnet is placed in earth’s magnetic field with north
coil is cut off. Though the current to the coil is cut off
pole of the magnet pointing north. At the neutral point :
when it is in the exact vertical position, the coil doesn’t
(A) the earth’s magnetic field is zero
stop rotating because it has already gained momentum
(B) the magnet’s magnetic field is zero
due to which it goes beyond the vertical position. (C) the magnetic fields of the magnet and the earth are
(v) When the coil goes beyond the vertical position, the equal and in the same direction
two commutator’s half rings automatically change (D) the magnetic fields of the magnet and the earth are
contact from one brush to the other. This reverses the equal and opposite
direction of current through the coil which, in turn,
reverses the direction of forces acting on the two sides 4. The angle of dip at equator is :
of the coil. The side AB of the coil will now be on the left (A) 0º (B) 45º
hand side with a downward force on it, whereas side (C) 60º (D) 90º
DC of the coil will come on the right hand side with an
upward force on it. In this position also a couple acts 5. Which of the following shows that the earth behaves
as a magnet ?
on the coil which rotates it in the same direction
(A) Repulsion between like poles.
(anticlockwise direction). This process is repeated
(B) Attraction between unlike poles.
again and again and the coil continues to rotate as
(C) Existence of null points in the magnetic field of a
long as the current is passing. This is how an electric
bar magnet.
motor works. (D) Non-existence of monopoles.
PAGE # 264
MA GN ET IC FILED A ND M AGNE TI C LI NE OF 15. A bar magnet has been cut equally lengthwise and
FORCE AND MAGNETIC FLUX : width wise to give four equal pieces. The pole strength
of each piece as compared to the pole strength of
6. Magnetic field is a : original bar magnet is :
(A) vector quantity 1
(A) same (B)
(B) scalar quantity 8
(C) scalar as well as vector quantity 1 1
(C) (D)
(D) neither vector nor scalar 4 2
7. Magnetic lines of force determines : 16. A free charged particle moves through a magnetic field.
(A) the shape of the magnetic field The particle may undergo a change in :
(A) speed (B) energy
(B) only the direction of the magnetic field (C) direction of motion (D) none of these
(C) only the relative strength of the magnetic field 
17. If streng th of m agn etic field B  2 î  ĵ  k̂ an d
(D) both the direction and the relative strength of the
magnetic field 
area vector is A  3 î  ĵ then find the magnetic
8. The S.I. unit of magnetic field intensity is : flux link with area vector :
(A) Weber (B) Tesla (A) 4 weber (B) 6 weber
(C) Oersted (D) Gauss (C) 7weber (D) 5 weber
9. C.G.S. unit of magnetic field intensity is : APPLICATION OF B IOT-SAVART LAWS :
(A) Tesla (B) Gauss
(C) Weber (D) none of these 18. A transmission line carries a current of 100 A. in east to
west direction. Find magnitude of the magnetic field
10. When a bar magnet is broken into two pieces : due to current at a distance 1m below the wire :
(A) we will have a single pole on each piece (A) 2 × 10–5 T (B) 2 × 10+5 T
(C) 105 T (D) 10–5 T
(B) each piece will have two unlike poles
(C) each piece will have two like poles 19. A wire carries a current I amperes shown in figure. The
(D) none of these semicircle has a radius r. The magnetic filed at the
centre C will be :
11. A magnetic field of flux density 1.0 Wb m–2 acts normal to
a 80 turn coil of 0.01 m2 area. The e.m.f. induced in it, if r
I
this coil is removed from the field in 0.1 second is :
(A) 8V (B) 4V C
(C) 10 V (D) 6V (A) zero
I
12. What will be the magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a 200 (B)  10 7 Newton/ampere-metre
r
turns coil with cross section area 0.16 m2 ? The magnetic
field through the coil changes from 0.10 W b m –2 to I
(C) Newton/ampere-metre
0.30 Wb m–2, at a uniform rate over a period of 0.05 s : r
(A) 128V (B) 130V I
(D) gauss
(C) 118 V (D) 132V r
20. A coil of one turn is made of a wire of certain length and
13. A wire 88 cm long bent into a circular loop is placed then from the same length a coil of two turns is made. If
perpendicular to the magnetic field of flux density 2.5 the same current is passed in both the cases, then the
Wb m–2. Within 0.5 s, the loop is changed into a square ratio of the magnetic induction at their centres will be :
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 4
and flux density is increased to 3.0 Wb m–2. The value
(C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 2
of e.m.f. induced is :
21. A wire loop PQRS formed by joining two semi-circular
(A) 0.018V (B) 0.016V wires of radii R1 and R2 carries a current  as shown in
(C) 0.020V (D) 0.012V the following diagram. The magnetic induction at the
centre O is :
14. A magnetic field of flux density 10 T acts normal to a
coil of 50 turns having 100 cm2 area. The e.m.f. induced
if the coil is removed from magnetic field in 0.1 second
is :
(A) 50 V (B) 60 V S P
(C) 80 V (D) 40V  0 0
(A) (B)
4R 1 4R 2
0  1 1  0  1 1 
(C)   
 (D)   

4 R
 1 R 2  4 R
 1 R 2 
PAGE # 265
22. A wire loop formed by joining two semi-circular wires MAGNETIC FORCE :
of radii R 1 and R 2 carries a current as shown in the
25. A proton is moving with velocity 104 m/s parallel to the
adjoining diagram. The magnetic induction at the
magnetic field of intensity 5 tesla. The force on the
centre O is :
proton is -
(A) 8 × 10–15 N (B) 104 N
–19
(C) 1.6 × 10 N (D) zero
26. A wire carrying a current of 5 A is placed perpendicular
to a magnetic induction of 2T. The force on each
O
centimeter of the wire is :
(A) 0.1 N (B) 10 N
(C) 100 N (D) 1 N
 0   0  27. A charge q is moving with a velocity (v) parallel to a

(A) (B) magnetic field (B) . Force on the charge due to magnetic
4R1 4R 2
field is :
 0   1 1   0   1 1  (A) qvB (B) qB/v
(C)    (D)   
4  R1 R 2  4  R1 R 2  (C) zero (D) Bv/q
23. An infinite wire bent in the form of L carries current . 28. An electron has a circular path of radius 0.01 m in a
What is the magnetic field at the point O ? perpendicular magnetic induction 10–3 T. The speed of
the electron is nearly :
(A) 1.76 × 104 m/s (B) 1.76 × 106 m/s
6
(C) 3.52 × 10 m/s (D) 7.04 × 106 m/s
E LE CT RO M AGNE TI C IN DU CT ION :
29. W hich of the following determines the direction of
magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor ?
(A) Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
(B) Fleming’s left-hand rule.
(C) Lenz’s law.
(D) Maxwell’s cork screw rule.
30. According to Faraday’s law, the total charge induced in
0  a conductor that is moved in a magnetic field depends
(A) zero (B) 
4 d upon :
(A) initial magnetic flux
0  0 2 (B) final magnetic flux
(C)  (D) 
4 2d 4 d (C) rate of change of magnetic flux
(D) change in magnetic flux
24. In the given figure, what is the magnetic field at the 31. Deflection in the galvanometer :
point ‘O’ ?
G
motion
S
(A) towards right

r O (B) left
(C) no defection
(D) none of these
0   0  0 32. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is :

(A)  (B) (A) the process of charging a sphere
4r 2r 4r
(B) the process of producing magnetic field in a coil
0 0  0  0 (C) the process of producing induced current in a coil
(C)  (D) 
4r 4r 4r 4r whenever there is a relative motion between the coil
and the magnet
(D) the process of producing cooling effect
PAGE # 266
33. W ho discovered the relationship between electricity 41. A transformer steps up an AC supply from 220 V to
and magnetism : 2200 V. If the secondary coil of the transformer has 2000
(A) Faraday (B) Newton turns, the number of turns in its primary coil will be :
(C) Maxwell (D) Oersted (A) 200 (B) 100
(C) 50 (D) 20
34. Induced electromotive force in a coil does not depend
on : 42. A step down transformer reduces 220V to 11V. The
(A) number of turns in the coil primary coil draws 5 A current and secondary coil
(B) intensity of the magnetic field supplies 90A. Efficiency of the transformer will be:
(C) relative speed between coil and the magnet (A) 4.4% (B) 20%
(D) resistance of the coil (C) 33% (D) 90%
35. A magnet is dropped freely towards a loop of copper 43. Out of the following the best material for the core of a
wire as shown in figure. The acceleration of magnet transformer is :
will be : (A) aluminium (B) copper
(C) stainless steel (D) soft iron
(A) equal to g
44. Voltage induced in the secondary coil of a transformer
(B) greater than g
is mainly due to :
(C) less than g
(A) the iron core of the transformer
(D) zero
(B) the vibrations of the primary coil
36. Current is induced in a coil by electromagnetic induction (C) a varying induced electric field
when : (D) a varying induced magnetic field
(A) Only the coil moves in a magnetic field.
45. The principle of transformer is :
(B) Only the magnet moves towards the coil.
(A) mutual induction
(C) Coil and the magnet move with respect to each
(B) self - induction
other.
(C) electromagnetic induction
(D) None of the above.
(D) none of these
TR AN SFOR ME R AN D GE NE RATOR : 46. In transformer the loss of energy due to eddy currents
can be reduced by :
37. By inserting an iron core in a coil carrying current, the (A) taking thick wire of copper
strength of its magnetic field will : (B) taking thin wire of copper
(A) increase (B) decrease (C) laminating the core
(C) remain Same (D) become Zero (D) taking the core of soft iron
38. A transformer is a device which gives : 47. In a DC generator, the induced e.m.f. in the armature is :
(A) DC voltage (A) DC (B) AC
(B) AC voltage (C) fluctuating DC (D) both AC and DC
(C) both AC and DC voltage
48. The effect of using split rings in a simple DC motor is
(D) none of these
that :
39. A transformer is used : (A) the direction of rotation of the coil is reversed
(A) to transform electric energy into mechanical energy (B) the current in the coil always flows in the same
(B) to obtain suitable DC voltage direction
(C) to transform AC into DC (C) the direction of the current flowing in the coil is
(D) to obtain suitable AC voltage reversed
(D) None of these
40. What is increased in a step down transformer ?
(A) Voltage (B) Current 49. A step-up transformer of turns ratio 2 : 1 has 50
(C) Wattage (D) None of these Hz AC voltage applied to primary. The frequency
of AC output voltage across secondary is :
(A) zero (B) 25 Hz
(C) 50 Hz (D) 100 Hz
PAGE # 267
50. Mutual induction is the principle of :
(A) converter (B) inverter EXERCISE-2
(C) transformer (D) rectifier
51. In a transformer, the number of turns of primary COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS :
coil and secondary coil are 5 and 4 respectively. If
220 V is applied on the primary coil, then the ratio
1. A long copper wire is wound in the form of a coil of
of primary current to the secondary current is :
(A) 4 : 5 (B) 5 : 4 radius r. A current of 2 A is passed through this coil and
(C) 5 : 9 (D) 9 : 5 the magnetic induction at the centre of this coil is noted.
52. An ideal transformer has 500 and 5000 turns in The same wire is now folded end to end and coil of the
primary and secondary winding respectively. If the same radius r is prepared and the same current is
primary coil is connected to a 6 V battery then the passed through it. The magnetic induction at the centre:
secondary voltage is :
(A) 60 V (B) zero (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008)
(C) 0.6 V (D) 6.0 V (A) will be doubled (B) will be halved
(C) will remain same. (D) will drop to zero
53. In a primary coil 5 A current is flowing on 220
vo lts. If th e se c o n d ary c o i l p ro d u c es 2 2 0 0 V
vo ltage. Then th e ratio of nu mb er of turn s in 2. Two charges of same magnitude move in two circles
secondary coil and primary coil will be :
of radii R1 = R and R2 = 2R in a region of constant
(A) 1 : 10 (B) 10 : 1
(C) 1 : 1 (D) 11 : 1 uniform magnetic field B0.
54. A transformer is used to light a 120 W, 24 V lamp The work W 1 and W 2 done by the magnetic field in the
from 240 V a.c. mains. The current in the main cable Two cases, respectively are such that : (KVPY/2009)
is 0.6 A. The efficiency of the transformer is : (A) W 1 = W 2 = 0 (B) W 1 > W 2
(A) 48% (B) 63.8%
(C) 83.3% (D) 90% (C) W 1 = W 2  0 (D)W 1 < W 2
55. In a transformer the output current and voltage are 3. Two infinitely long wires P and Q separated by a
4 A and 20 V respectively. If the ratio of number of distance of 10 cm in air, carry currents  and 2 in
turns in the primary and secondary coil is 2 : 1 opposite directions as shown in the figure. The
respectively, what is the input current and voltage ? resultant magnetic field due to currents in these wires
(A) 2 A and 40 V (B) 1 A and 20 V will be zero at : (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2009)
(C) 4 A and 10 V (D) 8 A and 40 V
P Q
56. The device which is used for converting mechanical A I B 2I C
energy into electrical energy is called :
(A) electric motor (B) dynamo 10 cm 10 cm
5 cm 5 cm
(C) transformer (D) battery
(A) point A.
57. In a DC generator, the induced e.m.f. in the armature is : (B) point B.
(A) DC (B) AC (C) point C.
(C) fluctuating DC (D) both AC and DC (D) none of the points A, B, C.
58. The device which is used for converting electrical energy

into mechanical energy is called :  4. When an electric current I is passed through a solenoid
(A) electric motor (B) dynamo in the figure shown below, magnetic field at points
(C) transformer (D) battery A and B is equal and opposite to that of the earth. The,
59. The effect of using split rings in a simple DC motor is
that : •A
(A) the direction of rotation of the coil is reversed
(B) the current in the coil always flows in the same
direction I •B I
(C) the direction of the current flowing in the coil is
reversed
(D) None of these (A) Straight line AB is along north-south
60. In an electric generator, split rings are used for : (B) Straight line AB is along east-west
(A) converting DC to AC (C) if current I is increased, the positions of points A
(B) converting AC to DC and B will shift away from the solenoid.
(D) If current I is increased, the position of points A and
(C) reducing power consumption
B will shift towards the solenoid.
(D) to split the current
PAGE # 268
5. Consider points A,B,C,D on a horizontal cardboard 10. A conducting wire shown in the figure carries cur-
equidistant from centre O as shown in the figure. A rent I. Segments AB, BC and CD are of same length.
copper wire perpendicular to the cardboard passes The direction of the magnetic field at point P is given
through the centre O and carries an electric current
by : (IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
flowing upwards. Deflection of magnetic needle will
be maximum when it is kept at the point :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
N
B
C O A
D
(A) into the plane of the paper
(A) A (B) B
(C) C (D) D (B) out of the plance of the paper
(C) towards right
6. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT ? (D) towards left
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) Electric current is a scalar quantity
11. A transistor based radio receiver set (effective
(B) Electric lines of force are closed curves.
resistance of the order of 18 ohms) operates on a 9V
(C) Magnetic lines of induction are closed curves.
dc battery. If this replaced by a dc power supply with
(D) changing magnetic field induces an electric cur-
rating 9V, 500A then : (IJSO/Stage-II/2012)
rent in a coil
(A) receiver will work normally
(B) receiver will give distorted output
7. An electron moving to the east in a horizontal plane is
(C) receiver will get burnt
deflected towards south by a magnetic field.The direction
(D) power supply will get over heated
of this magnetic field is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) towards north (B) towards west
12. A circular loop of wire is in the same plane as an
(C) downwards (D) upwards
infinitely long wire carrying a constant current i. Four
possible motions of the loop are marked by N,E,W
8. A direct current (DC) motor is connected to a battery by
and S as shown : ( KVPY/SA/2012)
means of two leads. The motor moves for slightly less
than half the cycle and comes to halt. Which of the
following components is missing ?
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) one of the brushes
(B) commutator
(C) slip ring
(D) one of the two magnets
A clockwise current is induced in the loop when loop is

9. A bar magnet is placed on a table. There are n num-
pulled towards :
ber of field lines connecting North pole to South
(A) N (B) E
pole of the magnet. Another identical magnet is
(C) W (D) S
placed on the first magnet with North pole on North
pole and south pole on south pole. The number of 13. The AC produced in India changes its direction in
every :
field lines are now (IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
(A) n (B) n2 1
(A) second (B) 100 second
(C) n/2 (D) 2n 100
(C) 50 second (D) None of these
PAGE # 269
14. Essential requirement for the operation of a step down 16. An electron enters a chamber in which a uniform
transformer is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2013) magnetic field is present as shown : ( KVPY/SA/2013)
(A) Laminated iron core
(B) Electrical connection between primary and
secondary coils
(C) Magnetic interaction between primary and
secondary coils
(D) Non magnetic core.
15. The figure shows a bar magnet and a metallic coil.
Consider four situations .( KVPY/SA/2013) An electric field of appropriate magnitude is also applied
(I) Moving the magnet away from the coil. so that the electron travels undeviated without any
(II) Moving the coil towards the magnet. change in its speed through the chamber. We are
(III) Rotating the coil about the vertical diameter. ignoring gravity. Then, the direction of the electric field
(IV) Rotating the coil about its axis. is
(A) opposite to the direction of the magnetic field
(B) opposite to the direction of the electron’s motion
(C) normal to the plane of the paper and coming out of
An emf in the coil will be generated for the following
the plane of the paper
situations.
(D) normal to the plane of the paper and into the plane
(A) (I) and (II) only (B) (I), (II) and (IV) only
of the paper
(C) (I), (II), and (III) only (D) (I), (II), (III), and (IV)
17. Two infinite wires are placed parallel to each other. They carry current l2 and l2 (l2 = l1). The magnetic field is B1 and B2
respectively. Different situation are given in column 1. The comments onthe direction and strength of magnetic field
are given in column II. Match the following. (IJSO Stage-II/2014)
1 P
1 R 1 S 1 S
2 Q
2 P 2 R 2 R
3 R
(A) (B) 3 S (C) 3 P (D) 3 Q
4 S
4 Q 4 Q 4 P
PAGE # 270
18. The magnetic force on a moving charged particle 21. There exists a uniform magnetic field perpendicular
can change the particle’s : (IJSO Stage-I/2014) and inwards to the plane of the figure, through
(A) speed only rectangular area ABCD only. PQRS is a rectangular
(B) Both speed and direction loop of an electrically conducting wire partly inserted in
(C) direction only the region ABCD, in the plane of the figure. Read the
(D) neither of speed nor direction following statements. (IJSO Stage-II/2015)
19. Two infinite wires carrying identical current are A B

x x P
placed at position A and C normal to plane of the Q
x
paper as shown in the adjacent figure. The resultant x x x
( )
magnetic field (B) at a point P on the perpendicular x
x x x
bisector is : (IJSO Stage-I/2014)
x
x x S R
P
D Fig.-1 C
A B
a
x x P
Q
x
x x x
( )
x
x x x
c x
A x x S R
a D Fig.-2 C
A B
Q x x
P x
x x x
( ) x
(A) Along line parallel to AC and pointing towards x x x
S x
right
D R x x
(B) Along line joining PC and pointing towards C C
Fig.-3
(C) Along line joining PA and pointing towards A
(D) Along perpendicular bisector pointing towards
A B
line AC Q x x
P x
20. A bar magnet falls with its north pole pointing down x x
x
through the axis of a copper ring. When viewed from ( ) x
above, the current in the ring will be : ( KVPY/SA/2014) x x x
S x
(A) Clockwise while the magnet is above the plane of
R x x
the ring and counter clockwise while below the plane D C
Fig.-4
of the ring
(B) Counter clockwise throughout (i) Clockwise current will be set up in the loop, in the
(C) Counter clockwise while the magnet is above the situation of figure 1.
plane of the ring, and clockwise while below the plane (ii) Clockwise current will be set up in the loop, in the
situation of figure 2.
of the ring
(iii) Clockwise current will be set up in the loop, in the
(D) Clockwise throughout. situation of figure 3.
(iv) Clockwise current will be set up in the loop, in the
situation of figure 4.
(A) Only i and iv are correct
(B) Only i and iii are correct
(C) Only ii and iii are correct
(D) Only ii and iv are correct
PAGE # 271
22. In the figure shown, the current carrying loop is
fixed, where as current carrying straight
conductor is free to' move. Then straight wire
will (ignore gravity) (IJSO Stage-I/2016)
(A) remain stationary

(B) move towards the loop
(C) move away from the loop
(D) rotate about the axis perpendicular to plane
of paper
23. In the figure given, PQ is a long uniform coil of

metal wire, V is a constant voltage source and
ASB is a rheostat. Consider the following
statements and choose the correct option.
I) The (equivalent) pole at the end P if slider
S of rheostat is moved from A to B is North.
II) The (equivalent) pole at the end P if slider
S of rheostat is moved from A to B is South.
III) The (equivalent) pole at the end P if slider
S of rheostat is moved from B to A is North
IV) The (equivalent) pole at the end P if slider
S of rheosta is moved from B to A is South.
(IJSO Stage-I/2017)
(A) Only III and IV are correct

(B) Only I and II are correct
(C) Only II and IV are correct
(D) Only II and Iv are correct
24. A bar magnet of mass 0.2 kg hangs from a string. A

metal sphere of mass 0.5 kg is held underneath in
contact with the magnet by magnetic force 20 N. An
upward force is now applied to the string that develops
tension T in string. Calculate the maximum possible
value of T for which the sphere is in contact with the
magnet. (IJSO Stage-II/2015/Sub.)
PAGE # 272
12. LIGHT
OPTICS (c ) Quantum Theory of Light :
It is a branch of physics which deals with the study of According to ‘Planck’ light travels in the form of energy
light. It is mainly divided into three parts : packets or quantas of energy called photons.
(a) Geometrical optics or ray optics : The rest mass of photon is zero. Each quanta carries
energy E = h.
It deals with the reflection and refraction of light. h  Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10–34 J-s.
  frequency of light
(b) Wave or physical optics :
Some phenomenons like interference of light,
It is concerned with nature of light and deals with diffraction of light are explained with the help of wave
interference, diffraction and polarisation. theory but wave theory was failed to explain the photo
electric effect of light. It was explained with the help of
(c ) Quantum optics :
quantum theory. So, light has dual nature.
It deals with the interaction of light with the atomic
entities of matter such as photo electric effect, atomic ( d ) Dual Nature of Light :
excitation etc. De Broglie explaind the dual nature of light, i,e,wave
nature and particle nature.
(i) wave nature : Light is a electromagnetic waves it is
transverse in nature and propagate in vacuum
Light is the invisible form of energy that causes the (ii) Particle or Photon Nature : W ith the help of this
sensation of vision. Light waves are electromagnetic theory Einstein explained the photo electric effect.
waves.
SOURCE OF LIGHT
NATURE OF LIGHT A body which emits light or reflect the light falling on it
in all possible direction is said to be the source of
Theories about nature of light : light. The source can be point one or an extended one.
The sources of light are of two types :
( a) P ar ti cl e Na ture of Li ght (N ew ton’ s
corpuscular theory) : (a) Luminous Source :
Any object which by itself emits light is called as a
According to Newton light travels in space with a great
luminous source.
speed as a stream of very small particles called ,
corpuscles. e.g. : Sun and stars (natural luminous sources), electric

lamps, candles and lanterns (artificial luminous
According to this theory reflection and refraction of light sources).
are explained while this theory was failed to explain
(b) Non-luminous Source :
interference of light and diffraction of light. So wave
theory of light was discovered. Those objects which do not emit light but become
visible only when light from luminous objects falls on
(b) Wave Nature of Light : them. They are called non-luminous sources.
Huygen consider the light remains in the form of e.g. : Moon, planets (natural non- luminous sources),
mechanical rays and he consider a hypothetical wood, table (artificial non-luminous sources).
medium like ether for propagation of light waves.
Later on, Maxwell decleared light waves as MEDIUM OF LIGHT
electromagnetic waves ,so there is no need of medium
Substance through which light propagates or tends to
for the propagation of these waves. They can travel in
propagate is called medium of light.
vacuum also. The speed of these waves in air or in vacuum
is maximum i.e., 3 × 108 m/s. (i) Transparent Object :
Photoelectric effect was not explained with the help of Bodies that allow light to pass through them i.e.
transmit light through them, are called transparent
wave theory, so Plank gave a new theory which was
bodies.
known as quantum theory of light.
This theory is failed to explain photo electric effect. e.g. : Glass, water, air etc.
PAGE # 273
(ii) Translucent Object :
(iii) Light does not require material medium for its
Bodies that can transmit only a part of light through propagation i.e. light can travel through vacuum.
them are called translucent objects.
e.g.: Frosted or ground glass, greased paper, paraffin (iv) The speed of light in free space (vacuum) is 3 × 108 m/s.
wax. Its speed is marginally less in air. Its speed decreases
(iii) Opaque Object : considerably in glass or water.
Bodies that do not allow light to pass through them at (v) Light undergoes reflection from polished surfaces
all are said to be opaque object. such as mirrors, etc.
Eg. Chair, desk etc. (vi) Light undergoes refraction when it goes from one
 NOTE : medium to another.
Depending on composition optical medium are divided
 Some definision related to the light :
into two type.
(A) Ray of Light :
(i) Homogeneous medium :
The path along which light energy travels in a given
An optical medium which has a uniform composition
direction is called ray of light. A ray of light is represented
throughout is called homogeneous medium.
e.g. Vacuum, distilled water, pure alcohol, glass, as a straight line. The arrow head on it gives the
plastics, diamond, etc. direction of light.
(ii) Heterogeneous medium :

An optical medium which has different composition at (B) Beam of Light :
different points is called heterogeneous medium. A collection of rays of light is called beam of light.
Eg. Air, muddy water, fog, mist, etc. However, if the number of rays is too small then such a
collection of rays is called Pencil of light.
Behaviour of Light at the Interface
of Two Media (C) Parallel Beam :
When the rays of light travel parallel to each other, then

When light travelling in one medium falls on the surface
of a second medium the following three effects may the collection of such rays is called parallel beam of
occur : light. For example, sun rays entering into a room
(i) A part of the incident light is turned back into the first through a ventilator constitute a parallel beam .
medium. This is called reflection of light.
(ii) A part of the incident light is transmitted into the
second medium along a changed direction. This is
called refraction of light. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
(iii) The remaining third part of light energy is absorbed (a) Definitions of Reflection :
by the second medium. This is called absorption of
The phenomena of bouncing back of light in same
light.
medium after striking at the interface of two media is
Inc called reflection of light.
lig iden ght
d li
ht t
flecte (b) General definitions about Reflection :
Medium 1 Re
(i) Mirror :
Medium 2
Re
A smooth polished surface from which regular reflection

fra
cte
can take place is called mirror. MM’ is the mirror as

d
shown in figure.
ligh
t
N C
A
N orm al
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
io n
Ang
ra y
In c
le c t
le o
i
te d
de
f ref
Some common characteristics of light are given

nt
o n e fl e c
f in c
ra y
below:
le o
c ti g l R e
id e n
A ng
(i) Light has dual nature i.e both wave and particle,
ce
f le a n
Gla
nature. of nce
re e
o f anc
inc an i r
ide gle
Gl
(ii) Light is an electromagnetic wave. nc

e
Mirror Reflecting surface
M M'
B
Terms associated with reflection
PAGE # 274
(ii) Incident ray : Explanation
A ray of light which travels towards the mirror is called
W hen a ray of light strikes a surface normally, then
incident ray. Ray AB is incident ray in figure.
angle of incidence is zero i.e., i = 0. According to the
(iii) Point of incidence : law of reflection, r = i,  r = 0 i.e. the reflected ray
The point on the mirror, where an incident ray strikes is is also perpendicular to the surface. Thus, an incident
called point of incidence. ‘B’ is the point of incidence in ray normal to the surface (i.e. perpendicular to the
figure. surface) retraces its path as shown in figure.
(iv) Reflected ray :
A ray of light which bounces off the surface of a mirror,
Incident ray
is called reflected ray. BC is reflected ray in figure.
(v) Normal : Reflected ray

The perpendicular drawn at the point of incidence, to
the surface of mirror is called normal. BN is the normal
in figure. Normal Incidence
(vi) Angle of incidence : (ii) Laws of reflection are also obeyed when light is
The angle made by the incident ray with the normal is reflected from the spherical or curved surfaces as
called angle of incidence. ABN is the angle of shown in figure (a) and (b)
incidence in figure. It is denoted by i.
(vii) Angle of reflection N

I N
The angle made by the reflected ray with the normal is R I R
called angle of reflection. CBN is the angle of
reflection in figure. It is denoted by r.
(viii) Glance angle of incidence i r i r
The angle which the incident ray makes with the mirror
is called glance angle of incidence. MBA is the glance
(a) (b)
angle of incidence in figure.
(ix) Glance angle of reflection

The angle which the reflected ray makes with the Reflection from curved surface
mirror is called glance angle of reflection. M’BC is
the glance angle of reflection in figure. ( C ) Regular and Irregular Reflection :
(b) Laws of Reflection :

Regular reflection :
The reflection of light from a surface obeys certain laws The phenomenon due to which a parallel beam of light
called laws of reflection. They are: travelling through a certain medium, on striking some
smooth polished surface, bounces off from it, as
parallel beam, in some other fixed direction is called
Regular reflection.
(i) Angle of Incidence is equal to the angle of reflection,

i.e., i = r.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting

Regular reflection
surface always lie in the same plane.
Regular reflection takes place from the objects like looking
Important information
glass, still water, oil, highly polished metals, etc.
(i) A ray of light striking the surface normally retraces
Regular reflection is useful in the formation of images,
its path.
e.g., we can see our face in a mirror only on account of
regular reflection. However, it causes a very strong glare
in our eyes.
PAGE # 275
Irregular reflection or Diffused reflection :
A B C
Illustrating rectilinear propagation of light

Irregular or diffused reflection
Now displace upright B, slightly towards right or left. It
The phenomenon due to which a parallel beam of light,
is seen that candle flame is no longer visible. This
travelling through some medium, gets reflected in
shows that light travels in straight lines.
various possible directions, on striking some rough
surface is called irregular reflection or diffused
IMAGE
reflection.
The reflection which takes places from ground, walls, Definition :

trees, suspended particles in air, and a variety of other
An optical image is a point where rays of light converge
objects, which are not very smooth, is irregular
actually or appear to diverge. The image of an extended
reflection.
object is an assembly of image points corresponding
Irregular reflection helps in spreading light energy over
to various points on the object.
a vast region and also decreases its intensity. Thus, it
helps in the general illumination of places and helps Real image :
us to see things around us.
If the rays of light after reflection (or refraction) converge
 NOTE : Laws of reflection are always valid no matter actually at a point then the image formed is called real
whether reflection is regular or irregular. image. It can be seen as well as obtained on a screen
placed at the position of the image.
Virtual image :
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
If the rays of light don’t converge actually but appear to
diverge from a point then the image formed is called
Definition : virtual image. It cannot be taken on screen.
In simplest terms, rectilinear propagation of light  Both the real and virtual image can be photographed.
means that light energy travels in straight lines.
Real Image Virtual Image
Examples of rectilinear propagation of light in
1. A real image is formed when 1. A virtual image is formed
everyday life : two or more reflected rays meet at when two or more rays appear to
a point in front of the mirror. be coming from a point behind
(i) When the sunlight enters through a small hole in a the mirror.
dark room, it appears to travel in straight lines.
2. A real image can be obtained 2. A virtual image cannot be
(ii) The light emitted by the head light of a scooter at on a screen. obtained on a screen.
night appears to travel in straight lines.
3. A real image is inverted with 3. A virtual image is erect with
(iii) If we almost close our eyes and try to look towards respect to the object. respect to the object.
a lighted bulb, it appears to give light in the form of
straight lines, which travel in various direction.
Experiment to prove rectilinear propagation of light:

IMAGE FORMATION BY PLANE MIRROR
Take three wooden upright A, B and C having a small
hole in the middle, such that the holes are at the same Formation of image of a point object by a plane mirror :
height from the base. Arrange the uprights along the Consider a plane mirror XY. Let a point object O is
edge of a table, such that holes are in the same straight placed in front of the mirror as shown in figure.
line. Place a lighted candle towards the upright A, such
that it is facing the hole. Look through the hole of upright A ray OA is incident on the plane mirror at right angle to
C. The candle flame is clearly visible. the mirror (i.e. i = 0). The reflection takes place at A
and the reflected ray retraces its path along AO.
(r = 0).
PAGE # 276
X
C
N r B
i
900 Object Image
O A I
Plane mirror
Image of a point object

Image of an extended object
Another ray starting from O incident at point B on the
mirror and the reflected ray goes along BC such that In 's BAC and BA'C
 i = r. The reflected rays AO and BC never meet each i = r, ACB  A ' CB  90 ,
other.
 ABC = A'BC
W hen the reflected rays AO and BC are produced Also BC is common
backward, they appear to be coming from point I. In ABC and  A'BC are congruent by ASA
other words, reflected rays appear to diverge from point So AC = A'C i.e. perpendicular distance of object from
I. So point I is the virtual image of a point object O. the mirror is equal to the perpendicular distance of
Since there is no actual meeting of rays at point I. image from the mirror
The position of image I is as far behind the plane mirror In ’s OBA and IBA'
as the position of the object O in front of the plane
BOA = BIA' = 900
mirror.
OBA = IBA' and so OAB = IA'B.
i.e. OA = IA (see in figure). Further as AB = BA' so they are also congruent by ASA
Thus OA = IA'
Formation of image of an extended object by the i.e., Size of object = Size of image
plane mirror :
LATERAL INVERSION
When we look through the plane mirror, we find that

Plane Mirror the right eye of the image of our face appears as the
Eye left eye and the left eye of the image appears as the
right eye. In other words, the right side of the object
appears as the left side of the image and vice versa.
This effect is known as lateral inversion.
Definition :
The exchange of the right and left sides of an object
Object Virtual
and its image is known as lateral inversion.
Image
Demonstration of lateral inversion :
Equal Distance
Image of an extended object
Consider an extended object OA (say a pin) placed in

front of a plane mirror XY at O. Each point of th e object
(i.e., pin) acts like a point source of light. The virtual
image of each point of the extended object is formed
behind the plane mirror as shown in figure. IA' is the
virtual image of an extended object OA.
Lateral Inversion
PAGE # 277
Write a letter on a card. Place it in front of a plane (a) Some terms related to spherical mirror :
mirror. We find that letter appears as , i.e., right of
letter. P appears as left side of the image of letter P as
shown in figure.
Light gets reflected from Silver coating
Cause of Lateral inversion : concave surface
Pole
( P) Principal
Principal Aperture Aperture axis
Lateral inversion is due to the fact that the image of axis
C
points on the object which are at a lesser distance Centre of curvature Light reflect C
Centre of curvature
from convex
from the mirror are formed nearer in the mirror and for surface
those points which are at some more distance will be Radius of curvature
Radius of curvature
formed at larger distance. So the image appears to be
Concave mirror Convex mirror
laterally inverted.
Cha ra ct er is ti cs of the im ag e form ed b y a (i) Pole : The central point of a mirror is called its pole.
plane mirror :
(ii) Centre of curvature : The centre of the sphere of
(i) The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual. which the mirror is a part is called centre of
(ii) The image formed by a plane mirror is erect. curvature.
(iii) Radius of curvature : The radius of the sphere of
(iii) The size of the image formed by a plane mirror is
which the mirror is a part is called radius of curvature.
same as that of the size of the object. If object is 10 cm
high, then the image of this object will also be 10 cm (iv) Principal axis : The straight line joining the pole
high. and the centre of curvature is called the principal axis.
(iv) The image formed by a plane mirror is at the same (v) Aperture : The size of the mirror is called its
distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. aperture.
Suppose, an object is placed at 5 cm in front of a plane (vi) Principal focus :
mirror then its image will be at 5 cm behind the plane
mirror. Focus of concave Focus of
mirror convex mirror
(v) The image formed by a plane mirror is laterally A parallel beam of light A parallel beam of light after
inverted, i.e., the right side of the object appears as after reflection from a reflection from a convex
the left side of its image and vice-versa. concave mirror converges surface diverges and the rays
at a point in front of the do not meet. However on
SPHERICAL MIRROR mirror. This point (F) is producing backward, the rays
the focus of a concave appear to meet at a point
A mirror whose reflecting surface is a part of a hollow mirror and it is real. behind the mirror. This point is
sphere of glass is known as spherical mirror. For focus of the convex mirror and
example, a dentist uses a curved mirror to examine it is virtual.
the teeth closely, large curved mirrors are used in
telescopes .These are of two types convex and concave.
In concave mirror, reflecting surface is concave but in
convex mirror, reflecting surface is convex.
Convex Mirror
Concave Mirror
PAGE # 278
(vii) Focal length : The distance between the pole and (b) Formation of images by convex mirror :
the focus is called the focal length. The focal length is
half the radius of curvature. (i) When the object is placed at infinity then image is
formed at the focus. The image formed is virtual, erect
(viii)Focal plane : A plane passing through the principal
focus and at right angles to the principal axis of a and extremely diminished.
spherical mirror is called the focal plane.
CONCAVE AND CONVEX MIRROR
Convex mirror is a spherical mirror, whose inner (cave

type) surface is silvered and reflection takes place at
the outer (convex) surface.
Concave mirror is a spherical mirror, whose outer

bulged surface is silvered and reflection takes place
(ii) When the object is placed between infinity and pole
from the inner hollow (cave type) surface. then the image is formed between the focus and the
( a) R ul es for t he for ma ti on of im ag es b y pole. The image formed is virtual, erect and diminished.
concave and convex mirrors :
(i) A ray incident parallel to the principal axis actually

passes (concave) or appears to pass (convex) through
the focus.
F P Uses of convex mirror :

C
Convex mirror is used as rear view mirror in automobiles
like cars, trucks and buses to see the traffic at the back
side. It is also used in street lamps.
(a)
(c) Formation of images by concave mirror
(ii) A ray incident through the centre of curvature (C)
falls normally and is reflected back along the same (i) When the object is placed between the pole and the
path. focus, then the image formed is virtual, erect and
magnified.
P
C F
P F C
(c)
(ii) When the object is placed at the focus then the
image is formed at infinity. The image is extremely magnified.
(iii) A ray incident through the focus is reflected parallel
to the principal axis.
(iii) When the object is placed between the focus and

the centre of curvature then the image is formed beyond
the centre of curvature. The image formed is real,
inverted and bigger than the object.
PAGE # 279
(d) Uses of concave mirror :
(i) They are used as shaving mirrors.
(ii) They are used as reflectors in car head-lights, search

lights, torches and table lamps.
(iii) They are used by doctors to concentrate light on
body parts like ears and eyes which are to be examined.
(iv) When the object is placed at the centre of curvature,
then the image is formed at the centre of curvature. (iv) Large concave mirrors are used in the field of solar
energy to focus sun-rays on the objects to be heated.
The image formed is real, inverted and equal to the
size of the object.
solar cookers : When a parallel beam of sunlight falls
on a concave mirror, this beam is brought to the focus
of the mirror (see figure). As a result of this, the
temperature of an object (say a container containing
uncooked food) placed at the focus increases
considerably. Hence the food in the container is
cooked.
(v) When the object is placed beyond the centre of

curvature, then the image is formed between the focus
and centre of curvature. The image formed is real,
inverted and diminished.
Container
containing
food
Spherical Reflector type solar cooker

(vi) When the object is placed at infinity then the image
is formed at the focus. The image formed is real,
ILLUSTRATIONS
inverted and extremely diminished in size.
1. How can we distinguish between a plane mirror, a
concave mirror and a convex mirror without touching
them?
Ans. W e can distinguish between them by bringing our
face close to each of them. All of them will produce
different types of image of our face.
Summary of the images formed by a concave mirror A plane mirror will produce an image of same size as
our face. A concave mirror will produce a magnified
image and our face will look much bigger. A convex
Position of Position of Size of Nature of mirror will produce a diminished image and our face
Object Image Image Image will look small.
At infinity At focus F Highly diminished Real and inverted
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted SIGN CONVENTION FOR MEASURING DISTANCE
IN CONCAVE AND CONVEX MIRROR
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
(i) All distances are measured from the pole.
Between F and C Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
(ii) The incident ray is taken from left to right.
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
(iii) Distances measured in the same direction as that
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect of the incident ray are taken to be +ve.
(iv) Distances measured in a direction opposite to the
incident ray are taken to be –ve.
(v) Distances measured upwards and perpendicular
to principal axis are taken +ve.
(vi) Distances measured downwards and perpendicular
to principal axis are taken –ve.
PAGE # 280
Incident
 AB  CB ......... (ii)
Incident A' B' B' C
Light Light
A A A'
Now as ADGB is a rectangle so AB = DG
B' DG CB
B C F P B P B' F C So from (ii)  ......... (iii)
A' B' B' C
A'
From equation (i) and (iii)
(a) (b) GF CB ......... (iv)


B' F B' C
Since aperture is very small as compared to radius of
curvature, so G is very close to P
 PC 
 GF = PF as  PF  
 2 
Focal length of concave mirror is – ve 
 ocal length of conve mirror is ve 
F x 
  From (iv) PF  CB
 For real image v is  ve  B' F B' C
for virtual image v is  ve 
 PF PB – PC (Here CB = PB – PC,
IMPORTANT : These signs are according to the rectilinear 
co-ordinate system.
PB'–PF PC – PB'
BF  PB – PF, BC  PC – PB )
MIRROR FORMULA  PF PB – 2PF


PB'–PF 2PF – PB'
The mirror formula is a relation relating the object
distance (u), the image distance (v) and the focal length f u  2( f )
(f) of a mirror.   (Here PF = –f, PB
 v  ( f ) 2(f )  (v )
1 1 1 = –u, PB = –v)
The mirror formula is : + =
u v f
f u  2f
above equation is known as mirror formula and is valid  2f2 – vf = uv – 2vf – uf + 2f2
for both concave and convex mirrors. However, the  v  f  2f  v
quantities must be substituted with proper signs.  uf +vf = uv
on dividing by uvf, we get
uf vf vu 1 1 1
PROOF OF MIRROR FORMULA    + =
uvf uvf uvf u v f
Consider case of concave mirror when the object AB is
placed beyond C, the image A’B’ will be formed between C 1 1 1
 
and F. f u v
D RELATION BETWEEN RADIUS OF CURVATURE

A AND FOCAL LENGTH OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
B' F
B C G P (a) Concave Mirror :
A'
Two parallel rays AB and DE after striking mirror form
image at F.
///
Since the  DGF &  ABF are similar (by AA similarity) A B

//
////
1
/// //
2
////////////////////// /
 DG  GF ......... (i) 3
A' B' B' F F P
C
Also  ABC is similar to  A BC
////
D
///
E
///
PAGE # 281
Here, 1  2 (by laws of reflection)
1  3 (alternate angles)
 2  3
So  BFC is isosceles x
 BF = CF
focal plane
Since aperture of the mirror is small,
f
 BF = PF and so, CF = PF or F is the mid-point of PC
where x is the diameter of the image of sun
1 R
 PF = . PC = x
2 2 tan =
f
R x = f tan
or f  if  is very small
2
(b) Convex Mirror : x = f
Two parallel rays AB & DE after striking the mirror form

POWER OF MIRROR
virtual image at F.
A spherical mirror has infinite number of focus. Optical
2
1
///
B
///
1
A
////
power of a mirror (in Diopters) = –

////
3 f (in metre )
//////
/// //////////////
4
P F C
MAGNIFICATION OF CONCAVE MIRROR
////
////
D
///
E
////
The linear magnification of a spherical mirror is the

ratio of height of the image (h2) formed by the mirror to
We know 1  2 (by laws of reflection) the height of the object (h1) i.e.
1  4 (corresponding angles) Height of image h
Also, 2  3 (vertically opposite angles) Linear magnification, m = = 2
Height of object h1
 3  4
So  BFC is isosceles  & BF = FC The linear magnification is a number that simply tells
But BF = PF (since aperture of mirror is small) us how much taller the image is than the object. For
 PF = FC hence F is the mid point of PC example, if m = 1, it means that the image and the
object are of the same height.
PC
 PF =
2 Another formula for magnification is :
v f
R m=– =
or f u f u
2
The arbitrary minus sign given to linear magnification
3. The sun (diameter d) subtends an angle  radians at has nothing to do with the relative sizes of the object
the pole of a concave mirror of focal length f. What is and the image but we can use it to tell whether the
the diameter of the image of the sun formed by the image is erect or inverted w.r.t. object.
mirror?
NOTE: Always draw a rough ray diagram while solving
Sol. Since the sun is very distant, u is very large and so
a numerical problem. Otherwise we will be confused
(1/u) is practically zero.
as to which distance should be taken as +ve & which –
1 1 ve.
So 0 =
v f
For virtual image : m is +ve [as virtual image is erect
i.e. v=–f
i.e., the image of sun will be formed at the focus and  h2 is +ve as well as h1 is +ve]
will be real, inverted and diminished.
Now as the rays from the sun subtend an angle  For real image : m is –ve [as real image is always
radians at the pole, then in accordance with figure. inverted  h2 is –ve while h1 is +ve]
PAGE # 282
4. (i) A 2.0 cm long object is placed perpendicular to the The image is formed at 60 cm from the mirror. Since
principal axis of a concave mirror. The distance of the the signs of u and v are same, the image is on the
object from the mirror is 30 cm and its image is formed same side as the object (to the left of the mirror) and
hence it is real. The magnification is
60 cm from the mirror on the same side of the mirror
as the object. Find the height of the image formed. hi v 60 cm
m= =– =– = –3.
ho u  20 cm
A So, hi = –3ho = –3 × 1.0 cm = –3.0 cm.
B’ B F The minus sign shows that the image is inverted. Its
30cm size is 3.0 cm.
A’
6. A 2 cm high object is placed at a distance of 32 cm
60 cm
from a concave mirror. The image is real, inverted and
Sol. u = –30 cm, v = –60 cm 3 cm in size. Find the focal length of the mirror and the
position of the image.
h2 v –60
 m= – – = –2 v hi
h1 u – 30 Sol. We have, m=– =
u h o
 h2 = –2h1 = –2 × 2 = –4 cm. From the question, hi = –3cm and ho = 2 cm.
 Height of the image is 4 cm. It is inverted. hi 3 cm
 m= = = –1.5
(ii) A 1.2 cm long pin is placed perpendicular to the ho 2 cm
principal axis of a convex mirror of focal
v
length 12 cm, at a distance of 8 cm from it. or – = –1.5
(a) Find the location of the image. (b) Find the height of u
the image. (c) Is the image erect or inverted ? v
or = 1.5
 32 cm
A or v = –48 cm.
A'
1 1 1 1 1
O P I F C We have = + = + =
f u v  32 cm  48 cm
5
Sol. Here f is +ve so f = 12 cm. 96 cm
Also, u = –8 cm.
1 1 1 96 cm
Using,   or f= = –19.2 cm.
v u f 5
1 1 1 1 1 5 So the focal length of the concave mirror is 19.2 cm
or  –   
v f u 12 8 24 and the image is formed 48 cm in front of it.
24
 v= cm = 4.8 cm.
5 LONGITUDINAL MAGNIFICATION
Given, h1 = 1.2 cm
h2 v
We know,
h1 = – u
v
 h2 = – × h1 = 0.72 cm
u
Image formed is erect. dv  v2
=
5. Find the position, size and the nature of the image
du u2
formed by a spherical mirror from the following data.
If a small object lies along principal axis, du may indicate
u = –20 cm, f = –15 cm, ho = 1.0 cm
the size of the object and dv the size of its image along
1 1 1
Sol. We have + = dv
v u f principal axis. In this is called longitudinal
du
1 1 1 1 1 1 magnification. Negative sign indicates inversion of
or = – = – =–
v f u  15 cm  20 cm 60 cm image irrespective of nature of image and nature of
or v = – 60 cm. mirror.
PAGE # 283
Note : if object lying along the principal axis is not of
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
very small size, the longitudinal magnification =
When light travels in the same homogeneous medium,
V2  V1
(it will always be inverted) it travels along a straight path. However, when it passes
u2  u1
from one transparent medium to another, the direction
of its path changes at the interface of the two media.
VELOCITY OF IMAGE This is called refraction of light.
The phenomenon of the change in the path of the light
(a) Object Moving Perpendicular to Principal
as it passes from one transparent medium to another
Axi s :
is called refraction of light. The path along which the
h2  v light travels in the first medium is called incident ray
= and that in the second medium is called refracted ray.
h1 u The angles which the incident ray and the refracted ray
make with the normal at the surface of separation are
dh2  v dh1 called angle of incidence (i) and angle of refraction (r)
 =
dt u dt respectively.
v
or velocity of image = (velocity of object)
u
This discussion is for velocity w.r.t. to mirror and along
the y-axis.
(b) Object Moving Along Principal Axis :
dv  v 2 du
=
dt u 2 dt
dv
where is the velocity of image along principal axis
dt
du
and is the velocity of object along principal axis.
dt
This discussion is for velocity w.r.t. to mirror and along
the x-axis.
• Newton’s formula
If x and y are the distances (along the principal axis) of
the object and image respectively from the principal
focus, then
xy = f 2, where f is the focal length.
• Paraxial rays : Incident ray

Normal
The rays of light which fall near the pole making small
angles with the principal axis of the mirror Air
Glass
• Marginal rays :
The rays of light which are parallel and travel far away
from the principal axis of the mirror. (C)
Refracted
• Spherical Aberration : It is the inability of a spherical ray
mirror to bring all the rays of a beam of light to its focus Showing different cases of refraction
is called spherical aberration. It can be eliminated by It is observed that :
using a paraboloid mirror. (i) W hen a ray of light passes from an optically rarer
medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the
normal (r < i ), as shown in figure (A).
PAGE # 284
(ii) When a ray of light passes from an optically denser
(b) Effects of refraction of Light :
to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal
(r > i) as shown in figure (B) . (i) A pencil appears bent and short in water :
(iii) A ray of light travelling along the normal passes

undeflected, as shown in figure (C). Here i = r = 0°.
eye
(a) Cause of Refraction :
We come across many media like air, glass, water etc. air
A medium is a transparent material through which light
is transmitted. Every transparent medium has a
property known as optical density. The optical density B
of a transparent medium is closely related to the speed water
of light in the medium. If the optical density of a
transparent medium is low, then the speed of light in
that medium is high. Such a medium is known as
Q
optically rarer medium. Thus, optically rarer medium
is that medium through which light travels fast. In other
words, a medium in which speed of light is more is
Consider a pencil PQ. Let AQ portion of the pencil be
known as optically rarer medium.
dipped in water as shown in figure . Rays of light from
On the other hand, if the optical density of a transparent the tip (Q) of the pencil bend away from the normal as
medium is high, then the speed of light in that medium they go from water to air i.e. denser to rarer medium.
is low. Such a medium is known as optically denser These rays appear to come from a point B. Thus, the
medium. Thus, optically denser medium is that dipped portion of the pencil appears as AB. Hence a
medium through which light travels slow. In other pencil appears bent and short when immersed in
words, a medium in which speed of light is less is water.
known as optically denser medium.
(ii) A water tank appears shallow i.e. less deep than
Speed of light in air is more than the speed of light in its actual depth :
water, so air is optically rarer medium as compared to
the water. In other words, water is optically denser
medium as compared to air. Similarly, speed of light in
C
water is more than the speed of light in glass, so water
is optically rarer medium as compared to the glass. In A B
other words, glass is optically denser medium as
compared to water.
I
W hen light goes from air (optically rarer medium) to
glass (optically denser medium) such that the light in
air makes an angle with the normal to the interface O
separating air and glass, then it bends from its original
direction of propagation. Similarly, if light goes from
Consider an object O say a stone lying on the bed of a
glass to air, again it bends from its original direction of
water tank as shown in figure. A ray (OB) of light from
propagation. The phenomena of bending of light from
the object suffers refraction at the free surface of water
its path is known as refraction. We have seen that the
in the tank and bends away from the normal along BC.
speed of light in different media is different, so we can
The refracted ray BC appears to come from point I
say that refraction of light takes place because the
which is above the object O. Thus, the bed of the tank
speed of light is different in different media. Thus, the
appears at the level of point I. In other words, water
cause of refraction can be summarised as follows :
tank appears shallow.
 NOTE : (iii) Apparent shift in the position of the sun at sun-
(i) Refraction is the deviation of light when it crosses rise and sunset
the boundary between two different media (of different Due to the atmospheric refraction, the sun is visible
optical densities) and there is a change in both before actual sunrise and after actual sunset.
wavelength and speed of light.
(ii) The frequency of the refracted ray remains unchanged.
(iii) The intensity of the refracted ray is less than that

of the incident ray. It is because there is partial reflection
and absorption of light at the interface.
PAGE # 285
Apparent
Position
S of Sun
Atmosphere
Horizon
Observer
Actual
S Position
Earth
of Sun
Refraction effect at sunset and sunrise
With altitude, the density and hence refractive index of not always the same. This increase or decrease in the
air-layers decreases. The light rays starting from the intensity of light reaching the eye results in the change
sun S travel from rarer to denser layers. They bend in apparent position or twinkling of the star.
more and more towards the normal. However, an ob- (c) Laws of Refraction :
server sees an object in the direction of the rays reach-
ing his eyes. So to an observer standing on the earth, There are two laws of refraction :
the sun which is actually in a position below the hori- (i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at
zon, appears in the position S’, above the horizon. The the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
apparent shift in the position of the sun is by about
0.5 0. Thus the sun appears to rise early by about sin i
(ii) = constant called refractive index denoted
2 minutes and for the same reason, it appears to set sin r
late by about 2 minutes. This increases the length of by ‘  ’.
the day by about 4 minutes.
The above law is called snell’s law (willibrod snell).
(iv) Twinkling of stars : sin i

Eg. = 
sin r 1 2
On a clear night, you might have observed the twinkling
of a star, which is due to an atmospheric refraction of Here 1 2 is called refractive index of 2nd medium
star light. The density of the atmosphere, as we know w.r.t. 1st medium.
goes on decreasing as the distance above the sea
level increases. For the sake of simplicity, air can be Laws of refraction are valid for both types of surfaces 
 
supposed to be made up of a very large number of i.e. for plane as well as spherical refracting surfaces. 
layers whose density decreases with the distance
above the surface of the earth. Therefore, the light from REFRACTIVE INDEX
a heavenly body, such as a star, goes on gradually (a ) Re fr ac ti ve  nde x in t er ms of S pe ed of
bending towards normal as it travels through the Light :
earth’s atmosphere. As the object is always seen in
The refractive index of a medium may be defined in
the direction of the light reaching the observer’s eye, terms of the speed of light as follows :
the star appears higher up in the sky than its actual
The refractive index of a medium for a light of given
position. Further, the densities of the various layers go
wavelength may be defined as the ratio of the speed of
on varying due to the convection currents set up in air light in vacuum to its speed in that medium.
by temperature differences. Thus, the refractive index
Speed of light i n vacuum
of a layer of air at a particular level goes on changing. Refractive index = Speed of light in medium
Due to these variations in the refractive indices of the
 c
various layers of air, the light from a star passing through
or
the atmospheric air changes its path from time to time v
and therefore, the amount of light reaching the eye is
Refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum
is also called absolute refractive index.
PAGE # 286
(b) Refractive ndex in terms of Wavelength : The extent to which the bottom appears to be raised
depends upon the value of refractive index of the refracting
Since the frequency   remains unchanged when
medium.
light passes from one medium to another, therefore,
 vac    vac
 c =
v  med   =  med
The refractive index of a medium may be defined as Eye

N C
the ratio of wavelength of light in vacuum to its
N1
wavelength in that medium. r rarer medium
Q (medium 1)
(c) Relative Refractive ndex : O
apparent
The relative refractive index of medium 2 with respect depth r i N2
to medium 1 is defined as the ratio of speed of light
(v1) in the medium 1 to the speed of light (v2) in medium T real depth denser medium
i (medium 2)
2 and is denoted by 1 2 .
v1 1 2 P
Thus, 1 2 =
v2 =
2 =
1
As refractive index is the ratio of two similar physical
quantities, so it has no unit and dimension.
In above fig. PQN2  i & N1QR  r
Factors on which the refractive index of a medium
depends are : sin i
 w μa =
(i) Nature of the medium. sin r
(ii) Wavelength of the light used.
(iii) Temperature. sin r
or a μ w = .......... (1)
sin i
(iv) Nature of the surrounding medium.
It may be noted that refractive index is a characteristic As N1QR  OPQ  r
of the pair of the media and also depends on the
(corresponding angles)
wavelength of light, but is independent of the angle of
incidence.
OQ
Physical significance of refractive index : In O P Q sin r = sin OP' Q  .......... (2)
P' Q
The refractive index of a medium gives the following
two informations : and i  PQN2  QPO (alt. Int. (s))
(i) The value of refractive index gives information about

OQ
the direction of bending of refracted ray. It tells whether  In QOP sin i = sin OPQ  .......... (3)
the ray will bend towards or away from the normal.
PQ
(ii) The refractive index of a medium is related to the So, from (1),(2) and (3)
speed of light. It is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum OQ/P ' Q PQ
to that in the given medium. For example, refractive index a μw =  .......... (4)
OQ/PQ P' Q
of glass is 3/2. This indicates that the ratio of the speed
of light in glass to that in vacuum is 2 : 3 or the speed of Nearly normal direction of viewing angle i is very small
light in glass is two-third of its speed in vacuum. PQ  PO and P’Q  P’O
(d ) Re fr ac ti ve  nde x in t er ms of a pp ar ent  from (4)
depth and real depth :
PO Real depth
Whenever we observe the bottom of a swimming pool a μw =
P' O
 a μw =
Apparent depth
or a tank of clear water, we find that the bottom appears
to be raised i.e. the apparent depth is less as compared
to its real depth.
PAGE # 287
REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB Case-I : For light going from air to glass at point E.
(a) Refraction throug h a rectangula r glass i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction.

slab and principle of reversibility of light :
Consider a rectangular glass slab, as shown in figure.

sin i
a μg = .......................(1)
A ray AE is incident on the face PQ at an angle of sin r
incidence i . On entering the glass slab, it bends
towards normal and travels along EF at an angle of ( a μg = absolute refractive index of glass)
refraction r. The refracted ray EF is incident on face SR
at an angle of incidence r. The emergent ray FD bends Case-II : For light going from glass to air at point F.
away from the normal at an angle of refraction e.
sinr
Thus the emergent ray FD is parallel to the incident ray  g μa = sin e
AE, but it has been laterally displaced with respect to
the incident ray. There is shift in the path of light on
emerging from a refracting medium with parallel faces. r   angle of incidence 
where    r  r
Lateral shift : e  angle of refraction 
Lateral shift is the perpendicular distance between the

incident and emergent rays when light is incident sin r
 g μa = (as e  i )
obliquely on a refracting slab with parallel faces. sin i
Factors on which lateral shift depends are :
(i) Lateral shift is directly proportional to the thickness 1 sin i

 μ  sin r .......................(2)
of glass slab. g a
(ii) Lateral shift is directly proportional to the incident

 From (1) & (2)
angle.
e  i , hence incident ray and emergent ray are
(iii) Lateral shift is directly proportional to the refractive
parallel.
index of glass slab.
(iv) Lateral shift is inversely proportional to the 1

wavelength of incident light. a μg =  a  g g  a 1
g μa
REFRACTION AND SPEED OF LIGHT
The refraction of light occurs because light has different

speed in different media. Speed of light is maximum in
vacuum or air. It is less in any other medium. Denser
is the medium lesser is the speed of light. Refractive
index of a medium depends not only on its nature and
physical conditions, but also on the colour or
wavelength of light. It is more for violet light and less
for red light (VIBGYOR).
To find refractive index of two media w.r.t. each other

If a plane mirror is placed in the path of emergent ray when their refractive indices w.r.t. air are given. A ray of
FD then the path of the emergent ray along FD is light AB refracts from different medium as shown in
figure below.
reversed back, it follows the same path along which it
(i) For refractive index at interface A B
was incident i.e. the incidence ray becomes the
emergent ray & emergent ray becomes the incident sin x
ray. It is known as principle of reversibility of light. a μw  .......................(i)
sin y
PAGE # 288
(ii) For refractive index at interface C D 7. Calculate the speed and wavelength of light (i) in glass
and (ii) in air, when light waves of frequency
sin y 6 × 1014 Hz travel from air to glass of  = 1.5.
w μg  .......................(ii)
sin z
Sol. Here  = 6 × 1014 Hz,  = 1.5
Va 3  10 8
(iii) For refractive index at interface E F (i) In glass speed of light, Vg =  = 2 × 108 m/s
 1. 5
sin z
g μa  .......................(iii) Vg 2  108
sin x
Wavelength of light,  g   = 3.3 × 10–7 m.
 6  1014
(ii) In air speed of light Va = 3 × 108 m/s
Va 3  108
Wavelength of light,  a   = 5 × 10–7 m.
 6  1014
8. The depth of water in a tank is 4 meter. If the refractive
4
index of water is , by how much distance does the
3
bottom of tank appear to be raised ?
Sol. Actual depth, d = 4m
4
R.I. water,  =
3
Actual depth
=
Apparent depth
d 4
Apparent depth =  = 3m
 4/3
So, bottom of tank appear to be raised by 4 – 3 = 1 m
Multiply (1), (2) & (3)
a μw  wμg  gμa = 1
PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT
1
w μg 
a μ w  gμa “If the path of a ray of light is reversed after suffering a
number of refraction and reflection, then it retraces its
aμg path” This is known as principle of reversibility of light.
w μg  .......................(iv)
a μw
 
 as 1  a μg 
 g μa

 
and on reciprocal
aμw
g μw  .......................(v)
a μg
 In general we can write as :
1μ3
2 μ3 
1μ2
Figure : Reversibility of light
1μ2 A ray of light (AB) travelling in air medium (1) strikes the
3 μ2 
1μ3
surface of water medium (2) at B and bends towards
the normal NN’. The refracted ray BC strikes a plane
PAGE # 289
mirror M normally as shown above. After reflection it (ii) Lateral shift varies directly with the incident angle.
will retrace the path i.e. along CBA path.
(iii) Lateral shift varies directly with the refractive index
of glass slab.
COMPOUND SLAB
(A) Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray if there
is same medium on both sides light is laterally stifled
A compound slab is made of two or more media (say
water and glass) bounded by parallel faces and is t sin(i  r)
placed in air. A compound slab can be made by placing by, d =
cosr
a glass tray completely filled with water on a glass
if angle of incidence is very small then
slab.
When an incident ray AB travelling in air (medium 1) t(i  r )  r  1

d= = t×i  1   = t×i  1  
strikes the water surface (medium 2) at B, it is refracted 1  i  
along BC. In figure ABN = i (incident angle) and
(B) Emergent ray is not parallel to incident ray if the
N' BC = r1 (angle of refraction). medium on both the sides of slab are different.
A
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
The phenomenon of reflection when a ray of light

travelling from a denser to rarer medium is sent back
to the same denser medium, provided when it strikes
the interface of the denser and the rarer media at an
C angle greater than the critical angle, is called total
internal reflection.
W hen a ray of light falls on the interface separating

denser and rarer medium, it is refracted as shown in
figure. As the angle of incidence increases, the refracted
ray bends towards the interface. At a particular angle of
incidence, the, refracted light travels along the interface
and the angle of refraction becomes 90º. The angle of
incidence for which angle of refraction becomes 900 is
Figure : Lateral shifting of light in compound slab called critical angle iC.
Now the ray BC acts as an incident ray for the surface sin ic 1
separating glass slab and water. So the incident ray  = sin ic =
aw
w a
sin 90 º
BC after striking this surface at C is refracted along CD
in glass (medium 3). BCN1 = r1, which is equal to
angle of refraction, now acts as angle of incidence.
DCN 1 = r2 = angle of refraction
The ray CD acts as an incident ray for the surface

separating glass slab and air. So the incident ray CD
after striking this surface at D is refracted along DE in
air. The rays DE and AB are parallel, so N2 ' DE
= ABN = i. In this case, CDN 2 = r2.
 NOTE : Incident ray AB and emergent ray DE will be

Figure : Ray diagram showing total internal reflection
parallel.
W hen the angle of incidence becomes greater than
Factors on which lateral shift depends : the critical angle, there is no refracted light and all the
light is reflected in the denser medium. This
(i) Lateral shift varies directly with the thickness of glass
phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
slab.
PAGE # 290
(a) Conditions for total Internal Reflection : Additional Information :
(i) The light should travel from denser to rarer medium. Mirrors can also be used for bending the rays of light.
But the intensity of the beam reflected by mirrors is low
(ii) The angle of incidence must be greater than the
because even a highly polished mirror does not reflect
critical angle for the given pair of media.
the whole light. On the other hand, in Porro-prism the
 IMPORTANT NOTE : whole light is reflected. Therefore, there is no loss in
intensity of light and hence image is bright.
During total internal reflection of light, the whole incident
light energy is reflected back to the parent optically (ii) Sparking or brilliance of a diamond
denser medium.
The refractive index of diamond is 2.5 which gives, the
(i) Critical angle of a medium depends upon the critical angle as 24º. The faces of the diamond are cut
wavelength of light.
in such a way that whenever light falls on any of the
Critical angle  wavelength : faces, the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
Greater the wavelength, greater will be the critical angle i.e. 24º. So when light falls on the diamond, it
angle. Thus, critical angle of a medium will be suffers repeated total internal reflections. The light
maximum for red colour and minimum for violet colour. which finally emerges out from few places in certain
directions makes the diamond sparkling.
(ii) Critical angle depends upon the nature of the pair
of media. Greater the refractive index, lesser will be (iii) Shining of air bubble in water
the critical angle. The critical angle for water-air interface is 48º 45. When
(iii) Image formed due to total internal reflection is much light propagating from water (denser medium) is
brighter because total light is reflected back into the incident on the surface of air bubble (rarer medium) at
same medium and there is no loss in intensity of light. an angle greater than 480 45’, the total internal reflection
(b ) S om e P henome na due t o t ota l I nt ernal takes place. Hence the air bubble in water shines
Reflection : brilliantly.
(i) Working of Porro Prism :
A right angled isosceles prism called Porro-Prism can
be used in periscope or binocular.
The refractive index of glass is 1.5 and the critical I > Ic
angle is equal to 41.8 º. W hen the ray of light falls
on the face of a right angled prism at angle greater
than 41.8 º, it will suffer total internal reflection.
Right angled prisms used to bend the light through
90º and 180º are shown in figure (a) and (b) respectively. Figure : Shining of air bubble in water
A right angled prism used to invert the image of an
(iv) Mirage :
object without changing its size as shown in figure.
A Mirage is an optical illusion of water observed generally in
deserts when the inverted image of an object
45º
Q (e.g. a tree) is observed along with the object itself on a hot
day.
P
45º
B
C
Q' P'
(a)
Figure : A mirage formation in deserts
Due to the heating of the surface of earth on a hot day,

the density and hence the refractive index of the layers
of air close to the surface of earth becomes less. The
temperature of the atmosphere decreases with height
from the surface of earth, so the value of density and
hence the refractive index of the layers of air at higher
Figure : Working of porro prism altitude is more. The rays of light from distant objects
(say a tree) reaches the surface of earth with an angle
of incidence greater than the critical angle. Hence the
PAGE # 291
incident light suffers total internal reflections as shown (iii) They are used in telecommunication for transmitting
in the figure. When an observer sees the object as signals. A single fibre is able to transmit multiple
well as the image he gets the impression of water signals (say3000) simultaneously without interference,
pool near the object. whereas the electric wire can preferably transmit one
(A) The mirage formed in hot regions is called inferior signal at a time.
mirage. (iv) Optical fibres are used to transmit the images of
(B) Superior mirage is formed in cold regions. This the objects.
type of mirage is called looming. (v) Optical fibres are used to transmit electrical signals
(v) Optic pipe and optical fibres from one place to another. The electrical signals are
converted into light by special devices called
Optical fibre is extremely thin (radius of few microns)
transducers, then these light signals are transmitted
and long strand of very fine quality glass or quartz
through optical fibres to distant places.
coated with a thin layer of material of refractive index
less than the refractive index of the strand.
(If refractive index of the core is say 1.7 then refractive REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
index of the coating is 1.5). The coating or
surrounding of optical strands is known as cladding.
Spherical refracting surface is a refracting medium
The sleeve containing a bundle of optical fibres is called whose curved surface is a part of sphere.
a light pipe. For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface
separating two media.
When light falls at one end of the optical fibre, it gets
total internally refracted into the fibre. The refracted ray  2  1  2  1
 
of light falls on the interface separating fibre and coating v u R
at an angle which is greater than the critical angle. The
total internal reflection takes place again and again as
shown in figure below. The light travels the entire length
of the fibre and arrives at the other end of the fibre O P C I
without any loss in its intensity even if the fibre is u v
rounded or curved.
where light moves from the medium of R.I. 1 to the

medium of R.I 2.
9. There is a small air bubble inside a glass sphere

(=1.5) of radius 10 cm. The bubble is 4.0cm below
the surface and is viewed normally from the outside.
Find the apparent depth of the bubble.
Figure : Structure of optical fibre
Uses of Optical Pipe :
(i) Optical fibres are used to transmit light without any

loss in its intensity over distances of several
kilometer. P
A
(ii) Optical fibres are used in the manufacture of medical
I
instruments called endoscopies. Light pipe is inserted
O
into the stomach of the human being. Light is sent
through few optical fibres of the light pipe. The reflected c
light from the stomach is taken back through the
remaining optical fibres of the same light pipe. This
helps the doctors to see deeply into the human body.
Hence the doctor can visually examine the stomach
and intestines etc. of a patient.
PAGE # 292
Sol. The observer sees the image formed due to refraction
at the spherical surface when the light from the bubble
goes from the glass to the air.
Here u = –4.0 cm, R= –10 cm, 1 = 1.5 and 2 = 1
We have,
2 1 2  1
 
v u R
1 1 .5 1  1.5
or,  
v  4.0 cm  10 cm
Different types of concave lens
1 1.5 1.5 (c) Definitions in connection with spherical
or,   lens :
v 10 cm 4.0 cm
or , v = –3.0 cm (i) Centre of curvature (C) :
Thus, the bubble will apear 3 cm below the surface. The centre of curvature of the surface of a lens is the
centre of the sphere of which it forms a part, because
a lens has two surfaces, so it has two centres of
SPHERICAL LENSES
curvature. In figure (a) and (b) points, C1 and C2 are the
centres of curvature.
A lens is a piece of transparent refracting material
bounded by two spherical surfaces or one spherical (ii) Radius of curvature (R) :
and other plane surface. The radius of curvature of the surface of a lens is the
radius of the sphere of which the surface forms a part.
A lens is the most important optical component used
R1 and R2 in the figure (a) and (b) represents radius of
in microscopes, telescopes, cameras, projectors etc.
curvature.
Basically lenses are of two types :
(iii) Principal axis (C1 C2) :
(i) Convex lens or converging lens
It is the line passing through the two centres of
(ii) Concave lens or diverging lens curvature (C1 and C2) of the lens.
(a) Convex lens and its types:

Optical
Centre
A lens which is thick at the centre and thin at the edges
is called a convex lens. The most common form of a Radius of
convex lens has both the surfaces bulging out at the Centre of
Curvature
middle. Some forms of convex lens are shown in the Curvature R1
P1
figure.
C2 P2 C1
O
R2
Principal
axis
(a)
Different types of convex lens
(b) Concave lens and its types :
A lens which is thin at the middle and thick at the edges

is called a concave lens. The most common form of a
concave lens has both the surfaces depressed inward Figure : Characteristics of convex and concave
at the middle. Some forms of concave lenses are lenses
shown in the figure. (iv) Optical centre :
PAGE # 293
If a ray of light is incident on a lens such that after (B) Second principal focus and second focal length :
refraction through the lens the emergent ray is parallel
to the incident ray, then the point at which the refracted It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that the light
ray intersects, the principal axis is called the optical rays incident parallel to the principal axis, after refraction
centre of the lens. In the figure O is the optical centre of
through the lens, either converge to this point (in convex
the lens. It divides the thickness of the lens in the ratio
lens) or appear to diverge from this point (in concave
of the radii of curvature of its two surfaces.
If the radii of curvature of the two surfaces are equal, lens). The plane passing through this point and
then the optical centre coincides with the geometric perpendicular to principal axis is called the second
centre of the lens. focal plane. The distance between the second principal
focus and the optical centre is called the second focal
length. It is denoted by f2 or f.
(b)
Figure : Ray diagram showing Second principal

focus
Generally, the focal length of a lens refers to its second

focal length. It is obvious from the above figures, that
For a ray passing through the optical centre, the the foci of a convex lens are real and those of a concave
incident and emergent rays are parallel. However, the lens are virtual. Thus the focal length of a convex lens
emergent ray suffers some lateral displacement
is taken positive and the focal length of a concave lens
relative to the incident ray. The lateral displacement
decreases with the decrease in thickness of the lens. is taken negative.
Hence a ray passing through the optical centre of a
thin lens does not suffer any lateral deviation, as shown If the medium on both sides of a lens is same, then
in the figure (b) and (c) above. the numerical values of the first and second focal
lengths are equal. Thus
(v) Principal foci and focal length :
f = f
(A) First principal focus and first focal length :
(vi) Aperture :
It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that rays
starting from this point (in convex lens) or appearing to
It is the diameter of the circular boundary of the lens.
go towards this point (concave lens), after refraction
through the lens, become parallel to the principal axis. It
is represented by F1 or f. The plane passing through CONVEX LENS
this point and perpendicular to the principal axis is called
the first focal plane. The distance between first principal (a ) Rule s for im ag e form at ion by Conve x
focus and the optical centre is called the first focal length.
Lens :
It is denoted by f1 or f.
The position of the image formed by a convex lens can
be found by considering two of the following rays (as
explained below).
(i) A ray of light coming parallel to principal axis, after

refraction through the lens, passes through the
principal focus (F) as shown in the figure.
f
Figure : Ray diagram showing First principal focus
PAGE # 294
A
Object at
Infinity B
O F
E
B'
O F
F
Convex Lens A'

(ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre O
of the lens goes straight without suffering any deviation (ii) When object lies beyond 2F :
as shown in the figure.
When an object lies beyond 2F, its real, inverted and
diminished image is formed between F and 2F on the
other side of the lens as explained below :
A ray of light AE coming parallel to the principal axis,
after refraction, passes through the principal focus F
O F and goes along EF. Another ray AO passing through
the optical centre O goes straight without suffering any
deviation. Both the refracted rays meet at A’. Hence a
real, inverted and diminished image is formed between
F and 2F on the other side of the convex lens.
(iii) A ray of light coming from the object and passing
A
through the principal focus of the lens after refraction E
through the lens, becomes parallel to the principal axis.
F
B'
B 2F F O 2F
A'
(iii) When object lies at 2F :

F O When an object lies at 2F, its real, inverted image having
same size as that of the object is formed on the other
side of the convex lens as explained below :
(b) Image formed by Convex Lens : and goes along EF. Another ray AO passing through
The position, size and nature of the image formed by a the optical centre O goes straight without suffering any
convex lens depends upon the distance of the object deviation. Both the refracted rays meet at A’. Hence a
from the optical centre of the lens. For a thin convex real, inverted image having the same size as that of
lens, the various cases of image formation are the object is formed at 2F on the other side of the lens.
explained below: A
E
(i) When object lies at infinity :
F 2F
B
When an object lies at infinity, the rays of light coming B'
2F F O
from the object may be regarded as a parallel beam of
light. The ray of light BO passing through the optical
A'
centre O goes straight without any deviation. Another
parallel ray AE coming from the object, after refraction,
goes along EA. Both the refracted rays meet at A in (iv) When object lies between F and 2F :
the focal plane of the lens. Hence, a real, inverted and When an object lies between F and 2F in front of a
highly diminished image is formed on the other side convex lens, its real, inverted and magnified image is
of the lens in its focal plane. formed beyond 2F on the other side of the lens as
explained below :
PAGE # 295
A ray of light AE coming parallel to the principal axis, The results of image formation by a convex lens are
after refraction, passes through the principal focus F summerised in the table :
and goes along EF. Another ray of light AO passing
Position of Position of Size of Nature of
through the optical centre goes straight without any the object the image the image the image
deviation. Both these refracted rays meet at A’. Hence
a real, inverted and magnified image is formed beyond At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished Real and inverted
2F on the other side of the lens. Between
Beyond 2F Diminished Real and inverted
F and 2F
At 2F At 2F Same size Real and inverted
A
E Between
Beyond 2F Magnified Real and inverted
F and 2F
F B'
At F At infinity Highly magnified Real and inverted
2F B F O 2F
Between On the side of
Magnified Virtual and erect
O and F the object
A'
CONCAVE LENS
(v) When object lies at F :
When an object lies at the principal focus F of a convex (a ) Rules for i mag e forma ti on b y Conca ve
lens, then its real, inverted and highly magnified image Lens :
is formed at infinity on the other side of the lens as
The position of the image formed by a concave lens
explained below :
can be found by considering following two rays coming
A ray of light AE coming parallel to the principal axis, from a point object (as explained below).
and goes along EF. Another ray of light AO passing (i) A ray of light coming parallel to the principal axis,
through the optical centre O goes straight without any after refraction, appears to pass through the principal
deviation. Both these refracted rays are parallel to each focus F of the lens, when produced backward as shown
other and meet at infinity. Hence a real, inverted, highly
in figure (a) .
magnified image is formed at infinity on the other side
of the lens. (ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre O of
the lens goes straight without suffering any deviation as
shown in figure (b).
E
(vi) When object lies between O and F :

When an object lies between the optical centre O and (a) (b)
the principal focus F of a convex lens, then its virtual,
erect and magnified image is formed on the same
side as that of the object as explained below : (b) Image formed by Concave Lens :
A ray of light AE coming parallel to the principal axis, The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual,
erect and diminished and is formed between the optical
and goes along EF. Another ray of light AO passing
through the optical centre goes straight without any centre O and the principal focus F of the lens. For a thin
deviation. Both these refracted rays appears to meet concave lens of small aperture, the cases of image
at A, when produced backward. Hence virtual, erect formation are discussed below :
and enlarged image is obtained on the same side of
(i) When the object lies at infinity :
the lens.
When object lies at infinity in front of a concave lens, a
A'
virtual, erect, highly diminished image is formed at the
A E
principal focus F as explained below.
The rays of light AE and BD coming parallel to the
B' F B O F principal axis of the concave lens, after refraction, go
along EG and DH respectively. When extended in the
back direction, these refracted rays appear to pass
through the principal focus F. Hence a virtual, erect
PAGE # 296
and highly diminished image is formed at the principal Power of a concave lens is –ve (As it has a virtual focus
focus F. and its focal length measured is –ve.)
G
 NOTE :
If two thin lenses are placed in contact, the combination

E
A
has a power equal to the algebraic sum of the powers
of two lenses, P = P1 + P2
F O F
1 1 1
B
   .
D f f1 f2
Here, f1 and f2 are the focal length of lenses and f is

H
(ii) When the object lies between 0 and  : focal length of combination of lenses.
When an object lies at any position between the optical

centre O and infinity in front of a concave lens, the image
formed is virtual, erect, diminished and is formed
LENS FORMULA
between the optical centre O and the principal focus F
as explained below.
Relation between object distance u, image distance v
after refraction, goes along EG and appears to pass 1 1 1
through principal focus when produced backward and and focal length f is :   .
v u f
another ray which is passing through the optical centre
O goes straight without any deviation. Both these
refracted rays appear to meet at A. Hence, a virtual,
erect, diminished image is formed between O and F. PROOF OF LENS FORMULA
G
Relation between object distance u, image distance v
A E 1 1 1
and focal length f is :   .
A'
v u f
2F B F B' O F B C
A'
A O
The summary of image formation by a concave lens
for different positions of the object is given in table. B'
Let an object A B be kept on one side of lens (between

Position of Position of Size of Nature of F1 and F2) then image A’ B’ is formed on other side of
the object the image the image the image
lens (beyond 2F2). Now obeying sign convention the
At infinity At F Highly diminished Virtual and erect
object distance OA = –u, the image distance OA’ = v.
      Between Between and the focal length OF2 = f.
Diminished Virtual and erect
O and  O and F
A'B' OA'
Since  OA’B’ and  OAB are similar   ......(i)
AB OA
POWER OF A LENS
A'B' F2 A'
’F2 are similar 
Again  COF2 and  B’A’F 
It is the measure of deviation produce by a lens. It is OC OF2
defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.
Its unit is Diopter (D) (f should always be in metres). A'B' F2 A'
But OC = AB.   .......(ii)
AB OF2
1
Power (P) =
focal length( f in m) Hence from equation (i) and (ii)
Power of a convex lens is +ve (As it has a real focus

and its focal length measured is +ve.)
PAGE # 297
OA' F2 A' OA'–OF2
 
OA OF2 OF2 value.
v vf 3. If a lens is cut vertically into two equal halves as shown,

   vf = –uv + uf
u f then intensity of transmitted light and aperture of the
On dividing each term by u v f, we get lens remains same.
uf uv uf
  4. Minimum distance between a real object and real
uvf uvf uvf image formed by a convex lens of focal length f is 4f.
1 1 1 5. A convex lens of refractive index 2 behaves as a

 
u f v convex lens in a medium of refractive index 1 (<2)
and diverging lens in a medium of refractive index
1 1 1 1(>2).
or  
f v u 6. A concave lens of refractive index 2 behaves as a
concave lens in a medium of refractive index 1 (<2)
and converging lens in a medium of refractive index
LINEAR MAGNIFICATION
1(>2).
Linear magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of the
10. An object is placed 12 cm away from the optical centre
size of the image to the size of the object.
of a lens. Its image is formed exactly midway between
A' B' h2 height of image the optical centre and the object :
m   , (i) Draw a ray diagram to show the image formed.
AB h1 height of object
(ii) Calculate the focal length of the lens used.
Sol. (i) The ray diagram is shown below.
v if m is  ve (image is virtual & erect.)
also m 
u if m is  ve (imageis real & inverted)
NOTE : Lens maker formula :
1 (  1)  1  1    lens  1  1  1  6cm

= R R    R R 
f  1 2   medium  1 2 
12cm
(where  is absolute refractive index of lens material)
Spherical Aberration in Lenses : The image is virtual, erect and a diminished image.
The inability of a lens to focus all the rays of light falling (ii) Using lens formula
on it at a single point is known as spherical aberration
1 1 1
in the lens. – = , we have
 NOTE : v u f
1 1 1
1. Intensity or brightness of the image is proportional to  
 6  12 f
the square of the aperture of the lens, i.e, I  A2. that is
1 1 1 2  1 1
why, the brightness of the image produced by a lens =– + = =–
f 6 12 12 12
which is half painted black reduces to half. However, f = – 12 cm
size of image remains the same because every part of
a lens forms a complete image of an object. 11. Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths 10 cm and 20
cm are placed in contact. Find the effective power of
the combination.
2. If a lens is cut horizontally into two equal halves as
Sol. P = P1 + P2
shown, then intensity of transmitted light becomes
100 100
P= +
1 f1 f2
half and aperture of lens becomes of its initial
2 100 100
= + = 10 + 5 = 15 D
10 20
PAGE # 298
12. An illuminated object and a screen are placed 90 cm. (a) Human Eye
apart. What is the focal length and nature of the lens
required to produce a clear image on the screen, twice The human eye is one of the most sensitive sense
organ of sight which enables us to see the wonderful
the size of the object ?
world of light and colour around us. It is like a camera
having a lens system and forming an inverted, real
Sol. As the image is real, the lens must be a convex lens image on a light sensitive screen inside the eye. The
and it should be placed between the object and the structure and working of the eye is as follows :
screen.
(A) Structure and Working of Human Eye :
Let distance between the object & the convex lens be x
The human eye has the following parts :
then u = –x, v = 90 – x
v
Now m= = –2 (image is real)
u
90 – x
= –2  x = 30
–x
 u = –30 cm, v = +60 cm.
Now ,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
 –  –    
f v u 60 – 30 60 30 60 20
 f = 20 cm.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Vi sual A ngle, Magnifying Power of

(i) Sclera : It is the outer part of eye which protects the
Optical Instruments : eye. It is hard, opaque and white in colour.
(ii) Cornea : It is a transparent spherical membrane
V i s u a l A n g l e : T h e a n g le w h i c h a n o b j e c t
covering the front of the eye.
subtends at our eye is called the 'visual angle'.
(iii) Iris : It is a coloured diaphragm between the cornea
The apparent size of an obj ect as seen by our
and lens.
eye depends upon the visual angle. Larger the
visu al ang le, b ig g er th e ap p aren t size o f th e (iv) Pupil : It is a small hole in the iris.
object. (v) Eye lens : It is a transparent lens made of jelly like
material. ( = 1.396)
(vi) Ciliary muscles : These muscles hold the lens in
position.
(vii) Retina : It is a back surface of the eye.
(viii) Blind spot : It is a point at which the optic nerve
leaves the eye. An image formed at this point
is not sent to the brain.
Magnifying Power : The purpose of microscopes and (ix) Aqueous humor : It is a clear liquid region between
the cornea and the lens. ( = 1.336)
telescopes is to increase the visual angle. Therefore,
the power of these instruments is measured by their (x) Vitreous humor : The space between eye lens and
retina is filled with another liquid called vitreous
power of increasing the visual angle. This is the ratio
humor. ( = 1.336)
of the visual angle subtended by the image formed by
the instrument at the eye to the visual angle subtended In the eye, the image is formed on the retina by
successive refractions at the cornera, the aqueous
by the object at the unaided eye.
humor, the lens and the vitreous humor. Electrical
signals then travel along the optic nerve to the brain to
be interpreted. In good light, the yellow spot is most
sensitive to detail and the image is automatically
formed there.
PAGE # 299
(B) Power of Accommodation :
Due to genetic disorder, some persons do not possess
The images of the objects at different distances from some cone-shaped cells that respond to certain
the eye are brought to focus on the retina by changing specific colours only. Such persons cannot distinguish
the focal length of the eye-lens, which is composed of between certain colours but can see well otherwise.
fibrous jelly-like material, can be modified to some Such persons are said to have colour-blindness.
extent by the ciliary muscles. Driving licenses are generally not issued to persons
(C) Near Point and Far Point : having colour-blindness.
The nearest point at which a small object can be seen (G) Colour Perception of Animals :
distinctly by the eye is called the near point. For a normal
Different animals have different colour perception due
eye, it is about 25 cm and is denoted by the symbol D.
to different structure of rod shaped cells and cone
With advancing age, the power of accommodation of
shaped cells. For example, bees have some cone-
the eye decreases as the eye lens gradually loses its
shaped cells that are sensitive to ultraviolet. Therefore
flexibility. For most of the old persons aged nearly 60
bees can see objects in ultraviolet light and can
years, the near point is about 200 cm and corrective
perceive colours which we cannot do.
glasses are needed to see the nearby objects clearly.
The farthest point upto which our eye can see objects Human beings cannot see in ultraviolet light as their
clearly, without any strain on the eye is called the far retina do not have cone-shaped cells that are sensitive
point. For a person with normal vision, the far point is to ultraviolet light.
at infinity. The retina of chicks have mostly cone shaped cells
(D) Least Distance of Distinct Vision : and only a few rod shaped cells. As rod shaped cells
are sensitive to bright light only, therefore, chicks wake
The minimum distance of an object from the eye at
up with sunrise and sleep in their resting place by the
which it can be seen most clearly and distinctly without
sunset.
any strain on the eye, is called the least distance of
distinct vision. For a person with normal vision, it is (H) Cataract :
about 25 cm and is represented by the symbol D, i.e.
Sometimes due to the formation of a membrane over
Least distance of distinct vision = D = 25 cm. the crystalline lens of some people in the old age, the
(E) Persistence of Vision : eye lens becomes hazy or even opaque. This is called
cataract. It results in decrease or loss in vision of the
The image formed on the retina of the eye does not
eye. Cataract can be corrected by surgery leading to
fade away instantaneously, when the object is removed
normal vision.
from the sight. The impression (or sensation) of the
object remains on the retina for about (1/16)th of a
Defects of vision and their correction :
second, even after the object is removed from the sight.
This continuance of the sensation of eye is called the
People with normal vision can focus clearly on very
persistence of vision.
distant objects. We say their far point is at infinity.
Let a sequence of still pictures is taken by a movie
camera. If the sequence of these still pictures is
projected on a screen at a rate of 24 images or more
per second then the successive impressions of the
images on the screen appear to blend or merge
smoothly into one another. This is because an image
(or a scene) on the screen appears just before the
impression of previous image on the retina is lost. People with normal vision can also focus clearly on
Hence, the sequence of images blend into one another near objects upto a distance of 25 cm. We say their
giving the impression of a moving picture. This principle near point is at a distance of 25 cm from the eye.
is used in motion picture projection or in cinematography.
(F) Colour-Blindness :
The retina of our eye has large number of light sensitive
cells having shapes of rods and cones. The
rod-shaped cells respond to the intensity of light with
different degrees of brightness and darkness whereas
the cone shaped cells respond to colours. In dim light
rods are sensitive, but cones are sensitive only in bright
light. The cones are sensitive to red, green and blue But there are some defects due to eye irregularities
colours of light to different extents. which are as follows :
PAGE # 300
(i) Short Sightedness (or Myopia) : formed bhind the retina. This defects arises because:
A person with myopia can see nearby object clearly but (i) Increase in focal length of eye lens.
can not see distant objects distinctly. A myopic person (ii) The eye ball has become to small.
has the far point nearer than infinity. In a myopic eye,
the image of distant object is form in front of the retina This defect can be corrected by using by convex lens of
this defect is arise due to : suitable power.
(i) Excessive curvature of eye lens.
(ii) Elongation of eye ball. The converging lens of correct focal length will cause
This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens
the virtual image to be formed at the actual near point
of suitbale power.
of the farsighted person’s eye as shown in figure (c).
Normal
near point
N Short
eyeball
25 cm
Ray diagram in case of short sightedness
(a)
The rays of light from distant object are diverged by the
concave lens so that final image is formed at the retina.
If the object is very far off (i.e. u ~  ), then focal length N' N
of the concave lens is so chosen that virtual image of
the distant object is formed at the far point F of the Near point of 25 cm
defective eye
short-sighted eye. Therefore rays of light appear to (b)
come from the image at the far point F of the short-
sighted eye and not from the more distant object.
N' N
Near point of 25 cm
defective eye
(c)
Correction of far sightedness by convex lens
(iii) Presbyopia :
This defect arises with aging. A person suffering from

this defect can see neither nearby objects nor distant
objects clearly/distinctly. This is because the power of
accommodation of the eye decreases due to the
gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and
diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction of short sightedness by concave lens
Note that focal length of the lens for a short-sighted This defect can be corrected by using bi-focal lenses.
person is equal to the negative value of the person’s Its lower part consists of a convex lens and is used for
far point.
reading purposes whereas the upper part consists of
(i i) Far S ig ht ed ne ss ( or H yp er op ia or a concave lens and is used for seeing distant objects.
Hy perm etropia) :
A person with hypermetropia can see distant obects (iv ) Asti gmatis m :
clearly but can not see near by objects distinctly.
A hypermetropic person has the near point farther away A person suffering from this defect cannot simultaneously
from minimum distance of distinct vision (i.e. 25 cm). focus on both horizontal and vertical lines of a wire gauze.
In a hypermetropic eye, the image of a nearby object is
PAGE # 301
13. A long sighted person has a minimum distance of
distinct vision of 50 cm. He wants to reduce it to 25 cm.
Find the focal length of lens used for correction.?
Sol. Near point of the defected eye is 50 cm and normal
eye it is 25 cm so, u = – 25 cm and v = – 50 cm
1 1 1 1 1 1
     
f v u f  50 25
or f = 50 cm
14. The far point of a myopic person is 150 cm in front of

Normal Wire Gauge
the eye. Calculate the focal length and the power of a
lens required to enable him to see distant objects
clearly.
Sol. As the person is myopic, therefore, the lens required
for correction should be a concave lens. The focal length
of the concave lens in case of myopic person should
be equal to the distance of the far-off point from the
eye.
 Focal length of concave lens = 150 cm
1 (m) 100 cm
Power of concave lens = 
150 cm 150 cm
= – 0.67 D
Normal Wire Gauge Wire Gauge with (b) Microscope :

Distorted Vertical Lines
A microscope is an optical instrument which forms
large image of a close and tiny object.
This image subtends a large visual angle at the eye

so that the object looks large. There are mainly two
types of microscopes :
(i) Simple Microscope :
In the simplest form, a simple microscope or

magnifying glass, is just a thin, short-focus convex lens
carrying a handle. The object to be seen is placed
Wire Gauge with between the lens and its focus and the eye is placed
Distorted Vertical Lines Distorted Horizontal Lines
just behind the lens. Then, the eye sees a magnified,
This defect arises due to the fact that the cornea is not
erect and virtual image on the same side as the object.
perfectly spherical and has different curvatures for
The position of the object between the lens and its
horizontally and vertically lying objects. Hence, objects
focus is so adjusted that the image is formed at the
in one direction are well focused whereas objects in
least distance of distinct vision (D) from the eye. The
the perpendicular direction are not well focused. This
image is then seen most distinctly.
defect can be corrected by using cylindrical lenses.
The cylindrical lenses are designed in such a way so
as to compensate for the irregularities in the curvature
of cornea.
Cylindrical lens
PAGE # 302
AB is a small obj ect placed between a lens L Thus, magnifying power is reduced. Hence to obtain
and its first focus F'. Its magnified virtual image maximum magnifying power, the eye must be very
A'B' is formed at distance D from the lens. Since close to the lens.
the eye is just behind the lens, so the eye is also To see with relaxed eye, the image A' B' should be
at D. formed at infinity. In this case the object AB will be at
the focus of the lens, that is, u = f. Then, from equation
Magnifying Power : Let  be the angle subtended (i), we have
by the image A'B' at the eye [figure (a)] and  be
the angle subtended by the object AB at the eye D
m=
when placed directly at a distance D from the eye f
[Figure(b)]. Then, the magnifying power of the The magnifying glass (simple microscope) is used by
simple microscope is given by : watch makers and jewellers to have magnified view of
tiny components of watches and fine work on jewellery.
angle subtended by the image when formed It is also used to examine finger prints and palm lines
at least distance of distinct vision ()
and by the students to read vernier scales, etc.
m= angle subtended by the object at the eye when placed
at least distance of distinct vision ( )
(ii) Compound Microscope :
A simple magnifier provides only limited assistance

Since the object AB is small, the angle  and  with inspection of the minute details of an object.
are also small and we may write  = tan  and  Greater magnification can be achieved by combining
= tan . Thus two lenses in a device called a compound microscope,
a diagram of which is shown in figure.
tan 
m= . Construction: It consists of a long cylindrical metallic
tan 
tube carrying at one end an achromatic convex lens O
From the geometry of the figure, tan  = AB/OA of small focal length and small aperture (see figure).
and tan  = AB/D. This lens is called the 'objective lens'. At the other end
of the tube is fitted a smaller tube. At the outer end of
D
 m= ------ (i) this smaller tube is fitted an achromatic convex lens E
u whose focal length and aperture are larger than that of
The image A'B' is being formed at a distance D in the objective lens. The lens E is towards the eye and is
front of the lens. Hence, in the lens formula called the 'eyepiece'. Cross-wires are mounted at the
focus of the eyepiece. The entire tube can be moved
1 1 1 forward and backward by rack and pinion arrangement.
– = , we shall put v = – D and u = – u
v u f
(with proper sign). Thus,
1 1 1
– =
–D –u f
1 1 1
or = +
u D f
D D
or =1+
u f
Putting this value of D/u in equation (i), we get Working : Suppose AB is a small object placed slightly
D away from the first focus F0 of the objective lens O

m = 1
f (figure) which forms a real, inverted and magnified
We shall substitute only the numerical values of D and image A'B' . This image lies between the eyepiece E
f, thus M is positive which means that an erect image
is formed. It is also clear that shorter the focal length of and its first focus Fe' and acts as an object for the
the lens, larger is the magnifying power.
eyepiece which forms a magnified, virtual final image
If the eye is kept at distance d from the lens,
then v = - (D - d) and the magnifying power will be A" B" . To find the position of B" , two dotted rays (- . - . - .)
are taken from B' . One ray, which is parallel to the
D-d principal axis passes, after refraction, through the
m = 1
f second focus F e of E . The other ray which passes
PAGE # 303
through the optical centre of E travels straight. Both the
refracted rays when produced backward meet at B" . v0 D
from (i) m = –  
u0 f 
The image A"B" is generally formed at the least distance  e
of distinct vision although it can be formed anywhere In this position, the length of the microscope will
between this position and infinity. The rays by which be, L =v o+ f e. It is clear from these formulae that
the eye sees the image are clearly shown in the figure. in order to inc rease the magn ifyin g p ow er o f
microscope :
Magnifying Power : Suppose the final image A" B"
subtends an angle  at the eyepiece E . Since eye is  u o should be small i.e. the object AB should be
very near to the eyepiece, the angle  can also be taken placed quite close to the o bj ec tive O. But, to
as subtended by A"B" at the eye. Suppose when the obtain a real and magnified image of the object,
object AB is at the least distance of distinct vision D , the obj ec t sho uld b e plac ed beyond the fo cal
then it subtends an angle  at the eye. The magnifying len gth f o of the ob j ec tive. H en ce, for g reater
power of the microscope is magnifying power of the microscope, the focal
length of the objective should be small.
AB AB AB
m =   .........(i)
AB AB AB  T h e d is tan c e v o o f th e im ag e A ' B ' fr o m t h e
objective O should be large. For this, the object
AB v0 sh o u ld b e plac ed n ear th e first fo c u s o f th e
H e re = is m ag n i fyi n g p o w er o f
AB u0 obj ective.
 The focal length f e of the eyepiece should be

A B D s m a ll .
o bj ec tive len s an d = is m ag nifyin g
A B ue
(c) Telescope :
power of eye lens.
A telescope is an optical device which enables us to
v0 D see distant obj ects clearly. It provides angular
So, m =  ×
u0 ue magnification of the distant objects.
Different types of telescope :

1 1 1
 =  Broadly, the telescopes can be divided into two
ue fe v e
categories :
v0  D D (i) Refracting telescopes :

So, m =     ........(i)
u0  v e fe  These make use of lenses to view distant objects.
These are of two types :
Conditions :
(A) T h e fina l ima g e is fo rm ed at the le as t (A) Astronomical telescope :
distance of distinct vision (v e = D) :
It is used to see heavenly objects like the sun, stars,
v  D planets, etc. The final image formed is inverted one
0
From (i) m = – u  1  f  . which is immaterial in the case of heavenly bodies
0  e 
because of their round shape.
In this position, the length of the microscope will
(B) Terrestrial telescope :
be, L= v o + u e.
(B) The final image is formed at infinity : It is used to see distant objects on the surface of the
earth. The final image formed is erect one. This is an
u e = f e. ve =  essential condition for viewing the objects on earth’s
surface correctly.
(ii) Reflecting telescopes :
These make use of converging mirrors to view the

distant objects. For example, Newtonian telescope.
(A) Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type) :
A n a st ro n o m i c a l te les c o p e i s an o p t ic al
instru men t u sed to see h eavenly o bj ects lik e
stars, planets, etc. The image of such a distant
PAGE # 304
object formed by the telescope subtends a large

visual angle at the eye, so that the object appears m

quite big to the eye.
Since angle  and  are very small, we may write
Construction : It consists of a long cylindrical  = tan  and  = tan . Thus
metallic tube carrying at one end an achromatic
c o n vex len s o f lar g e fo c a l l en g th an d l ar g e tan 
m .
aperture which is called the objective lens. At the tan 
other end of the tube is fitted a smaller tube which Now, from the geometry of the figure, we have,
can be moved in and out in the bigger tube by a tan  = A'B' / EA' and tan  = A'B' / OA'.
rack and pinion arrangement. At the other end of
A ' B' / EA ' OA '
the smaller tube is fitted an achromatic convex m = 
A ' B' / OA ' EA '
len s of sm all foc al len g th and sm all aperture
wh ich is called the eyepiece. C ross-w ires are If the focal length of the objective O be f O and the
distance of A'B' from the eyepiece E be u e then,
mounted in the smaller tube at the focus of the
with proper sign, OA' = + f O and EA' = – u e. Thus,
eyepiece.
by the above equation, we have
Working : In figure are shown the objective-lens
O and the eyepiece E of a telescope. AB is a
f0
m=– .......(i)
distant object whose end A is on the axis of the ue
telescope. The lens O forms a small, real and This is the general formula of magnifying power.
inverted image A´B´at its second focus F 0. This Now there are two possibilities:
(i) The final image is formed at the least distance
im ag e li es i n s id e t h e f ir st f o c u s Fe' o f th e
D of distinct vision : If the distance of the final
eyepiece E and acts as an object for the eyepiece im ag e A " B " fro m th e eyep iec e b e D , th en in
which forms a virtual, erect (with respect to A 'B')
and m ag nified final im age A ´´B´´. To fin d th e 1 1 1
ap p l yi n g t h e le n s f o r m u la   fo r th e
position of B", two dotted rays (............) are taken v u f
from B'. One ray, which passes through the optical eyepiece, we shall have
centre E, goes straight and the second ray which v = –D, u = –u e and f = + f e,
is taken parallel to the principal axis goes, after where f e is the focal length of the eyepiece. W e
refraction, through the second focus F e of E. The get
tw o refrac ted rays w h en p ro du c ed b ac k ward 1 1 1
meet at B". – =
D  ue fe
1 1 1 1  f 
or = + = 1  e 
ue fe D fe  D
Substituting this value of 1/u e in eq. (i), we have
f0  f 
m=– 1  e  .......(ii)
fe  D
W e shall substitute only the numerical values of
f o , f e and D in this formula. In this position the
length of the telescope will be f o + u e.
M a g n i fyin g P o w e r : T h e m ag n ifyin g p o w er
(angular magnification) of a telescope is defined
(ii) The final image is formed at infinity : To see
by, with relaxed eye, the final image should be formed
angle subtended by the final image at the eye at infinity (figure). For this, the distance between
m= the objective and the eyepiece is adjusted so that
angle subtended by the object at the eye when seen directly
the image A'B' formed by the objective O is at the
Since eye is near the eyepiece E, the angle  fo c u s Fe' o f th e eyep ie c e ( u e = f e ) . T h i s
subtended by the final image A"B" at the eyepiece
ad j u stment o f th e telesco pe is called ' no rm al
may be taken as the angle subtended at the eye.
adjustment'. Substituting u e = f e in eq. (i), we get
In the same way, since the object AB is very far
from the telescope, the angle  subten ded by f0
the object at the objective may be taken as the m= – .......(iii)
fe
angle subtended at the eye. Then
PAGE # 305
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
When light falls on tiny particles then diffused reflection

takes place and light spreads in all possible direction.
This phenomenon is known as scattering of light.
Small particles scatter mainly blue light. When size of

the particle increases then the light of longer
wavelength also scatter. The path of a beam of light
In this position the length of the telescope will be passing through a true solution is not visible. However,
f o + f e. its path becomes visible through a colloidal solution
It is clear from eq. (ii) and (iii) shows that the where the size of the particles is relatively larger.
magnifying power of a telescope the focal length
f o of the objective lens should be large and the Rayleigh proved that the intensity of scattered light is
focal length f e of the eyepiece should be small. inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
Negative sign indicates that the final im age is wavelength, provided the scatters is smaller in size
inverted. than the wavelength of light:
(B) Terrestrial Telescope :
1
An astronomical telescope produces an inverted image scattering 
of the distant object. Therefore, it is suitable for 4
astronomy because it makes a little difference if the (a) Tyndall Effect :
image of a star, is inverted. However, it is useless for
viewing objects on the earth (e.g. distant trees, The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixtures
buildings, etc.) in which an erect image is required. of minute particles. These particles include smoke,
tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and
A terrestrial telescope provides an erect image of the
molecules of air. W hen a beam of light strikes such
distant object. An astronomical telescope can be
fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible.
converted into terrestrial by introducing one more
convex lens (called erecting lens) of focal length f The light reaches us after being reflected diffusely by
between the objective lens and the eyepiece as shown these particles. The phenomenon of scattering of light
in figure. The erecting lens is placed at a distance 2f in by the colloidal particle gives rise to tyndall effect. This
front of the inverted real image I1 of the object formed phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight
by the objective lens. The image of I1 in the erecting
enters a smoke filled room through a small hole. Thus,
lens is I; the image I being real, inverted w.r.t I1 of the
scattering of light makes the particles visible. Tyndall
same size as I1 and also at a distance 2f from the
effect can also be observed when sunlight passes
erecting lens. Note that image I is erect w.r.t the object.
through a canopy of a dense forest. Here, tiny water
The eyepiece is so adjusted that the image I lies at the
droplets in the mist scatter light.
focus of the eyepiece. Therefore, the eyepiece forms
the final image at infinity which is virtual, erect w.r.t object ( b) P he nome na b as ed upon Sc at te ri ng of
and highly magnified. Figure shows the ray diagram Light :
of image formation inside a terrestrial telescope.
A number of optical phenomena can be explained on
the basis of scattering of light :
(i) Colour of the clear sky is blue : When we look at the
sky, we receive sunlight scattered by fine dust particles,
air molecules and water-vapour molecules present in
the atmosphere. Since blue light, which is present in
larger proportion than violet light in the sunlight, is
scattered about ten times more than the orange-red
light, the light reaching the eye is mainly blue. Hence
the sky appears bluish.
Ray diagram of terrestrial telescope If the earth had no atmosphere, there were no scattered
sunlight and the sky would have appeared black. In
fact, the sky does appear black to the astronauts in the
space above the earth's atmosphere.
PAGE # 306
(ii) The clouds appears white:- The dependence of It is due to scattering of short wavelengths by minute
scattering on 1/4 is valid only when the scatterer colloidal sulphur particles. We observe that the colour
particles or molecules are much smaller than the of the transmitted light from the fourth side of glass
wavelength of light, as are air molecules. Clouds, tank facing the circular tank at first is orange red colour
however, contain water droplets or ice crystals that are and then bright crimson red colour on the screen.
much larger than  and they hence scatter light of all Light from the sun near the horizon passes through
wavelengths nearly equally. Hence clouds appear thicker layer of air and larger distance in the earth’s
white. atmosphere before reaching our eyes. Light from the
sun travel relatively short distance. At moon, the sun
(iii) At sunrise or sunset the sun appears reddish :
appears white.
The scattering of light also explains the raddish
appearance of sun at sunrise or sunset. At sunrise or M
sunset, the sun is near the horizon and the sunrays L1 L2
reach the earth after passing through a maximum
distance in the atmosphere . During this passage, the
light is scattered by air molecules and fine dust C
S
particles. Since scattering µ 1/4, most of the blue and
neighbouring-coloured light is scattered out before
reaching the observer. Hence the light received by the
observer is predominantly red. (For a similar reason, N
the sun appears orange-red in fog or mist.)
As a little of blue and violet colours are scattered. Near
At noon, when the sun is overhead, the sunrays travel
the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter
minimum distance in the atmosphere and there is little
wavelength are scattered away by the particles.
scattering. Hence the sun appears almost while (infact,
Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer
slightly yellowish because some blue light is
wavelength. This gives rise to the reddish appearance
scattered).
of the sun.
(C)Experimental verification of Scattering :
Let us do an activity to understand the colour of sun at RAINBOW
sunrise and sunset. Place a strong source (s) of white
W hen the sun shines upon falling raindrops and
light at the focus of converging lens (L 1). This lens
observer with his back towards the sun sees concentric
provides a parallel beam of light. Allow the light beam
arcs of spectral colours hanging in the sky.
to pass through a transparent glass tank (T) containing
clear water. Allow the beam of light to pass through a These coloured arcs, which have their common centre
circular hole (C) made in a cardboard. Obtain a sharp on the line joining the sun and the observer, are called
image of the circular hole on a screen (MN) using a 'rainbow'. Usually, two rainbows are seen, one above
second converging lens (L2). Dissolve 200 g of sodium the other. The lower one is called the 'primary' rainbow
thiosulphate in 2 L of clear water taken in the tank. Add and the higher one is called the 'secondary' rainbow.
1 to 2 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid to the water. The primary rainbow is brighter and narrower, having
W e observe that microscopic sulphur particles its inner edge violet and the outer edge red. The
precipitate in 2 to 3 minutes. As sulphur particles begin secondary rainbow, which is comparatively fainter, has
to form we can observe the blue light from the three reverse order of colours.
sides of the glass tank.
gsDl kesfFky hu Mkb, sehu
O O
–(F2C – CF2 –)n

uk; ykW
u – 66
Vs
¶ykW
u
A(OH) + BD 42°50 5
° 3°
40°
PAGE # 307
Formation of primary Rainbow : Rainbows are formed the eye. Similarly if a green leaf is seen in red light, it
by the dispersion of sunrays in raindrops. The primary appears black.
rainbow is formed when sunrays, after suffering one
(v) If a white flower is seen in red light, it appear red
internal reflection in the raindrops, emerge at minimum
because a white object reflects light of all colours falling
deviation and enters the observer's eye.
on it. So it reflects the red light falling on it, which then
In Fig., P1 and P2 are two raindrops, E is the observer's
enters the eye.
eye and S is the sun. The sunrays fall on the drops
parallel to SE. If the rays are deviated (and dispersed) (b) Primary Colours of Light :
by the drops so as to arrive at the observer, the observer Red, green and blue are primary colours of light and
would receive intense light in those directions in which they produce white light when added in equal
the rays suffer minimum deviation. It can be shown proportions. All colours can be obtained by mixing these
that he would receive red light in a direction making an three colours in different proportions.
angle of 42º, and intense violet light in a direction
making an angle of 40º with the line SE produced. The (c) Secondary Colours or Composite Colours
drops sending the intense red and violet light to the of Light :
observer lie on concentric circles which generate
cones of semivertical angle 42º and 40º respectively The colours of light produced by adding any of primary
with common vertex at E. Thus, the observer sees colours are called secondary colours. Cyan, magenta
concentric coloured arcs of which the innermost is violet and yellow are secondary colours of light.
and the outermost is red. The intermediate colours lie
in between. This is the primary rainbow. Red + Green = Yellow
Formation of secondary Rainbow : The secondary Green + Blue = Cyan
fainter rainbow is formed by the sunrays undergoing
Red + Blue = Magenta
two internal reflections in the raindrops and emerging
at minimum deviation, as occurring in drops S1 and S2 The method of producing different colours of light by
in the figure. The semivertical angles for this bow are adding the primary colours is called colour addition.
50º for the red rays to 53º for the violet rays. As such,
the order of colours is reverse of that in the primary
rainbow.
COLOURS OF THE OBJECT
(a) Colour of Objects in White and Coloured

Light :
We known that white light is a mixture of seven colours.

Light can be of different colours. Let us understand
that why different objects appear to have different
colours. A rose appear red because when white light
falls on rose, it reflects only the red component and
absorbs the other components.
We conclude that the colour of an object depends upon (d) Complementary Colours of Light :
the colour of light it reflects.
The lights of two colours which when added in equal
 NOTE : proportions produce white light are called
complementary colours of light and the two colours
(i) If an object absorbs lights of all colours and reflects
are called complements of each other.
none, it appears black.
(ii) If an object reflects light of all colour, it appears For example, yellow and blue light are complementary
white when seen in white light. colours of light because when they mixed in equal
(iii) When we talk of colour of an object, we refer to its proportions, they produce white light. We can also find
colour as seen in white light. the pairs of complimentary colours of light as follows.
(iv) A rose will appear black in green light because

there is no red component in the light and it will not
reflect any light. Hence no light will come from rose to
PAGE # 308
Complimentary colours :
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
(Red + Green ) + Blue = Yellow + Blue = White
Red + (Green + Blue) = Red + Cyan = White A homogeneous solid transparent and refracting
medium bounded by two plane surfaces inclined at an
(Red + Blue ) + Green = Magenta + Green = White angle is called a prism.
R 3-D view
Ma
llow
ge
Ye
White nta
Refraction through a prism:

G Cyan B View from one side
Colour triangle
P
A
The above results can be diagrammatically represented Y NN' & N'N" are normals
N N"
in the form of a triangle as shown in figure. The outer X
i
ray r1 e
limbs of the figure show the results of the addition of ent r2 em
incid Z er g
en
primary colours red, green and blue. The N' t ra
y
complementary colour pairs such as red and cyan are Q Base R
opposite to each other.
(e) Primary Colours of Pigment : ( a) Cha r a ct e r is t i cs of P r is m
Pigments are those substances that give colour to an (i) PQ and PR are refracting surfaces.
object. The colour of a pigment as seen by us depends (ii) QPR = A is called refracting angle or the angle
on what components of light it absorb or subtract from of prism (also called Apex angle).
white light before reflecting the rest to our eyes. A (iii)  = angle of deviation
primary colour (cyan, magenta, yellow) of a pigment is
due to a primary colour of light being subtracted from (iv) For refraction of a monochromatic ( single wave
length) ray of light through a prism:
white light.
From XYZ
White – Red = Blue + Green = Cyan
 = (i + e)  (r1 + r2) .......(i)
White – Green = Red + Blue = Magenta From XZN
White – Blue = Red + Green = Yellow r1 + r2 +XNZ = 180º .......(ii)
Mixing CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow) pigment in the From quadrilateral XPZN
correct proportions can produce millions of colour. If A + XNZ = 180º .......(iii)
From equation (ii) and (iii)
equal amount of pure
r1 + r2 = A
 =i+e A .......(iv)
(v) Variation of  versus i (shown in diagram).
For one  (except  min) there are two values of
Yellow angle of incidence. If i and e are interchanged then
White we get the same value of  because of reversibility
principle of light
Cyan
Subtractive Primaries
CMY pigments are mixed, we should get a black

pigment. e = imax
However, printers use black ink in addition to CMY inks
to get good results.
(vi) There is one and only one angle of incidence
for which the angle of deviation is minimum.
PAGE # 309
(vii) W hen  = min , the angle of minimum deviation,
then i = e and r1 = r2, the ray passes symmetrically
w.r.t. the refracting surfaces. W e can show by
EXERCISE-1
simple calculation that
min = 2i – A REFLECT ION OF LIGHT :
where i min = angle of incid ence for minimum
1. Two mirrors are inclined at an angle 60°, an object is
deviation, and r = A/2.
plac ed asymmetrically between them. Then number
of images formed will be :
sin 
A  m
2
 (A) 6
(C) 7
(B) 5
(D) 9
  rel = .......(v)
A
sin 2  
2. Find number of images formed according to given case –
prism M1 M1
where rel =
 surroundings
O O
Also   min = (  1) A 10°
40°
(for small values of  A) 20° 40°
M2 M2
o
(viii) For a thin prism ( A 10 ) and for small value
of i, all values of (i) (ii)
  = (   1 ) A .......(vi) (A) 8, 9 (B) 9, 8
 is different for different colours (C) 9, 9 (D) 8, 8
so for red colour, R = ( R  1 ) A 3. Plane mirror are arranged parallel to each other to get :
For violet colour, V = ( V  1 ) A (A) A single image
and for yellow colour Y = ( Y  1 ) A (B) Two images
(C) A large number of reflected images
(D) No image
15. From the figure, find the deviation caused by a prism 4. To get 9 multiple images the angle between the plane
having mirrors should be :
(A) 60º (B) 36º
3 (C) 50º (D) 90º
refracting angle 4º and refractive index .
2 5. If the angle of incidence is 50º, then calculate the angle
between the incident ray and the reflected ray :
(A) 50º (B) 260º
(C) 100º (D) 80º
6. If we want to see our full image then the minimum size
of the plane mirror :
3 (A) should be twice of our height
Sol. =( – 1) × 4 0 = 2 0 (B) should be of our height
2
(C) should be half of our height
(D) depends upon our distance from mirror
7. An object A is placed at a distance d in front of a plane
mirror. If one stands directly behind the object at
distance S from the mirror, then the distance of the
image of A from the individual is :
(A) 2S (B) 2d
(C) S +d (D) S + 2d
8. The linear magnification for a mirror is the ratio of the
size of the image to the size of the object, and is denoted
by m. Then m is equal to (symbols have their usual
meanings) :
uf uf
(A) (B)
uf uf
f
(C) (D) none of these
uf
PAGE # 310
9. The angle beyond which when a ray is incident, it is 14. A convex mirror of focal length f (in air) is immersed in
completely reflected back is called :
(A) angle of deviation
4
a liquid (µ = ). The focal length of the mirror in liquid
(B) critical angle 3
(C) incident angle will be :
(D) angle of inversion 3 4
(A)  f (B)   f
4 3
10. W hich of the following conditions are necessary for
total internal reflection to take place at the boundary of 7
two optical media ? (C) f (D)   f
3
1. Light is passing from optically denser medium to
optically rarer medium. 15. When a ray of light strikes a plane mirror at an angle of
2. Light is passing from optically rarer medium to 150 with the mirror, what will be the angle through which
optically denser medium. the ray gets deviated?
3. Angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
4. Angle of incidence is less than the critical angle.
(A) 1 and 3 only (B) 2 and 4 only
(C) 3 and 4 only (D) 1 and 4 only
(A) 150 (B) 300
11. For total internal reflection, rays of light must go from :
(A) Rarer to denser medium 16. Two parallel plane mirrors A and B are placed at a
(B) Rarer to rarer medium separation 10 cm as shown in figure. A ray incident on the
(C) Denser to rarer medium corner of mirror B at an angle of incidence 45º. Find the
(D) Denser to denser medium number of times this rays is reflected from mirror A :
12. In a room lighted by an electric bulb, it is found that the

A
shadow of the ceiling fan hung in the centre is falling
on a wall opposite to the door. What can you say about
the position of the bulb ? Incident ray
10 cm
(A) On the wall having the door
45º
(B) On the wall facing the door
(C) On the wall on your right as you enter the room B
100 cm
(D) On the wall on your left as you enter the room
13 Which of the following correctly represents graphical (A) 4 (B) 5

relation between angle of incidence (i) and angle of (C) 6 (D) 7
reflection (r) ?
17. A light ray falls on a mirror and deviates by 60º, then the
angle of reflection will be :
y y
(A) 30º (B) 60º
(C) 90º (D)180º
i i 18. Two plane mirrors are at right angles to each other. A

(A) (B)
man stands between them and combs his hair with
o
r
x o x his right hand. In how many of the images will he be
r
seen using his right hand :
(A) Zero (B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 3
y
y RE FR ACTI ON OF LI GH T
19. The focal length of eye lens and object lens of a

i i telescope is 4 mm and 4 cm respectively. If final image
(C) (D) of an far object is at . Then the magnifying power and
length of the tube are :
o x o r x
r (A) 10, 4.4 cm (B) 4, 44 cm
(C) 44, 10 cm (D) 10, 44 cm
PAGE # 311
20. A compound microscope has an objective of focal 29. When light is incident on the interface of glass and air
length 1 cm and an eyepiece of 4 cm. If the tube length
as shown in the figure. If green light is just totally
is 20 cm. Then the magnification of the compound
microscope is : (final image is at D ) internally reflected then the emerging ray in air contains
(A) 145 (B) 14.5 :
(C) 1.45 (D) None of these
21. The magnification of a magnifying lens of focal length Green

5 cm is : (final image is at ) Air
(A) 1 (B) 2 Glass
(C) 3 (D) 5
White
22. The wave length of light diminishes µ times (µ = 1.33
(A) Yellow, orange, red
for water) in a medium. A diver from inside water looks
(B) Violet, indigo, blue
at an object whose natural colour is green. He sees
the object as : (C) All colours
(A) red (B) blue (D) All colours except green
(C) green (D) yellow
30. If the central portion of a convex lens is wrapped in
23. A thin lens is made with a material having refractive black paper as shown in the figure:
index µ = 1.5. Both the sides are convex. It is dipped in
water (µ = 1.33), it will behave like :
(A) a convergent lens (B) a divergent lens
(C) a rectangular slab (D) a prism
24. The radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plano-
convex lens is 10 cm. What is the focal length of the
plano-convex lens ? (Here  = 1.5)
(A) 10 cm (B) 20 cm
(A) No image will be formed by the remaining portion
(C) 15 cm (D) 5 cm
25. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and 25 cm are of the lens.
placed in contact. The effective power of the combination (B) The full image will be formed but it will be less
is : bright.
1 (C) The central portion of the image will be missing.
(A) diopters (B) 45 diopters (D)There will be two images each produced by one of
9
(C) 6 diopters (D) 9 diopters the exposed portions of the lens.
26. How will the image formed by a convex lens be affected if 31. A convex lens is used to form an image of an object on
the central portion of lens is wrapped in black paper ? a screen. If the upper half of the lens is blackened so
(A) No image is formed by the remaining portion of that it becomes opaque. Then:
lens.
(A) Only half of the image will be visible
(B) There will be no effect.
(C) The full image will be formed but it will be less (B) the image position shifts towards the lens
bright. (C) the image position shifts away from the lens
(D) The central portion of the image will be absent. (D) the brightness of the image reduces
27. Two identical plano-convex lenses can be combined
in three ways, as shown. The ratio of the focal lengths RE FR ACTI ON TH ROUGH P RI SM :
of these combinations will be :
32. The middle colour in sunlight spectrum is :
(A) yellow (B) green
(C) blue (D) orange
33. In which of the following cases will there be no

(i) (ii) (iii) dispersion when sunlight passes :
(A) 2 : 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 1 : 1
(C) 1 : 2 : 2 (D) 2 : 1 : 1
(A) (B)
28. If red and violet colour are passing through same glass
sheet simultaneously then relation between their
velocity will be :
(A) vr = vv (B) vr < vv
(C) vr > vv (D) none of these (C) (D)
PAGE # 312
34. A ray of light falls on a prism having one silvered surface, 39. In optical instruments, the lenses are used to form
at an incident angle of 45º as shown in figure. After images by :
(A) reflection (B) refraction
refraction and reflection it retraces the path, then the
(C) dispersion (D) scattering
refractive index of prism material is (prism angle is 30º) : 40. If the focal length of a magnifying glass is 2.5 cm, it
can magnify an object :
(A) 15 times (B) 11 times
//////////////////////////
(C) 2.5 times (D) none of these
30º
41. The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope
is 8, then the ratio of the focal length of the objective to
45º the focal length of the eyepiece is : (final image is at )
90º
1
(A) 8 (B)
8
(C) 0.45 (D) none of these
(A) 2 (B) 2
42. The sum of the focal lengths of the objective and an
eyepiece, in case of an astronomical telescope is
1 1 equal to : (final image is at )
(C) (D)
2 2 (A) the length of the telescope
(B) half the length of the telescope
(C) double the length of the telescope
35. Find the value of  r´ for the case shown in figure : (D) none of these
43. Which of the following cannot be seen by a microscope ?

(A) small nearly objects
(B) bacteria
75º (C) stars
(D) cells and virus
45º e
r r´
44. In case of an astronomical telescope, the distance
between the objective lens and the eyepiece is equal
to : (final image is at )
=1 (A) f0 + fe (B) f0 – fe
2
f0 fe
(C) (D)
fe f0
(A) sin–1(0.5) (B) 75º – sin–1(0.5)
45. Motion pictures or cinematography make use of :
(C) 90º (D) 60º (A) Least distance of distinct vision
(B) Persistence of vision
OP TI CA L IN ST RU ME NT : (C) Power of accommodation
(D) None of these
36. In which of the following the final image is erect ?
46. A student sees the top edge and the bottom centre C of
(A) Compound microscope a pool simultaneously from an angle  above the
(B) Astronomical telescope horizontal as shown in the figure. The refractive index
(C) Simple microscope of water which fills up to the top edge of the pool is 4/3.
(D) All of the above If h/x = 7/4 then cos  is :
37. Two lenses of focal lengths + 100 cm and + 5 cm are

used to prepare an astronomical telescope. The
minimum tube length will be : (final image is at )
(A) 95 cm (B) 100 cm
(C) 105 cm (D) 500 cm
38. How should people wearing spectacles work with a

microscope ?
(A) They should keep on wearing their spectacles.
(B) They should never use the microscope.
(C) They should take off their spectacles. 2 8
(A) (B)
(D) They may either put on their spectacles or they may 7 3 45
take off their spectacles.
8 8
(C) (D)
3 53 21
PAGE # 313
47. Light enters an isosceles right triangular prism at 5. Consider a ray light passing through a rectangular
normal incidence through face AB and undergoes total glass slab. Let the emergent ray shift laterally by a
internal reflection at face BC as shown below : distance x.The shift x depends on :
(A) angle of incidence
(B) refractive index of the material of the slab
(C) width of the slab
(D) all the above
6. Critical angle for glass is 1 and that for water is 2. The
critical angle  at the water glass interface is such that:
(A)  < (1 + 2)/2 (B) 1 <  < 2
(C) > 2 (D) < 1
The minimum value of the refractive index of the prism
is close to : 7. A ray of light enters a slab of material with increasing
(A) 1.10 (B) 1.55 refractive index. Four possibilities of the trajectory of
(C) 1.42 (D) 1.72
the ray are shown below.
EXERCISE-2

Slab with
increasing
1. A boy runs towards a convex mirror with a speed v. His Refractive
image is seen to move towards the mirror at a speed index
v'. Then, (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(A) v < v' A B C D
(B) v > v'
(C) v = v'
(D) nothing can be said as data are insufficient The correct choice is : (KVPY/2007)
(A) A (B) B
2. An object is placed in front of a concave mirror focal
(C) C (D) D
length f. An erect image is formed with a magnification
of 2. To obtain real image with the same magnification, 8. A ray of light passing through an equilateral triangular
the object has to be moved through a distance of : prism gets deviated at least by 30º. Then, the refractive
(IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007) index of the material of the prism must be :
(A) f/2 (B) f (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
(C) 3f /2 (D) 2f/3
(A)  2 (B)  2
3. Light incident on a rotating mirror M is returned to a
fixed mirror N placed 22.5 km away from M. The fixed (C)  3 (D)  3
mirror reflects it back to M (along the same path) which
in turn reflects the light again along a direction that 9. In aerial mapping a camera uses a lens with a 100 cm
makes an angle of 27° with the incident direction. The focal length. The height at which the airplane must fly,
speed of rotation of the mirror is: (KVPY/2007)
so that the photograph of a 1 km long strip on the
–1
(A) 250 revolutions s (B) 500 revolutions s–1
ground fits exactly on the 20 cm long filmstrip of the
–1
(C) 1000 revolutions s (D) 125 revolutions s–1
camera, is : (KVPY/2007)
4. A convex lens of focal length f is cut into two halves as (A) 200 km (B) 20km
shown. Light rays parallel to the principal axis are (C) 5 km (D) 1 km
incident on one half of the lens (say L1). This will form
an image at : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007)
10. A prism made up of flint glass is such that the incident
ray does not emerge from the second surface. Critical
L1 Cut along angle for flint glass is 36º. Then, refracting angle A
must be : (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
this line
L2 (A) 37º (B) 54º
(C) 71º (D) 73º
(A) f (B) f/2
(C) 2f (D) f/4
PAGE # 314
11. A girl standing in front of a vertical plane mirror, is able 18. In the figure shown below. A, B, C are points on the
to see herself only upto her knees. She can see the principal axis of a spherical mirror/lens. W hich of the
lower part of her legs, if : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2008) following arrangements will produce image I I1 of the
(A) she moves towards the mirror object OO1 ? (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009)
(B) she moves away from the mirror
(C) she bends down
(D) she stands on a stool O1
12. An image of the same size as that of the object cannot
be produced by (IJSO/Stage-I/2008) A C
O B
(A) a plane mirror (B) a concave mirror
(C) a convex mirror (D) a convex lens
13. A ray of light is incident at an angle  on the boundary
separating two transparent media. It is transmitted.
When angle  is increased very slightly (by negligible (A) a convex mirror at A
amount), the ray suffers a total internal reflection. The (B) a concave mirror at C
difference between the angles of deviation in two cases (C) a concave mirror at A
is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2008) (D) a concave lens at B
(A) 2  (B) 90º – 
(C) 180º –  (D) 180º – 2
19. Image of an object in a concave mirror is observed on
14. The figure shows positions of obj ect O and its
a screen first by keeping the object at position A and
diminished image I. This is possible if :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2008) then at another position B. The magnifications mA and
mB in the two cases were determined. If mA m B = 1,
then : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009)
(A) both the position A and B are beyond the centre of
Principal axis curvature C.
(B) both the position A and B are between C and F.
O I (C) one of the position A and B is between pole P and
(A) a convex mirror is placed to the right of I focus F of the mirror.
(B) a concave mirror is placed between O and I (D) one of the positions A and B is between F and C
(C) a concave lens is placed to the right of I while the other is beyond C.
(D) a concave lens is placed between O and I
20. W hich of the following phenomena can be
15. Planets do not twinkle as stars, because :
demonstrated by light. But not with sound waves in an
(A) planets are much closer to earth than stars air column ? (KVPY/2009)
(B) planets are smaller in size than stars (A) Reflection (B) Diffraction
(C) a planet is not surrounded by gaseous atmosphere (C) Refraction (D) Polarization
(D) a star is not surrounded by gaseous atmosphere
16. A light source is placed 100 cm away from a screen. A 21. An object is placed 0.40 m from one of the two lenses
converging lens placed at a certain position between L1 and L2 of focal lengths 0.20 m and 0.10 m respectively
the source and the screen focuses the image of the as depicted in the figure. The separation between the
source on the screen. The lens is moved a distance of lenses is 0.30 m. (KVPY/2009)
40 cm and it is found that it again focuses the image of
the source on the screen. The focal length of the lens
is : (KVPY/2008) L1 L2
(A) 21 cm (B) 30 cm
(C) 40 cm (D) 67 cm
17. A simple camera with a converging lens of 60 mm

focal length is focused on very far objects. To focus the
camera on a nearby object 1.5 m away, the distance
0.40m + 0.30m
between the film and lens will have to be :
(KVPY/2008)
(A) decreased by 2.5 mm
(B) increased by 2.5 mm
The final image formed by this two lens system is at
(C) kept fixed as before. but aperture increased by a
(A) 0.13 m to the right of the second lens.
factor of 2.5
(B) 0.05 m to the right of the second lens.
(D) kept fixed as before, but aperture decreased by a
(C) 0.13 m to the left of the second lens
factor of 2.5
(D) Infinity
PAGE # 315
22. In the figure below a ray of light travelling in a medium 27. The figure shows a ray of light incident on a convex
of refractive index µ passes through two different lens, parallel to its principal axis. Obviously the
connected rectangular blocks of refractive indices µ1 emergent ray passess through the principal focus F.
and µ2 (µ2 > µ1). (KVPY/2009)
Which of the following statements is correct ?
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
1 2
F
µ µ1 µ2
(A) The ray bends downwards only once inside the lens.
(B) The ray bends downwards at each surface.
The angle of incidence 1 is increased slightly. Then
(C) The ray bends downwards at the first surface and
angle 2
(A) increases. upwards at the second surface.
(B) decreases. (D) The ray bends upwards at the first surface and
(C) remains the same downwards at the second surface.
(D) increases or decreases depending on the value of
(µ1/µ2). 28. White light is split into a spectrum by a prism and it is
seen on a screen. If we put another identical inverted
23. A rainbow has circular shape because : prism behind it in contact, what will be seen on the
(IJSO/Stage-I/2009) screen ? (KVPY/2010)
(A) the earth is spherical. (A) Violet will appear where red was
(B) rain drops are spherical (B) The spectrum will remain the same
(C) the sun is spherical (C) There will be no spectrum, but only the original
(D) none of these
light with no deviation.
24. Dispersion of white light into its constituent colours (D) There will be no spectrum, but the original light will
occurs during (IJSO/Stage-I/2009) be laterally displaced.
(A) reflection at a plane mirror
(B) reflection at a concave mirror. 29. A ray of light is incident on a hollow glass prism as
(C) internal reflection inside a spherical drop of water
shown. Then the ray will undergo : (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(D) refraction at the boundary of a transparent medium.
25. W hich of the following figures correctly represents

primary and secondary rainbows ?
(A) deviation and dispersion both

(A) (B) (B) deviation but no dispersion
(C) dispersion but no deviation
(D) neither deviation nor dispersion
30. An object is place at a distance x1 from the focus of a

(C) (D) concave mirror. Its real image is formed at a distance
x2 from the focus. Hence, the focal length of the mirror
is : (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
 26. Which of the following statements is/are true in case x1x 2
of rainbow ? (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2009) (A)
x1  x 2 (B) x1x 2
(A) In the morning a rainbow can be seen in the east.
x1  x 2
(B) In the morning a rainbow can be seen in the west. (C) (D) x1 – x 2
(C) In the evening a rainbow can be seen in the east.
2
(D) In the evening a rainbow can be seen in the west.
PAGE # 316
31. W hich of the following does NOT represent correct 34. A ray of white light is incident on a spherical water
refraction ? (IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
drop whose center is C as shown below. When
observed from the opposite side, the emergent light:
n=1.3 n=1.5 n=1.3 n=1.5 ( KVPY/SA/2012)
(A) (B)
n=1.8 n=1.5 n=1.8 n=1.5 (A) will be white and will emerge without deviating
(B) will be internally reflected
(C) will split into different colors such that the angles
(C) (D) of deviation will be different for different colors
(D) will split into different colors such that the angles
of deviation will be same for all colors
32. How much water should be filled in a container 21 cm 35. A convex lens of focal length 15 cm is placed infront
in height, so that it appears half filled when viewed of a plane mirror at a distance 25 cm from the mirror.
from the top of the container ? Where on the optical axis and from the centre of
4 the lens should a small object be placed such that
[refractive index of water = ] (IJSO/Stage-I/2011) the final image coincides with the object :
3
(A) 8 cm. (B) 10.5 cm. ( KVPY/SA/2012)
(C) 12 cm. (D) 14 cm. (A) 15 cm and on the opposite side of the mirror
(B) 15 cm and between the mirror and the lens
33. In the figure below, PQRS denotes the path followed (C) 7.5 cm and on the opposite side of the mirror
(D) 7.5 cm and between the mirror and the lens
by a ray of light as it travels three media in
succession. The absolute refractive indices of the 36. One side of a glass slab is silvered as shown in the
media are 1,2 and 3 respectively. (The line figure. A ray of light is incident on the other side at
anlge of incidence i=45º . Refractive index of glass is
segment RS' in the figure is parallel to PQ). Then :
given as 1.5. The deviation of the ray of light from its
( KVPY/SA/2012)
initial path when it comes out of the slab is
2
(Given sin–1 =28º) (IJSO Stage-I/2013)
3
(A) 90º (B) 180º

(C) 120º (D) 45º
37. The refractive index of a prism measured using three

lines of a mercury vapour lamp. If 1, 2 and 3 are the
measured refractive indices for these green, blue and
(A) 1 > 2 > 3 (B) 1 < 2 3 yellow lines respectively, then : ( KVPY/SA/2013)
(C) 1 = 3 < 2 (D) 1 < 3 < 2 (A) 2 > 3 > 1 (B) 2 > 1 > 3
(C) 3 > 2 > 1 (D) 1 > 2 > 3
PAGE # 317
38. In a car a rear view mirror having a radius of curvature 42. A light source of diameter 2 cm is placed 20 cm behind
1.50 m forms a virtual image of a bus located 10.0 a circular apaque disc to diameter 4cm. Shadow is
m from the mirror. The factor by which the mirror formed on a screen at a distance of 80 cm. the ratio of
magnifies the size of the bus is close to : the area of umbra and penumbra shadow region is
equal to : (IJSO Stage-I/2014)
(KVPY/SA/2013)
(A) 0.06 (B) 0.07
(C) 0.08 (D) 0.09 4cm
2cm
39. An optical system whose cross-section is shown below
20cm 80cm
is constructed from two different glass isosceles
wedges (each with a 30°-75°-75°cross section). The
(A) 0.58 (B) 0.22
refractive indices of the two glasses are µ1 = 3 and
(C) 0.18 (D) 0.11
µ2 = 2 respectively. A light beam is incident at an
43. The angle of a prism is 60°. When light is incident at
angle of 60°on face AB. The angle of emergence from
an angle of 60° on the prism, the angle of emergence
the face CD is : (IJSO Stage-II/2014)
is 40°. The angle of incidence i for which the light ray
A will deviate the least is such that : (KVPY/SA/2014)
D (A) i < 40° (B) 40° < i < 50°
2 (C) 50° < i < 60° (D) i > 60°
30º 44. A convex lens made of material of refractive index 1.6
is immersed in a medium of refractive index 2.0. The
two surfaces of the convex lens have the same radius
30º
60º of curvature 0.2 m. The lens will behave as a :
3 (KVPY/SA/2014)
B C (A) Divergent lens of focal length 0.4m
(A) 0° (B) 45° (B) Divergent lens of focal length 0.5 m.
(C) 15° (D) 30° (C) Convergent lens of focal length 0.4 m.
(D) Convergent lens of focal length 0.5 m
40. For a normal unaided eye the least converging power
of the eye lens behind the cornea is 20D and the cornea 45. A ray of light incident paralled to the base PQ of an
itself has some converging power. The distance isosceles right-angled triangular prism PQR suffers
between the retina and the cornea-eye lens can be two successive total internal reflections at the faces
approximated to 5/3cm. Converging power of the
PQ and QR before emerging reversed in direction as
cornea is give by : (IJSO Stage-II/2014)
shown :
(A) 2.5D (B) 40D
If the refractive index of the material of the prism is  ,
(C) 60D (D) 19.4D
then : (KVPY/SA/2014)
41. A ray of light is incident on system of mirror as shown
in the adjacent figure. What is the total deflection (d) of (A)  > 5 R
the ray when it emerges out after two reflections ?

(B) 3 < < 5
(IJSO Stage-I/2014)
(C) 2 << 5
d
Q P
(D)  < 2
46. A concave spherical mirror has a focal length of 12 cm.

if an object is placed 6 cm in front of it,the position of
70°
the image is : (IJSO Stage-I/2015)
(A) 4 cm behind the mirror
(A) 220° (B) 180°
(B) 4cm in front of the mirror
(C) 120° (D) 140°
(C) 12 cm behind the mirror
(D) 12 cm in front of the mirror
PAGE # 318
47. The diagram shows total internal reflection. Which of 50. Study the following ray diagram in which : ‘A’ represents
the following statement is not true ?
atmosphere, ‘B’ represents green plants, ‘C’
(IJSO Stage-I/2015)
represents decomposers and ‘D’ represents animals.
B C
A D
The above ray diagram represents
(A) Energy flow through the given ecosystem.
(B) Interconnections among different food chains in
(A) Angle AON is the incident angle the given ecosystem.
(B) AON = BON (C) Movement of carbon among A, B, C and D
(C) AON is the critical angle (D) Movement of nitrogen among A, B, C and D
(D) the speed of light in medium 2 is greater than that 51. An equiconvex lens of focal length f is cut into two equal
in medium 1 halves which are pasted as shown in the figure, the
focal length of the new system will be :
48. Light travels from medium X to medium Y as shown in (IJSO Stage-II/2015)
the adjacent figure. (IJSO Stage-I/2015)
(A) f (B) (0.5)f

(C) 2f (D) Infinity
52. Focal length of a concave mirror is f. In terms of f, the

separation between an object and its doubly magnified
real image by this mirror is : (IJSO Stage-II/2016)
(A) 9f/2 (B) 5f/2
(C) 4f (D) 3f/2
53. Two plane mirror are kept with their reflecting surface
(A) both the speed and frequency decrease
inclined at 100º. A mosquito flying between the
(B) speed increases and frequency decreases combination of these mirror finds multiple images of
(C*) the speed decreases and wavelength decrease itself. At a particular moment the mosquito is very close
to one of the mirrors. How many images will be formed
(D) the speed decreases and wavelength increases
and how many images can the mosquito see ?
49. A beam of yellow light travelling in vacuum (A) 2, 1 (B) 4, 2
( = 600 nm) enters an ordinary tranparent glass (C) 3, 1 (D) 3, 2
(µ = 1.5). Read the following statements.
54. In the following diagrams O is point object and I is its
(i) Its wavelength becomes equal to that of red colour
image formed by a concave mirror. Indentify the
in vacuum. diagram in which position of image I is nearly correct.
(ii) Its wavelength becomes equal to that of green colour (IJSO Stage-I/2016)
in vacuum.
I
(ii) Energy of the photons corresponding to refracted O
C F C F
light is the same as that corresponding to the incident (A) (B)
light O
O
(iv) Energy of the photons decreases. OI
I
(A) Only iii is correct O
C F C F
(B) Only ii & iii are correct (C) (D)
O OI
(C) Only i & iii are correct O
(D) Only i & iv are correct
PAGE # 319
55. Following diagram show refraction of parallel 57. A fisher man of height h is standing on the bank of
beam of light through a spherical surface. Identify a lake. A fish in the water perceives his height as
the correct ray diagram : h’. Then : (IJSO Stage-I/2016)
(IJSO Stage-I/2016) (a) h’ > h
(b) h’ < h
(c) h’ = h
(d) h’ > h or h’ < h depending on position of fish
58. A point object O is kept at origin. When a.concave

(A) mirror M1 placed at x = 6 cm, image is formed at
infinity. When M1 is replaced by another concave
mirror M 2 at same position, image is formed at
x = 30 cm, then ratio of the focal length of M1 to that
of M2 is : (IJSO Stage-I/2016)
3 4
(A) (B)
4 3
1
(B) (C) 5 (D)
5
59. A convex mirror of focal length f produces an im-

1
age of size equal to times the size of the object.
n
Then the object distance is : (IJSO Stage-I/2016)
f
(a) nf (b)
(C)
n
(c) (n + 1)f (d) (n – 1) f
60. The focal length of a biconvex lens made of a soft

material can be changed by changing its shape.
An object was brought from far away to near the
biconvex lens. For each option given below, the
1
first (left side) graph gives dependence of on
(D) 
1
as the shape of the lens is changed, and the
u
56. In the diagram M1 and M2 are two plane mirrors at
second graph gives corresponding dependence
right angles to each other. O is a luminous point
of f on |u|. Here u, v and f have standard meanings
object. Consider two images formed due to first and all images are real. W hich of the following
reflection at M1 and M2. The area of the triangle option is the correct representation of that lens ?
formed by the object and two images is : (IJSO Stage-I/2017)
(IJSO Stage-I/2016)
(A)
(A) 4 cm2 (B) 2 cm2

2
(C) 8 cm (D) 16 cm2
(B)
PAGE # 320
(C)
(D)
61. In a laboratory, a plane mirror and a student move

with velocities as shown in the figure. X and Y
components of the velocity (in m/s) of the image
(of the student), as seen by the student, are
respectively : (IJSO Stage-I/2017)
a) L/2 b) L
c) 2L d) 3L
63. (a) A cylindrical vessel of diameter 12 cm contains 736

cm3 of water. A cylindrical solid glass piece of diameter
8 cm and height 8 cm is placed in the vessel. If a point
object at the bottom of the vessel under the glass piece
is seen by paraxial rays, locate the image of this object
and find the total apparent shift of the bottom. Refractive
index of water = 4/3 and refractive index of glass = 3/2.
(b) The sharpest image of the sun cast by a converging

lens with focal length 20 cm has a diameter of 0.5 cm.
A diverging lens of focal length 10 cm is placed at 15
(A) – 2.5(2+ 3 ), Zero (B) – 5, (5 3 - 2.5) cm from the converging lens on the other side of the
sun. Determine the size of the final image and its
(C) – 5(2+ 3 ), Zero (D)– 5(1+ 3 ), Zero position with respect to the diverging lens ?
62. A point source of light B is placed at a distance d,
in front of the centre of a mirror of horizontal length
L fixed on a wall. A man walks in front of the mirror
and parallel to it at a distance 2d from it as shown
in the figure. The greatest distance over which he
can see the image of the light source in the mirror
is : (IJSO Stage-I/2017)
PAGE # 321
64. An artificially prepared dense glass is used to pre-
pare imitation jewelry. Consider a hemisphere of
such a glass placed with its flat surface horizon-
tal. The figure shows a vertical cross section of
the hemishpere passing through its centre C.A
wide, parallel beam of monochromatic light (for
which, the refractive index of this glass is 3)

falls on the flat surface, in the plane of drawing, at
an angle of incidence 60º.
Is it possible that all the rays of this beam emerge

1
from the spherical surface ? (You may use 
3
sin 35º)
If your answer is YES, give the range of correspond-
ing angles of emergence.
If your answer is NO, determine the part of the
spherical surface (shown in the figure) through
which the emergence is possible. You may state
your answer in terms of the angles made by the
extreme points of the spherical surface at the cen-
tre. Diagram given, may not be to the scale.

PAGE # 322
13. HEAT
(i) the mass of the body Q  m
(ii) rise or fall of temperature of the body Q  T
The energy that is being transferred between two
bodies or between adjacent parts of a body as a result Q  m T or Q = m s  T
of temperature difference is called heat. Thus, heat is where s is a constant and is known as the specific
a form of energy. It is energy in transit whenever
temperature differences exist. Once it is transferred, it Q
heat of the body s =
becomes the internal energy of the receiving body. It m T
should be clearly understood that the word "heat" is S.I. unit of s is joule / kg - kelvin and C.G.S. unit is
meaningful only as long as the energy is being
erg / gm ºC.
transferred. Thus, expressions like "heat in a body" or
"heat of a body" are meaningless.  Specific heat of water : S = 4200 J/kgºC = 1000
cal/kgºC = 1 Kcal / kgºC = 1 cal/gmºC
 Specific heat of steam : half of specific heat of

water = specific heat of ice
When we say that a body is heated it means that its (c) Heat capacity or Thermal capacity :
molecules begin to move with greater kinetic energy.
Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of
Unit of Heat
heat required to raise the temperature of that body by
S.I. unit of heat energy is joule (J). Another common
1º. If ‘m’ is the mass and ‘s’ the specific heat of the
unit of heat energy is calorie (cal).
body, then
1 calorie = 4.18 joules.
Heat capacity = ms.
1 calorie : The amount of heat needed to increase the
Units of heat capacity used in practical system is,
temperature of 1gm of water from 14.5 to 15.5°C at
cal ºC–1 ; SI unit is, JK–1
one atmospheric pressure is 1 calorie.
 Important Points :
(a) Mechanical Equivalent of Heat :
Q
In early days heat was not recognized as a form of (i) We know, s = , if the substance undergoes
m T
energy. Heat was supposed to be something needed the change of state which occurs at constant
to raise the temperature of a body or to change its temperature (T = 0), then s = Q / 0 = .Thus the
phase. Calorie was defined as the unit of heat. A specific heat of a substance when it melts or boils at
number of experiments were performed to show that constant temperature is infinite.
the temperature may also be increased by doing
mechanical work on the system. These experiments (ii) If the temperature of the substance changes
established that heat is equivalent to mechanical Q
without the transfer of heat (Q = 0) then s = = 0.
energy and measured how much mechanical energy m T
is equivalent to a calorie. If mechanical work W Thus when liquid in the thermos flask is shaken, its
produces the same temperature change as heat H, temperature increases without the transfer of heat and
we write, hence the specific heat of liquid in the thermos flask is
W = JH zero.
where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. J is
expressed in joule/calorie. The value of J gives how (iii) To raise the temperature of saturated water
many joules of mechanical work is needed to raise vapours, heat (Q) is withdrawn. Hence, specific heat of
the temperature of 1g of water by 1ºC. saturated water vapours is negative.
(b) Specific Heat : (d) Water equivalent :
Specific heat of substance is equal to heat gain or It is amount of water which requires the same amount
released by that substance to raise or fall its of heat for the same temperature rise as that of the
temperature by 1ºC for a unit mass of substance.
object.
W hen a body is heated, it gains heat. On the other
Let m = mass of substance with specific heat s, in
hand, heat is lost when the body is cooled. The gain or
order to obtain water equivalent we can write the
loss of heat is directly proportional to :
following equation :
PAGE # 323
ms Consequently a gas may be compressed or expanded
ms T = mwsw T  mw = and will fill a container of any shape or size.
sw
(ii) Liquids : In liquids, the average separation
mw sw is water equivalent
between molecules is comparable to their own
In calorie sW = 1
diameters. Individual molecules are free to move
 mW = ms about, but because of the forces between them they
mW is also represent by W
move so that average separation between the
s o W = ms.
neighboring molecules remains same. As a result a
Unit of water equivalent : cal/ºc or Joule/kelvin
liquid is virtually incompressible and has a definite
volume, although its shape can change according to
ILLUSTRATIONS
the shape of its container.
1. Calculate the amount of heat required to increases
(iii) Solids : In solids the separation between
the temperature of 1 kg water by 20ºC.
molecules are comparable to that in liquids but binding
Sol. Heat required = Q = ms 
forces are so strong that the atoms in a solid are not
 S = 1 cal/gmºC = 1 Kcal /kgºC
= 1 × 20 = 20 Kcal. free to move away from a fixed position. Thus a solid
has not only definite volume but a definite shape as
2. If 420 J of energy supplied to 10 g of water what will be well.
the rise in its temperature ?
(f) Latent Heat :
Sol. Heat supplied = Q = ms 
The heat supplied to a unit mass of substance which
420  10 –3 changes its state at constant temperature is called
= 10 × 10–3 × 1 × so  = 10º C
4.20 latent heat of the body.
3. The ratio of the densities of two bodies is 3 : 4 and the (i) Latent heat of Fusion (Lf) : The heat supplied to a
ratio of specific heats is 4 : 3 . Find the ratio of their
unit mass of substance which changes it from solid to
thermal capacities for unit volume ?
liquid state at its melting point and 1 atm. pressure is
1 3 s1 4 called latent heat of fusion. Latent heat of fusion of ice
Sol.
2  4  s2  3 is 80 kcal/kg or 80 cal/g
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation (L v ) : The heat

m s 1 s1 1
supplied to a unit mass substance which changes it
=
m/

2 = s2 × 2 = 1 : 1.
from liquid to vapour state at its boiling point and 1
4. A bullet of mass 5 gm is moving with speed 400 m/s. atm. pressure is called latent heat of vaporization.
strike a target and comes to rest. Then calculate rise of Latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal kg–1.
temperature of bullet. Assuming all the lose in kinetic
energy is converted into heat energy of bullet if its specific
 NOTE : If in question latent heats of water are not
heat is 500 J/kgºC. mentioned and to solve the problem it is required to
assume, then we should consider the following values.
1
Sol. Kinetic energy = × 5 × 10–3 × 400 × 400
2  Latent heat of ice : L = 80 cal/gm = 80 Kcal/kg
= 5 × 10–3 × 500 × T = 4200 × 80 J/kg
T = 160º C
Rise in temperature is 160º C  Latent heat of steam : L = 540 cal/gm = 540 Kcal/
(e) Phase of a substance : kg = 4200 × 540 J/kg
W hen two substances at different temperatures
The three states of matter solid, liquid and gas can be
are mixed together, then exchange of heat continues
considered as different phases of substance. The
change from one phase to another, such as melting of to take place till their temperatures become equal. This
ice, is usually caused by a transfer of thermal energy. temperature is then called equilibrium temperature of
mixture. Here, Heat taken by one substance = Heat
 Molecular view of different phases of matter :
given by another substance.
(i) Gases : The molecules of a gas moves about
freely, except when they collide with other gas molecule
or the walls of container. The average separation
between molecules is large compared with their own
size, and as a result, a gas has no definite volume.
PAGE # 324
5. Find amount of heat released if 1kg steam at 200ºC is   45  
converted into – 20ºC ice. water 1  kg
  80  
Sol. Heat required Q = heat released to convert steam at  
Content of  ice  45   mixture and
1 – kg
200ºC into 100ºC steam + heat released to convert   80  
100ºC steam into 100ºC water + heat released to temperature is 0ºC
convert 100º water into 0ºC water + heat released to
convert 0ºC water into 0ºC ice + heat released to convert
0ºC ice into –20º C ice.
1 When a body is heated its temperature rises and total
Q = 1 × × 100 + 540 × 1 + 1 × 1 × 100 + 1 × 80 + 1 ×
2 kinetic energies of its molecules increases . In a solid,
1 molecules can only have thermal agitations (random
× 20 = 780 Kcal.
2 vibrations). As Temperatures of body increases, the
6. Calculate the amount of heat required to convert 1.00 vibrations of molecules will become fast and due to
kg of ice at – 10ºC into steam at 100º C at normal this rate of collisions among neighboring molecules
pressure. Specific heat of ice = 2100 J kg–1 K–1, latent increases. As the collisions between neighboring
molecules increases, it developed a thermal stress in
heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 ×105 J kg–1, specific heat
the body and due to this the intermolecular separation
capacity of water = 4200 J kg–1 K–1 and latent heat of
increases which results in thermal expansion of body.
vaporisation of water = 2.25 × 106 J kg–1.
Sol. Here, heat required to raise the temperature of ice from
– 10º C to 0ºC
Q1 = mss T = 2100 × 1 × 10 = 21000 J
Heat required to melt the ice to 0ºC water
Q2 = m L = 1× 3.36 × 105 = 336000 J.
Heat required to raise the temperature of water from
0ºC to 100ºC,
Q3 = msw T
= 4200 ×1 × 100 = 420,000 J
Thermal expansion of a substance can be classified
Heat required to convert 100ºC water to steam at 100ºC into three broad categories.
Q4 = m L = 1× 2.25 × 106 J = 2250000 J (a) Linear expansion
Total heat required (b) Superficial expansion
= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 (c) Cubical or volume expansion
= 3027000 J = 3.027 × 106 J. (a ) Linear expansion :
7. 1kg ice at –10ºC is mixed with 1kg water at 50ºC. Then W hen the rod is heated, its increase in length L is
find equilibrium temperature and mixture content. proportional to its original length L 0 and change in
Sol. Heat taken by ice to melt completely temperature T where T is in ºC or K.
1
=1× × 10 + 1 × 80 = 85 Kcal
2
Heat given by water = 1 × 1 × 50 = 50 Kcal
heat required for ice to completely melt > heat given by
water
ice will not complete melt.
Let m kg ice melts then
L
 = L T where   is called the coefficient of
1 0
1× × 10 + 80 m = 50
2 linear expansion whose unit is ºC–1 or K–1.
L = L0 (1 +   T) . W here L is the length after
45 heating the rod.
80 m = 45  m= kg
80
 Note :
(i) The above relation is not only valid for length of an
object but it can also be used to obtain the enclosed
PAGE # 325
length of an object or distance between two points on
an object. V
–1 –1
 =
V0 T Unit of is ºC or K .
(ii) Actually thermal expansion is always 3-D expansion.
W hen other two dimensions of object are negligible V = V0 (1 + T) where V is the volume of the body after
with respect to one, then observations are significant
heating.
only in one dimension and it is known as linear
expansion. Relation Between  ,  and  : For isotropic solids,
8. A small ring having small gap is shown in figure on   
: : = 1 : 2 : 3 or = =
heating what will happen to size of gap. 1 2 3
10. The volume occupied by a thin-wall brass vessel and
the volume of a solid brass sphere are same and
equal to 1,000 cm3 at 0ºC . How much will the volume
of the vessel and that of the sphere change upon
heating to 20ºC? The coefficient of linear expansion of
brass is  = 1.9 × 10–5 °C–1.
Sol. Gap will also increase because separation between
Sol. V = 3T V0 = 1.14 cm3 for both
any two points on object increases during thermal
Note: In such problems the hollow vessel can be
expansion.
treated as solid one.
9. A concrete slab has length of 10 m on a winter night
(d) Effects of Thermal Expansion :
when the temperature is 0ºC. Find the length of the
slab on a summer day when the temperature is 35ºC. (i) Variation of time period of pendulum clocks :
The coefficient of linear expansion of concrete is 1.0 × The time represented by the clock hands of a pendulum
10–5 /ºC. clock depends on the number of oscillation performed
Sol. 1 = 10 (1 + 1 × 10 × 35)
–5 by pendulum. Every time it reaches to its extreme
10.0035 m position the second hand of the clock advances by
one second that means second hand moves by two
(b) Superficial or Areal Expansion :
seconds when one oscillation of simple pendulum
W hen a solid is heated and its area increases, then get completed. Let time period of pendulum clock be T
the thermal expansion is called superficial or areal and length at temperature  0 and  be L 0 and L
expansion. Consider a solid plate of area A0. When it is respectively.
heated, the change in area of the plate is directly L0 L
T = 2  at temperature 0 and T’ = 2 at
proportional to the original area A0 and the change in g g
temperature  T. temperature .
A = A0 T
T' L0 [ 1   ] 1
= =1+ 
A T L0 2
–1 –1
 =
A 0 T Unit of is ºC or K .
[using binomial expansion]
A = A0 (1 +  T) Therefore change (loss or gain) in time per unit time
lapsed is
where A is area of the plate after heating.
T'– T 1
= 
(c) Volume or Cubical Expansion : T 2
When a solid is heated and its volume increases, then  gain or loss in time in duration of ‘t’ is
the expansion is called volume expansion or cubical
1
expansion. Let us consider a solid or liquid whose t =  t
2
original volume is V0. When it is heated to a new volume
, then the change in volume  Conclusions :
V = V0 T (a)  < 0 , T’ < T clock becomes fast and gain time
(b)  > 0 , T’ > T clock becomes slow and lose time
PAGE # 326
 Measurement of Length By Metallic Scale : For solids values of  are generally small so we can
Case (i) write d = d0 (1 –   T) (using binomial expansion).
When object is expanded only
(iii) Variation of force of Buoyancy With temperature:
2 = 1 {1 + 0 (2 –1)} Consider a body of volume V 0 at temperature  0
1 = actual length of object at 1 ºC = measured length submerged completely inside the liquid. Buoyant force
of object at 1 °C. acting on the object will be equal to weight of liquid
2 = actual length of object at 2 ºC = measured displaced by it,
length of object 2 ºC.

 FB = V0 dL g [dL = density of liquid at temperature ]
0 = linear expansion coefficient of object.
Volume of body after increasing its temperature V = V0
[1 + s ].
Density of liquid after increasing its temperature dL '
dL
=
[1   L ] .
 Buoyancy force of body after increasing its
temperature, FB ' = V dL ' g
 dL 
FB ' = V0 (1+ s)  1    g
 L 
Case (ii)
When only measuring instrument is expanded actual  1   s  
FB ' = FB  1     [Since FB = V0dLg]
length of object will not change but measured value  L 
(MV) decreases. If s < L then FB ' < FB
MV = 1 {1 – s (2 – 1)}
 s = linear expansion coefficient of measuring  Conclusion : If on heating the liquid, it undergoes
instrument. more thermal expansion than solid then buoyant force
acting on object will decrease.
at 1 °C MV = 3
at 2 °C MV = 2.2 (iv) Bimetallic Strip : If two strip of different metals are
welded together to form a bimetallic strip, when heated
uniformly it bends in form of an arc, the metal with
greater coefficient of linear expansion lies on convex
side.
(v) Applications of Thermal Expansion :
 A small gap is left between two iron rails of the

Case (iii) railway.
If both expanded simultaneously  Iron rings are slipped on the wooden wheels by
MV = 1 { 1 + (0 – s) (2 – 1) } heating the iron rings.
(A) If 0 > s, then measured value is more than actual

 Stopper of a glass bottle jammed in its neck can
be taken out by heating the neck.
value at 1ºC.
 The pendulum of a clock is made of invar [an alloy
(B) If 0 < s, then measured value is less than actual of zinc and copper] as it has low coefficient of linear
value at 1ºC expansion.
(ii) Variation of Density with temperature : As we (vi) Anomalous expansion of water : For water
know that mass = volume × density. Mass of substance density increases from 0ºC to 4 ºC so  is negative and
does not change with change in temperature so with for 4 ºC to higher temperature is positive. At 4ºC density
increase in temperature, volume increases so density is maximum. This anomalous behavior of water is due
decreases and vice-versa. Let d and d0 be the density to presence of three types of molecules i.e. H2O , (H2O)2
of substance at temperature  and 0 then, and (H 2O)3 having different volume mass at different
d0 temperatures.
d=
1  T  .
PAGE # 327
THERMAL EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Real and apparent expansion of liquids :
Like solids, liquids also expand on heating. The liquids

do not have a shape of their own, but they take the
shape of the vessel in which they are kept. Therefore,
we cannot talk of linear or superficial expansion in
liquids, we are concerned only with the volume
This anomalous behavior of water causes ice to form expansion.
first at the surface of a lake in cold weather. As winter
approaches, the water temperature decreases initially
at the surface. The water there sinks because of its
relatively high density. Consequently, the surface reaches C
0ºC first and the lake becomes covered with ice. Aquatic B
life is able to survive the cold winter as the lake bottom A
remains unfrozen at a temperature of about 4ºC.
11. A pendulum clock having copper rod keeps correct time

at 20ºC. It gains 15 seconds per day if cooled to 0ºC .
Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of copper.
1
Sol. t =  t
2
1
15 =   20  24  60  60
2
1  A liquid is always contained in a vessel and when it is

= = 1.7 × 10–5 /ºC heated, it also expands along with the liquid. Due to
16  3600
expansion of vessel, the observed expansion of liquid
12. A meter scale made of steel is calibrated at 20ºC to give is somewhat less than the actual expansion of liquid.
correct reading. Find the distance between 50 cm mark Therefore, we have to consider the apparent and real
and 51 cm mark if the scale is used at 10ºC. Coefficient expansions in liquids.
of linear expansion of steel is 1.1 × 10–5 /ºC.
 It should be noted that if the flask containing water at
Sol. Let t be the new separation between 50cm and 51cm
room temperature is cooled by placing it in freezing
mark.
mixture, the level of liquid first rises and then decreases
t = 1 (1 – 1.1 × 10–5 × 10) = 0.99989 cm to a level below the initial level.
13. The density of water at 0ºC is 0.998 g/cm3 and at 4ºC is
1.000 g/cm 3 . Calculate the average coefficient of  Real expansion (AC) = Expansion of vessel (AB) +
volume expansion of water in the temperature range 0 apparent expansion (BC)
to 4ºC.
(a) Coefficient of Real Expansion  r ):
d0 0.998
Sol. dt =  1= The true increase in volume of the liquid per unit original
1  t 1   4
–4
= –5 × 10 / ºC volume per degree rise in temperature is called the
coefficient of real expansion.
14. A glass vessel measures exactly 10 cm × 10 cm × 10
cm at 0ºC. it is filled completely with mercury at this Its unit : per ºC (or ºC–1).
temperature. When the temperature is raised to 10ºC,
(b) Coefficient of Apparent Expansion  a ):
1.6 cm3 of mercury overflows. Calculate the coefficient
of volume expansion of mercury. Coefficient of linear The apparent increase in volume of the liquid (relative
expansion of glass = 6.5 × 10–6 /ºC. to the container) per unit original volume per degree
Sol. g = g = 3 × 6.5 × 10–6 rise in temperature is called the apparent coefficient of
V = VHg – Vg expansion.
1.6 = (103 Hg× 10 – 103 × 3 × 6.5 × 10–6 × 10)
Its unit is per ºC (or ºC–1).
Hg = (1.6 + 0.195) × 10–4
= 1.795 × 10–4 / ºC.  NOTE : Real expansion of liquid = Apparent expansion
of liquid + volume expansion of the container.
PAGE # 328
Coefficient of thermal expansion of some liquid substances :
S.No. Liquid Coefficient of real
–4
expansion r (× 10 per ºC)
1 Mercury 1.8
2 Water 3.7
(above 15ºC)
3 Paraffin oil 9
4 Turpentine 10.5
5 Alcohol 11
6 Benzene 11.8
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the effect of heat energy which determines the thermal state of a given substance. In other words,
determines the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. If a body is at a higher temperature than its surroundings,
it means that heat energy will flow out of the body. Similarly, if a body is at a lower temperature than its surroundings,
it means that heat energy will flow into the body.
(a) Measurement of Temperature :
The instrument used for the measurement of temperature is called thermometer.
All thermometers are based on the fact that matter expands on heating. Thus, we have solid thermometers, liquid
thermometers and gas thermometers. The solid thermometers are less sensitive and the gas thermometers are
most sensitive, because solid expand far less as compared to gas. However, for general purposes, we use liquid
thermometers, using mercury or alcohol as thermometric liquids.
Types of thermometers
Type of
The rm om e tric
the rm om e te r Adva nta ge s Disa dva nta ge s Pa rticula r Use s
prope rty
a nd its ra nge
Mercury-in-glass Length of column (i) Quick and easy to (i) Fragile (i) Every laboratory use where
–39ºC to 450ºC of mercury in read (direct reading) (ii) Small size limits high accuracy is not required
capillary tube (ii) Easily portable (iii) Limited range (ii) Can be calibrated against
constant volume gas
thermometer for more accurate
work
Constant volume Pressure of a (i) Very accurate (i) Very large volume (i) Standard against which
gas thermometer fixed mas s of gas (ii) Very sensitive of bulb others calibrated
–270º to 1500ºC at constant (iii) W ide range (ii) Slow to use and (ii) He, H 2 or N 2 used
volume (iv) Easily inconvenient depending on range
reproducible (iii) Can be corrected to the
ideal gas scale
(iv) Used as standard below
–183ºC
Platinum Electrical (i) Accurate Not suitable for (i) Best thermometer for small
resistance –180º resistanc e of a (ii) W ide range varying temperature steady temperatrue differences
to 115ºC platinum coil (i.e. is slow to (ii) used as standard between
respond to changes) 183ºC and 630ºC
Thermocouple Emf produced (i) Fast response Accuracy is lost if (i) Best thermometer for small
–250ºC to1150 ºC between junctions because of low heat emf is measured steady temperatrue differences
of dissimilar capacity using a moving coil (ii) Direct reading can be taken
metals at different (ii) W ide range voltmeter (as may be by calibrating galvanometer
temperatures for (iii) Can be employed necessary for rapid (iii) Used as standard between
measurm ent of for remote readings changes when 630ºC and 1063ºC
emf using long leads potentiometer is
unsuitable)
Radiation Colour of radiation Does not come into (i) Cumbersome (i) Only thermometer possible
pyrometer above emitted by a hot contact when (ii) Direct reading for very high temperatures
1000ºC body temperature is can not be obtained (ii) Used as standard above
measured (needs a trained 1063ºC
observer)
PAGE # 329
(b) Choice of Thermometric Liquid :
A thermometric liquid must have the following
properties : Heat is energy In transit which flows due to temperature
difference from a body at higher temperature to a v
(i) It should have low specific heat capacity, so that it body at lower temperature This transfer of heat from
rapidly attains the temperature of a given substance, one body to the other takes place through three routes.
without absorbing any appreciable amount of heat (i) Conduction (ii) Convection (iii) Radiation
energy from it.
(a) Conduction :
(ii) It should have a uniform rate of expansion, such
that a linear scale can be easily marked. The process of transmission of heat energy In which
(iii) It should have large expansion for a unit degree heat is transferred from one particle of the medium to
rise in temperature, so that its expansion is visible to the other, but each particle of the medium stays at Its
the unaided eye. own position is called conduction, for example if you
hold an Iron rod with one of Its end on a fire for some
(iv) It should have a high boiling point and low freezing time, the handle will get hot. The heat is transferred
point, so that a wide range of temperature changes from the fire to the handle by conduction along the
could be recorded by a single thermometer.
length of iron rod. The vibrational amplitude of atoms
(v) It should be shiny and opaque so that it is clearly
and electrons of the iron rod at the hot end takes on
visible in glass.
relatively higher values. These increased vibrational
(vi) It should not stick to the sides of the glass tube.
amplitude are transferred along the rod, from atom to
(vii) It should exert low vapour pressure. atom during collisions between adjacent atoms. In this
way a region of high temperature extends itself along
(viii)It should be a good conductor of heat.
the rod to your hand.
(ix) It should be easily available in pure state.
(i) Good conductors : The substances through which
(c) Reasons for using Mercury as a Thermometric heat energy can easily flow by conduction are called
Liquid : good conductors.
Mercury fulfills practically all the requisites of a e.g. Metals in general are good conductors. Amongst
thermometric liquid as under : the metals, silver is considered best conductor, next in
(i) It has low specific heat capacity. order are copper, aluminium, gold, etc.
Amongst non-metals graphite is a good conductor.
(ii) Its expansion is uniform.
Metals are good conductor of heat. The high conductivity
(iii) It has a high B.P. (3570C) and low F.P. (–390C). of metals can be attributed to the presence of a large
(iv) It is opaque and shiny. number of free electrons. These electrons drift away
from the source of heat when the metal is heated and
(v) It does not stick to the sides of the glass. in doing so carry the heat energy rapidly through the
(vi) It exerts very low vapour pressure. metal.
(vii) It is a good conductor of heat. (ii) Bad conductors : The substances which do not
allow the heat energy to flow through them easily are
(viii) It is easily available in pure state.
called poor conductors or bad conductors.
(d) Disadvantages of Water as Thermometric e.g. Amongst the solids glass, wood, clay, asbestos,
Liquid : rubber, plastics, wax, etc., are poor conductors.
(i) It has the highest specific heat capacity (4.2 J/gK). All liquids except mercury are poor conductors. All
gases without any exception are poor conductors.
(ii) Its expansion is not uniform.
 NOTE : Non-metals and organic substances are
(iii) Its expansion per degree rise in temperature is
bad conductors. The low conductivity can be attributed
very small.
to the lack of a large number of free electrons. It is
(iv) Its F.P. is 0 0C and B.P. is 100 0C. Thus, the
because most of the heat energy can be transferred
temperatures less than 0 0C and more than 100 0C
only through free electrons and not by the actual
cannot be measured.
vibrational movement of its atoms.
(v) It is transparent.
(iii) Practical Applications of Good Conductors :
(vi) It sticks to the sides of glass.
 Cooling coils of an air conditioner and the
(vii) It evaporates under vacuum conditions. refrigerator are made of copper as they readily conduct
(viii)It is a bad conductor of heat. heat.
(ix) It cannot be obtained in cent percent pure form  Tip of the soldering rod is made of copper, as it
easily. readily conducts away heat to the solder.
PAGE # 330
(iv) Practical applications of bad conductors :  Ice box is a double walled box generally made
from iron. The space in between the walls is filled with
Bad conductors help in conserving energy in a system.
glass wool, which is a bad conductor of heat. Thus,
Glass, wool, cotton, slag wool, asbestos, enclosed
the heat energy from outside does not reach the ice
air, vacuum etc. are the common insulating materials and hence, it does not melt.
available.
 An iron chair feels very cold as compared to a
 Birds puff up their feathers in winter, because in wooden chair in winter, because iron rapidly conducts
doing so they trap a large amount of air, which inturn away the heat energy from our body, but not the wood,
acts as an insulator and does not allow their body heat because the wood is a bad conductor of heat.
to flow out.  In cold countries double glass window panes are
used leaving a gap filled with air. The trapped air acts
 Appliances like electric kettle, electric presses, as an insulator and does not allow the heat energy
electric ovens, soldering rods, cooking pans, etc. are from the room to flow out. Thus, the room keeps warm.
provided with wooden or plastic handles, because they
are bad conductors of heat. Hence, the heat from the  Steam pipes are covered with asbestos or glass
hot appliances does not flow into our hands, with the wool to prevent heat losses due to conduction through
copper.
result we can handle them without any difficulty.
 A newly made quilt is warmer than an old one,
 Slabs of ice are covered with saw dust or gunny
because a large amount of air is trapped in the newly
bags to prevent them from melting. The saw dust or ginned cotton. As air is a bad conductor of heat, it does
the gunny bags contain a large amount of trapped air, not allow the heat from our body to flow out and hence,
which acts as insulator and does not allow the heat we feel warm. Similarly, two thin woolen blankets are
energy from outside to reach ice. warmer than a thick woolen blanket, because there is
an extra layer of air trapped between the thin blankets,
 We wear woolen clothes in the winter, because
which acts as an insulator and does not allow the heat
the woolen yarn contains a large amount of the trapped
from the body to flow out.
air. Since air is a bad conductor of heat, it does not
allow the body heat to flow outward. As our body stops (v) Law of conduction : In steady state heat (Q)
losing heat, we feel warm. passing through a bar of length L and cross-section A
in time t when its ends are at temperature H and C (<
 W e wear a large number of garments in winter H) is given by :
(such as undershirt, shirt, sweater, coat etc.) rather
than one thick garment, because the extra layers of air L
trapped between every two garments, act as insulators.
 Eskimos make igloo hut out of snow. It is because

the snow contains a fairly large amount of trapped air, x=0 x=L
which acts as an insulator, thus, the heat generated
KA(H  C )
within the igloo does not flow out and hence, it keeps Q t
them warm. L
So rate of flow of heat will be
 Animals in the cold countries are generally covered
with thick fur. The fur traps a large amount of air that Q 
= – KA
acts as an insulator. Thus, the heat energy from the t L
bodies of these animals does not flow out easily and
hence, they keep warm. 
— temperature gradient
L
 Mud houses with thatched roof keeps cool in the
K — coefficient of thermal conductivity
summer and warm in the winter, as compared to
or simply thermal conductivity and is a measure of
concrete houses, because the thatched roof contains a
the ability of a substance to conduct heat through it.
large amount of trapped air. Similarly, mud is a bad SI unit of thermal conductivity is
conductor of heat. Hence, in summer heat energy from
outside does not flow in and in winter the heat energy Watt W
or
from inside does not flow out. Thus, they remain cool in meter Kelvin mK
the summer and warm in the winter.
t = time
 Double walls are used in the construction of cold (vi) Thermal Resistance :
storage, leaving an air gap. This air gap acts as an
insulator and does not allow the heat energy from The law of thermal conduction
outside to flow in. KA ( 1  2 )
Q t
L
PAGE # 331
can be written as
 Slabs in Parallel :
 Consider two slabs held between the same heat
H
R reservoirs, their thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and
Q cross-sectional areas A1 and A2
with  H and 1 – 2 = 
t
which is analogous to Ohm’s law
V
I
R
L K
R (unit  )
KA W
(The quantity R is called thermal resistance in
analogy to electrical resistance)
(vii) Applications :
Slabs in series and parallel
 Slabs in series : Consider a composite slab
consisting of two materials having different thickness L L
L1 and L2 different cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 and then R1 = , R2 =
K1A1 K 2A 2
different thermal conductivities K 1 and K 2 . The
thermal current through slab 1
temperature at the outer surface of the slabs are
maintained at H and C, and all lateral surfaces are H –  C
covered by an adiabatic coating. i1 =
R1
and that through slab 2
L2 L1 H –  C
i2 =
R2
Net heat current from the hot to cold
Q reservoir
K2 K1  1 1 
i = i1 + i2 = (H – C)   
R
 1 R 2 
adiabatic coating
H –  C
Comparing with i = R eq , we get,
Let temperature at the junction be , since steady state
has been achieved thermal current through each slab 1 1 1
will be equal .Then thermal current through the first R eq = R1 + R 2
slab.
If more than two rods are j oined in parallel, the
equivalent thermal resistance is given by
Q H – 
= =
t R1 or H –  = iR1 ........(i) 1 1 1 1
and that through the second slab, R eq R1 R 2 R 3 + .........
= + +
(b) Convection :
Q  – C
i= = or  – c = iR2 .....(ii) Convection is a process of transfer of heat by the actual
t R2
movement of the medium particles. Liquids and gases
adding eqn. (i) and (ii)
are the bad conductors of heat. They are heated mainly
H –  C by the process of convection. In a solid, the atoms
H – C = (R1 + R2) i or i=
R1  R 2 cannot move, leaving their positions. So solids are not
Thus these two slabs are equivalent to a single slab of heated by convection. A medium is required for the
thermal resistance R1 + R2. If more than two slabs are transfer of heat by convection. Heat cannot be
joined in series and are allowed to attain steady state, transferred by convection in vacuum.
then equivalent thermal resistance is given by
By the process of convection, the transfer of heat is
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... always vertically upwards. The reason is that the
medium particles near the source of heat absorb heat
PAGE # 332
from the source and they start moving faster. As a result,
 Similar to light thermal radiations can be reflected,
the medium at this place becomes less dense so it
refracted, diffracted and polarized.
rises up in the medium which is called a convection
current. The current continues till the entire liquid  Radiation from a point source obeys inverse
acquires the same temperature. 1
square law (intensity  ).
(i) Consequences of convection : Some important r2
consequences of convection are given below : (b) Prevost theory :
 Land breeze : In the coastal regions, during According to this theory, all bodies radiate thermal
summer it is noticed that a breeze generally blows radiation at all temperatures. The amount of thermal
from land towards the sea during the night (or early radiation radiated per unit time depends on the nature
of the emitting surface, its area and its temperature.
morning) which is called the land breeze.
The rate is faster at higher temperatures. Besides, a
 It is possible to boil water in a thin paper container, body also absorbs part of the thermal radiation emitted
but not in a cardboard container : When water contained by the surrounding bodies when this radiation falls on
in a thin paper container is heated over a flame, the it. If a body radiates more then what it absorbs, its
container conducts heat from the flame to the water and temperature falls. If a body radiates less than what it
absorbs, its temperature rises. And if the temperature
the convection currents start in water. Paper being thin,
of a body is equal to the temperature of its surroundings
conducts heat quickly to water, so the paper on the side
it radiates at the same rate as it absorbs.
of flame does not acquire the ignition temperature and
it does not catch fire. (c ) Pe rfec tl y Bl ac k Body A nd b la ck B od y
On the other hand, a thick card-board takes long time Radiation (Fery’s Black Body) :
to conduct the heat to water because of its thickness, A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the
hence the surface of cardboard in contact with the flame heat radiations of whatever wavelength, incident on it.
acquires the ignition temperature and it catches fire. It neither reflects nor transmits any of the incident
radiation and therefore appears black whatever be the
colour of the incident radiation.
The process of the transfer of heat from one place to

another place without heating the intervening medium
is called radiation. The term radiation used here is
another word for electromagnetic waves. These waves
are formed due to the superposition of electric and
magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and carry
energy.
In actual practice, no natural object possesses strictly
(a ) Properties of Radiation :
the properties of a perfectly black body. But the lamp-
 All objects emit radiations simply because their black and platinum black are good approximation of
temperature is above absolute zero, and all objects black body. They absorb about 99% of the incident
absorb some of the radiation that falls on them from radiation. The most simple and commonly used black
other object. body was designed by Fery. It consists of an enclosure
 Maxwell on the basis of his electromagnetic theory with a small opening which is painted black from
inside. The opening acts as a perfect black body. Any
proved that all radiations are electromagnetic waves
radiation that falls on the opening goes inside and
and their sources are vibration of charged particles in
has very little chance of escaping the enclosure before
atoms and molecules.
getting absorbed through multiple reflections. The cone
 More radiations are emitted at higher temperature opposite to the opening ensures that no radiation is
of a body and lesser at lower temperature. reflected back directly.
 The wavelength corresponding to maximum (d) Absorpt ion, Reflection and Emission of
emission of radiations shifts from longer wavelength Rad iations :
to shorter wavelength as the temperature increases. Qr Q t Qa
Due to this the colour of a body appears to be changing. Q = Qr + Qt + Qa , 1= + +
Q Q Q
Radiations from a body at NTP has predominantly
Q
infrared waves. (Incident) Qr (Reflected)
 Thermal radiations travels with the speed of light

and move in a straight line.
 Radiations are electromagnetic waves and can
Qa Qt(Transmitted)
also travel through vacuum.
(Absorbed)
PAGE # 333
1=r+t+a (g) Kirchoff’s Law :
where r = reflecting power,
The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power
a = absorptive power
for the radiation of a given wavelength is same for all
t = transmission power.
substances at the same temperature and is equal to
the emissive power of a perfectly black body for the
(i) r = 0, t = 0 , a = 1, perfect black body
same wavelength and temperature.
(ii) r =0, t =1, a = 0, perfect transmitter E (body )

= E (black body)
a (body )
(iii) r =1, t =0, a = 0, perfect reflector Hence we can conclude that good emitters are also
good absorbers.
(e) Absorptive power :
In particular absorptive power of a body can be defined (i) Applications of Kirchoff’s Law : If a body emits
as the fraction of incident radiation that is absorbed by strongly the radiation of a particular wavelength, it must
the body. also absorb the same radiation strongly.
Energy absorbed  Let a piece of china with some dark painting on it

a= be first heated to nearly 1300 K and then examined in
Energy incident
dark room. It will be observed that the dark paintings
As all the radiations incident on a black body are appear much brighter than the white, portion. This is
absorbed, a = 1 for a black body. because the paintings being better absorbers emit
also much greater light.
(f) Emissive power :
 The silvered surface of a thermos flask does not
Energy radiated per unit time per unit area along the absorb much heat from outside. This stops ice from
normal to the surface is known as emissive power. melting quickly. Also , the silvered surface does not
Q radiate much heat from inside. This prevents hot liquids
E= from becoming cold quickly.
A t
(Notice that unlike absorptive power, emissive power  A red glass appears red at room temperature. This
is not a dimensionless quantity). is because it absorbs green light strongly. However, if
it is heated in a furnace, it glows with green light. This
Unit = J/m2 k is because it emits green light strongly at a higher
temperature.
( g ) S p e c t r al E m i s s i v e p ow e r ( E l ) :
 W hen white light is passed through sodium
vapours and the spectrum of transmitted light is seen,
Em issive p ow er p er u nit w avelen gth rang e at
wavelength  is known as spectral emissive power, we find two dark lines in the yellow region. These dark
E . If lines are due to absorption of radiation by sodium
E is the total emissive power and E  is spectral vapours which it emits when heated.
emissive power, they are related as follows,
(h) Stefan - Boltzmann’s Law :

dE
 E
E E  d an d
d According to this law, the amount of radiation emitted
0 per unit time from an area A of a black body at absolute
(h) Emissivity: temperature T is directly proportional to the fourth power
of the temperature.
Emissive power of a body at temperatur e T
e= u = AT4
Emissive power of a black body at same temperatur e T
where is Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2k4 .
E (i) Nature of Thermal Radiations :
=
Eb
From the energy distribution curve of black body
radiation, the following conclusions can be drawn :
 The higher the temperature of a body, the higher

is the area under the curve i.e. more amount of energy
is emitted by the body at higher temperature.
PAGE # 334
Sol.
When A and B are mixed

 The energy emitted by the body at different
ms1 × (13 – 10) = m × s2 × (15 – 13)
temperatures is not uniform. For both long and short
3s1 = 2s2 ......(1)
wavelengths, the energy emitted is very small.
when B and C are mixed
s2 × 1 = s3 × 4 ......(2)
 For a given temperature, there is a particular
when C and A are mixed
wavelength (m) for which the energy emitted (E  ) is
s1 (–10) = s3 × (20 – ) ......(3)
maximum.
by using equation (1), (2) and (3)
 With an increase in the temperature of the black
140
body, the maxima of the curves shift towards shorter we get  = ºC.
11
wavelengths. 17. If three different liquid of different masses specific heats
From the study of energy distribution of black body and temperature are mixed with each other and then
radiation discussed as above, it was established what is the temperature of mixture at thermal
experimentally that the wavelength ( m) corresponding equilibrium ?
to maximum intensity of emission decreases inversely m1 , s1 , T1  specification for liquid 1
with increase in the temperature of the black body. i.e. m2, s2, T2  specification for liquid 2
1 m3 , s3 , T3  specification for liquid 3
m  or m T = b
T
This is called W ien’s displacement law.
Sol. Total heat lost or gain by all substance is equal to zero
Here b = 0.282 cm–K, is the Wien’s constant.
Q = 0
m1 s1 (T – T1) + m2 s2 (T–T2) + m3s3 (T – T3) = 0
15. Solar radiation is found to have an intensity maximum
near the wavelength range of 470 nm. Assuming the m1s1T1  m 2s2T2  m3 s3 T3
so T =
surface of sun to be perfectly absorbing (a = 1), calculate m1s1  m2 s2  m3 s3
the temperature of solar surface.
Sol. Since a = 1, sun can be assumed to be emitting as a
18. 1 kg ice at –20°C is mixed with 1kg steam at 200°C.
black body
Then find equilibrium temperature and mixture content.
from Wien’s law for a black body
Sol. Let equilibrium temperature is 100°C. Heat required
m. T = b
to convert 1kg ice at –20°C to 1kg water at 100°C is
b 0.282 (cm – K )
 T=
m = (470  10 7 cm) ~
– 6125 K. Ans. 1
equal to H1 = 1 x x 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 1 × 100 = 190
2
16. Temperature of equal masses of three different
Kcal
liquids A, B, and C are 10ºC 15ºC and 20ºC respectively.
heat released by steam to convert 1 kg steam at 200°C
The temperature when A and B are mixed is 13ºC and
to 1 kg water at 100°C is equal to
when B and C are mixed, it is 16ºC. What will be the
temperature when A and C are mixed ? 1
H2 = 1 × × 100 + 1 × 540 = 590 Kcal
2
PAGE # 335
Here heat required to melt ice is less than heat
supplied by steam so mixture equilibrium temperature
is 100°C then steam is not completely converted into Kinetic theory of gases is based on the following
water. basic assumptions.
(a) A g as c on sists o f very larg e nu mb er o f
So mixture has water and steam which is possible molecules. These molecules are identical, perfectly
only at 100°C elastic and hard spheres. They are so small that
the volume of molecules is negligible as compared
mass of steam which converted into water is equal to
with the volume of the gas.
1 (b) Molecules do not have any preferred direction
190 – 1  100 7
= 2 = = kg of motion, motion is completely random.
540 27 (c) These molecules travel in straight lines and in
so mixture content free motion most of the time. The time of the
collision between any two molecules is very small.
(d) The collision between molecules and the wall
7 20 of the container is perfectly elastic. It means kinetic
mass of steam = 1 – = kg
27 27 energy is conserved in each collision.
(e) The path travelled by a molecule between two
collisions is called free path and the mean of this
7 34 distance travelled by a molecule is called mean free
mass of water = 1 + = kg
27 27 path.
(f) T he m otio n of mo lecu les is go vern ed b y
Newton's law of motion
(g) The effect of gravity on the motion of molecules
19. What is the percentage change in length of 1 m iron is negligible.
rod if its temperature changes by 100ºC.  for iron is
2 × 10–5/°C.
E xpr e s si on for t he p r e ss ur e of a g as :
Sol. Percentage change in length due to temperature
change Let us suppose that a gas is enclosed in a cubical
box having length  . Let there are ' N ' identical
 mo lecu les, each h aving m ass ' m '. S in ce the
% = ×100 =  × 100 molecules are of same mass and perfectly elastic,

so their mutual collisions result in the interchange
of velocities only. Only collisions with the walls of
= 2 × 1 0–5 ×100 × 100 the container contribute to the pressure by the gas
= 0.2 % Ans. molecules. Let us focus on a molecule having
velocity v1 and components of velocity v x , v y , v z
1 1 1
along x,y and z-axis as shown in figure.
20. An iron ring measuring 15.00 cm in diameter is to be
shrunk on a pulley which is 15.05 cm in diameter. All
measurements refer to the room temperature 20°C.
To what minimum temperature should the ring be
heated to make the job possible ? Coefficient of linear
expansion of iron = 12  10–6 /°C.
Sol. The ring should be heated to increase its diameter

from 15.00 cm to 15.05 cm. v12 = v 2 x1  v 2 y1  v 2 z1
Using 2 = 1 (1 +  ), The change in momentum of the molecule after one

collision with wall BCHE
15.05 = 15.00 (1 +  (T–20))
= m v x1  ( m v x1 ) = 2 m v x1 .
0.05 The time taken between the successive impacts

=  (T–20)
15 dis tan ce
on the face BCHE =
velocity
0.05
T = 20 + = 298°C
15  12  10 6
PAGE # 336
W here vrms is root mean square velocity of the gas.
2
= v 1 2
x1 Pressure exerted by the gas is P =  <v2 > =
3 3
Time rate of change of momentum due to collision
1 2 3
change in momentum   <v2 > or P = E,E= P
= 2 3 2
time taken Thus total translational kinetic energy per unit
volume (it is called energy density) of the gas is
2mv x1 mv 2 x1
= 2 / v  3
x1  numerically equal to
2
times the pressure exerted
Hence the net force on the wall BCHE due to the by the gas.
impact of n molecules of the gas is :
I M P ORTA N T P OI N T S :
2
 2 2 2
F x = v x  v x  v x  ..............  v x
1 2 3 n
 1
(a) vrms  T and vrms 
mN M m o le
 v 2x 
 (b) At absolute zero, the motion of all molecules of
the gas stops.
mv 2x mv 2x mv 2x 3 mv 2x m (c) At higher temperature and low pressure or at
1 2 n
=    .......... ..  
     higher temperature and low density, a real gas
behaves as an ideal gas.
2
where  v x  = mean square velocity in x-
direction. Since molecules do not favour any
2 2
particular direction therefore  v x  =  v y  = 8 kT
Average (or Mean) Speed : v = = 1.59
 m
2 2
 v 2z  . But < v2 > =  v x  +  v y  +  v 2z 
kT / m . (derivation is not in the course)
 v2  3kT = 1.73 kT
  v 2x  = . Pressure is equal to force
RMS Speed : vrms = v 2  = m
.
3 m
Most Probable Speed :
divided by area.
The most probable speed vp or vmp is the speed
Fx M M possessed by the maximum number of molecules,
P = 2
 3
 v2    v 2  . Pressu re is and corresponds to the maximum (peak) of the
 3 3V
distribution curve. Mathematically, it is obtained by
independent of x, y, z directions. the condition.
3 dN( v )
W here  = volume of the container = V
= 0 [by substitution of formula of dN(v) (which
M = total mass of the gas, <v2 > = mean square dv
velocity of molecules is not in the course)]
1 2
 P=  v  2kT
3 Hence the most probale speed is vp =
m
As PV = n RT , = 1.41 kT / m .
then total translational K.E. of gas
From the above expression, we can see that vrms >
1 2 3 3 v > vp.
= Mv  = PV = n RT
2 2 2
Translationa l kinetic e nergy o f 1 mo lecu le
3 Total number of independent co-ordinates which

= kT (it is independent of nature of gas) must be known to completly specify the position
2 and configuration of dynamical system is known as
3P " degree o f freedo m f". M axim um p ossible
 v2  = translational degrees of freedom are three i.e.

1 1 1 
3P 3RT 3kT  mV x2  mVy2  mVz2 
or v rms =   2 2 2 
ρ Mmole m
PAGE # 337
Maximum possible rotational degrees of freedom (ii) Closed system : A system is said to be closed
system if it can exchange only energy (not matter
1 1 1  with its surroundings).
are three i.e.   x  2x   y 2y   z 2z 
 2 2 2  (iii) Isolated system : A system is said to be isolated
if it can neither exchange energy nor matter with its
Vibrational degrees of freedom are two i.e. (Kinetic surroundings.
energy. of vibration and Potential energy.of vibration)
(b) Zeroth law of Thermodynamics :
Mono atomic : (all inert gases , He , Ar etc.) f = 3 If two systems (B and C) are saperately in thermal
(translational) equ ilib rium with a third on e (A ), th en they
Diatomic : (gases like H 2 , N 2 , O 2 etc.) themselves are in thermal equilibrium with each
f=5 (3 translational + 2 rotational) other.
If temp < 70 K for diatomic molecules, then f = 3
If temp in between 250 K to 5000 K ,
then f =5
If temp > 5000 K f = 7
[ 3 translational.+ 2 rotational + 2 vibrational ]
( a ) M a x w e l l ' s La w of e q u p a r t i t i on o f (c) Equa tion of St ate ( for i deal gases ) :

The relation between the thermodynamic variables
energy:
(P, V, T) of the system is called equation of state.
Energy associated with each degree of freedom =
The equation of state for an ideal gas of n moles is
1 given by PV = nRT,
kT. If degree of freedom of a molecule is f , then
2
(d) Work done by a gas :
1 Let P and V be the pressure and volume of the gas.
total kinetic energy of that molecule  fkT If A be the area of the piston, then force exerted by
2 gas on the piston is, F = P  A.
( b) Int er na l E ner g y : Let the piston move through a small distance dx
during the expansion of the gas. W ork done for a
The internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic small displacement dx is dW = F dx = PA dx
and potential energies of the molecules of the Since A dx = dV, increase in volume of the gas is dV
system. It is denoted by U. Internal energy (U) of the  dW = P dV
system is the function of its absolute temperature
(T) and its volume (V). i.e. U = f (T, V)
In case of an ideal gas, intermolecular force is zero.
Hence its potential energy is also zero. In this case,
the internal energy is only due to kinetic energy,
which depends on the absolute temperature of the
gas. i.e. U = f (T). For an ideal gas internal energy
f
U= nRT..
2
Thermodynamics is mainly the study of exchange

of heat energy between bodies and conversion of
the same into mechanical energy and vice versa.
or W=  dW  P dV
(a) Therm odynam ic Sys tem
Area enclosed under P-V curve gives work done
Collection of an extremely large number of atoms
during process.
or molecules confined within certain boundaries
such that it has a certain value of pressure (P),
volum e (V ) an d tem peratu re (T ) is c alled a ( e ) Fi r st l a w of T he r m ody na m i c s :
thermodynamic system. Anything outside the
thermodynamic system to which energy or matter Th e first law of thermod ynam ics is the law of
is exchanged is called its surroundings. Taking into conservation of energy. It states that if a system
consideration the interaction between a system and absorbs heat dQ and as a result the internal energy
its surroundings thermodynamic system is divided of the system changes by dU and the system does
into three classes : a work dW, then dQ = dU + dW.
But, dW = P dV dQ = dU + P dV
(i) Open system : A system is said to be an open which is the mathematical statement of first law of
system if it can exchange both energy and matter thermodynamics.
with its surroundings.
PAGE # 338
Heat gained by a system, work done by a system Work done in isochoric process :
and inc rease in in ternal energ y are tak en as
positive. Since change in volume is zero therefore dW = p
Heat lost by a system, work done on a system and dV = 0
decrease in internal energy are taken as negative.
Indicator diagram of isochoric process :
( f) Di ffer e nt t y p e s of P roc e s s e s :
(i) Isothermal Process :
T = constant [Boyle's law applicable]
PV = constant
Change in internal energy in isochoric process :

There is exchange of heat between system and
f
surroundings. System should be compressed or U = n R T
expanded 2
very slow ly so that th ere is sufficient time for Heat given in isochoric process :
exchange of heat to keep the temperature constant.
f
Q = U = n R T
Slope of PV curve in isothermal process: 2
(iii) Isobaric Process : Pressure remains constant
dP P in isobaric process
PV = constant = C  
dV V V
Work done in isothermal process:  P = constant  = constant
T
Vf Indicator diagram of isobaric process :
W = nRT  n
Vi
If v f  v i then W is positive

If v f  v i then W is negative 
 Vf 
W = 2.303 n R T log10 
 Vi 
Work done in isobaric process :

W = P V = P (V final – V initial ) = nR (T final – T initial)
Internal energy in isothermal process :
U = f (T) U = 0
Change in internal energy in isobaric process :
(ii) Iso- Choric Process (Isometric Process) : U = n C V T
Heat given in isobaric process :
V = constant Q = U + W
 change in volume is zero f f
Q = n R T + P [V f  V i] = n R T + nR T
P 2 2
 is constant Above expression gives an idea that to increase
T
temperature by T in isobaric process heat required
P is more than in isochoric process.
 const. (Galussac-law)
T
PAGE # 339
(iv) Cyclic Process : In the cyclic process initial
and final states are same therefore initial state =  Q  f 
CP =   =   1 R
final state  n T  cons tan t volume 2 
Work done = Area enclosed under P-V diagram. where n is the amount of the gas in number of moles
and f is degree of freedom. Quite often, the term
Change in internal Energy U = 0 specific heat capacity or specific heat is used for
Q = U + W molar heat capacity. It is advised that the unit be
 Q = W carefully noted to determine the actual meaning.
The unit of specific heat capacity is J/kg-K whereas
If the process on P-V curve is clockwise , then net that of molar heat capacity is J/mol–K.
work done is (+ve) and vice-versa.
The graphs shown below explains when work is Molar Heat Capacity of Ideal gas in terms of R :
positive and when it is negative
(i) For a monoatomic gas f = 3
(–) work 3 5
CV = R , CP  R 
2 2
P
CP 5
    1.67
CV 3
V (ii) For a diatmoc gas f = 5
5 7
CV  R, CP  R
2 2
(–) work
(+) work
CP
P   1.4
P CV
(iii) For a Triatomic gas f = 6
V V C V  3R, CP  4R
CP 4
   1.33
CV 3
[Note for CO 2; f = 5, it is linear]
In general if f is the degree of freedom of a
molecule , then ,
f f 
CV  R , CP    1R ,
(g) Specific heat : 2 2 
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined
as the heat supplied per unit mass of the substance CP  2 
  1 
per unit rise in the temperature. If an amount Q of C V  f
heat is given to a mass m of the susbstance and its
temperature rises by T, the specific heat capacity (h) Average Molar Specific Heat of Metals :
s is given by equation [Dulong and Petit law]
At room temperature average molar specifc heat of
Q
s= all metals are same and is nearly equal to 3R
m T ( 6 cal. mol-1 K -1 ).
The molar heat capacities of a gas are defined as [Note : Temp. above which the metals have
the heat given per mole of the gas per unit rise in constant C V is called Debye temp.]
the tem perature. T he m o lar heat capacity at
constant volume, denoted by C V , is :
 Q  f
Cv =   = R
 n T  cons tan t volume 2
and the molar heat capacity at constant pressure,
denoted by C p is,
(i) Mayear’s equations:
C P  C V = R (for ideal gases only)
PAGE # 340
W hen no heat is supplied or extracted from the
system the process is called adiabatic. Process is
sudden so that there is no time for exchange of
heat. If walls of a container are thermally insulated
no heat can cross the boundary of the system and
process is adibatic.
Work done in adiabatic Process :
Equation of adiabatic process is given by
PV
i i  Pf Vf nR(Ti  Tf )
W  U  nCv (Ti  Tf )  
(   1)  1
work done by system is (+ve) , if T i > T f (hence
expansion)
work done on the system is (ve) if T i < T f (hence
compression)
PV  = constant [Po issio n
Law]
T  P 1– = constant A process is said to be reversible when the various
T V  1 = constant stages of an operation in which it is subjected can
be traversed back in the opposite direction in such
Slope of PVcurve in adiabatic process : Since a way that the substance passes through exactly
PV  is a constant the same conditions at every step in the reverse
process as in the direct process.
dP P A process in which any one of the condition stated
 =   
dV V for reversible process are not fulfilled is called an
irreversible process.
Slope of PTcurve in adiabatic process : Since T


P 1– is a constant
dP  P ( ) P
  =
dT (1   ) T (   1) T
dP dP

dV adia dV isothermal
Slope of TVcurve :
dV 1 V
=
dT (   1) T
In compression up to same final volume: | W adia |>
| W isothermal |
In Expansion up to same final volume:
W isothermal > W adia
PAGE # 341
The first law of thermodynamics tells us that heat
and mechanical work are interconvertible. However,
this law fails to explain the following points :
(i) It does not tell us about the direction of transfer
of heat.
(ii) It does not tell us about the conditions under
which heat energy is converted into work.
(iii) It does not tell us weather some process is
possible or not.
n1 M1  n 2 M2 Fig. Carnot's ideal heat engine

(a) Molecular weight = , M 1 & M 2 are
n1  n2
(c ) Insula ti ng s ta nd : It is a perfectly non-
molar masses. conducting pad.
(d) Cylinder : It has a perfectly non-conducting walls
n1 C V1  n 2 C V2 but with a perfectly conducting bottom. It is fitted with a
(b) Specific heat C V = ,
n1  n 2 perfectly non-conducting and frictionless piston over
which some weights are placed. One mole of an ideal
gas is enclosed in the cylinder. The ideal gas acts as
n1 CP1  n2 CP2 the working substance.
CP =
n1  n2 The working substance is subjected to the following
four successive reversible operations so as to
complete a reversible cycle. This cycle is called
Cpmix n1Cp1  n2 Cp2  .......
 Carnot's cycle. The reversibility of operations is a very
(c) for mixture,  = C n1Cv1  n2 Cv 2  .......
v mix
important assumption because our aim is to find out
the maximum efficiency attainable by engine where all
sources of irreversibilities are absent.
To begin with let the pressure, volume and temperature
be P1, V1 and T1 respectively. The state of the working
It is an ideal heat engine which is free from all the
substance is represented by the point a in the P-V
imperfections of an actual engine. So, it cannot be
diagram.
realised in actual practice. It was conceived by Niolas
(i) Operation I (Isothermal Expansion). The cylinder is
Le'onard Sadi Carnot, a French Engineer. This engine
placed on the source. The piston is allowed to move
serves us a standard by which the performance of
out infinitely slowly by reducing very gradually the
actual engines can be judged. It consists essentially
weights on the piston. The gas expands extremely
of the following parts.
slowly. As the gas expands, its temperature tends to
(a ) Sour ce : It serves as source of heat. It is fall. But since it is in thermal contact with the heat
maintained at a constant high tempaerature T1K. It has source therefore it will extract a certain amount of heat
infinite thermal capacity i.e., any amount of heat may Q1 from the source. In this way the temperature of the
be extracted from it at a constant temperature T1. gas will remain T 1 throughout the process of
(b) Sink: It is a cold body maintained at constant low expansion. In other words, the gas expands
temperature T2K. It also has infinite thermal capacity, isothermally at temperature T 1 K. This isothermal
i.e., any amount of heat rejected to it will not affect its expansion is represented by the curve AB on the
temperature. indicator diagram. Let W 1 be the work done by the gas
in expanding from volume V1 to volume V2. The pressure
decreases from P1 to P2.
PAGE # 342
= W 1 + W 2 – W 3 – W 4 = W 1 – W 3 [ W 2 = W 4]
= area AB ba A – area C cd DC = area ABCDA
The working substance can be taken through the cycle
again and again. In this way, more and more work can
be done by the engine.
Thermal Efficiency of a Carnot engine is defined as
the ratio of the external work done in one cycle to
corresponding amount of heat extracted from the
source.
Since the working substance is restored to its initial
state therefore there is no change in its internal energy.
Applying first law of thermodynamics,
W = Q1 – Q2
W, Q1 and Q2 are all measured in the same units, i.e,
Fig. P-V Diagram of Carnot's cycle either in units of heat or in units of work.
Applying first law of thermodynamics,
external work done
V2 Thermal efficiency,   or
V2 heat extracted
Q1 = W 1 =  PdV  RT1 loge
V1
 Area AB ba A
V1 W Q1 – Q 2 Q
   1– 2
(ii) Operation II (Adiabatic Expansion). The cylinder is Q1 Q1 Q1
placed on the insulated stand and the piston is allowed
to move out. The gas expands adiabatically from volume V2
V2 to volume V3 till its temperature falls to T2K. Here, Q1 = W 1 = RT1 loge and Q2 = W 3 = RT2 loge
V1
The pressure falls from P2 to P3.
The adiabatic expansion is represented by the curve V3
BC in the indicator diagram. V4
The work done by the gas is given by
V3 V 
R RT2 loge  3 
W2   PdV   – 1(T – T )  Area BC cb B
V2
1 2 Q2
  V4 
Now, Q1 V  or
RT1 loge  2 
(iii) Operation III (Isothermal Compression) The
 V1 
cylinder is placed on the sink and the gas is
isothermally compressed until the pressure and
volume become P4 and V4 respectively. The operation V 
is represented by the isothermal curve CD. The heat loge  3 
Q2 developed in compression is absorbed by the sink.
Q 2 T2
  V4 
Let W 3 be the work done on the gas. Q1 T1  V  .........(i)
loge  2 
Applying first law of thermodynamics.  V1 
V4 V4 V
Q2  W3  –  PdV  – RT 2 log e  RT 2 log e 3 The points B and C lie on the same adiabatic.
V3 V3 V4
 T1V2–1 = T2V3–1 .........(ii)
= Area C cd DC The points A and D lie on the same adiabatic.
(iv) Operation IV (Adiabatic Compression) The cylinder  V1–1 = T2V4–1 .........(iii)
is placed on the insulating stand and the gas is Dividing (2) by (3) be get
compressed adiabatically till it attains its initial pressure  –1  –1
P 1 volume V 1 and temperature T 1 . The adiabatic  V2  V  V2 V3
compression is represented by the curve DA in the
    3  or 
 V1   V4  V1 V4
indicator diagram. Let W 4 be the work done on the gas.
Put in eq. (i)
V1 R Q 2 T2
Then W 4  –  V4
PdV  (T – T ) = Area AD da A.
 –1 1 2 Then from equation (1), 
Q1 T1
Let W be the net external work done by the working
substance during one cycle. T2
   1–
Then, W = Work done by the gas – Work done on the T1
gas
PAGE # 343
Results (i) The efficiency of the Carnot's ideal engine
is independent of the nature of the working substance. Q2
  ...........(i)
It depends only upon the temperatures of the source Q1 – Q 2
and sink. The greater the difference between the two
temperatures, higher is the efficiency of the Carnot This expression may be put in another form also.
engine.
(ii) Efficiency is the same for all reversible engines
1

working between temperatures T1 and T2. Q1
–1
(iii)  is always less than one. The value of  can be Q2
one only if T2 = 0 i.e., if the sink is at absolute zero of
temperature. Since the absolute zero of temperature [Dividing the numerator and denominator of equation
cannot be attained therefore  cannot be equal to one. (1) by Q2.]
(iv) When T2 = T1, then = 0.
So, heat cannot be converted into work without a Q1 T1
But 
temperature difference. In other words, heat can be Q 2 T2
converted into work only if a sink at a lower temperature
is available. This explains as to why the large amount
1
of heat energy of sea water cannot be used for deriving 
mechanical work. 
T1 .......(ii)
–1
T2
T2
or 
T1 – T2
An ideal refrigerator may be regarded as a carnot's
ideal heat engine working in the reverse order.
In an actual refrigerator, the vapours of some low boiling Discussion (i) In actual practice,  varies from 2 to 6 .
point liquid (ammonia or freon – 12) act as the working For an actual refrigerator, the value of  is less than
substance. The working substance absorbs a certain that calculated from equations (1) or (2).
quantity of heat Q2 from the cold body or sink at lower
(ii) Lesser the difference in the temperatures of the
temperature T 2. In a household refrigerator, the ice
cooling chamber and the atmosphere, higher is the
cubes in the freezer compartment and food constitute
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.
the cold body. A certain amount of work W is performed
by the compressor of the refrigerator on the working (iii) In a heat engine the efficiency can never exceed
substance. The compressor is operated by an electric 100%. But in the case of a refrigerator, the coefficient of
motor. The quantity of heat Q1 is rejected to the hot performance may be much higher than 100%
body (atmospher) at temperature T1 K by the radiator (iv) As the refrigerator works, T2 goes on decreasing
(fixed at the back of the refrigerator). due to formation of too much ice. There is practically
no change in T 1 . This decreases the value of .
However, if the refrigerator is defrosted, T 2 shall
increase and consequenctly the value of . So, it is
necessary to defrost the refrigerator.
21. 1 gm water at 100ºC is heated to convert into steam at

100ºC at 1 atm. Find out change in internal energy of
water. It is given that volume of 1 gm water at 100ºC =
1 cc. volume of 1 gm steam at 100ºC = 1671 cc.
Latent heat of vaporization = 540 cal/g. (Mechanical

equivalent of heat J = 4.2J/cal.)
Coefficient of performance. It measures the efficiency
Sol. From first law of thermodynamic
of a refrigerator.
It is defined as the ratio of the quantity of heat extracted Q = u + w
per cycle from the contents of the refrigerator to the
mechanical work W done by the external agency to do Q = mL = 1 × 540 cal. = 540 cal.
so.
It is denoted by  or K or . 10 5 (1671  1)  10 6
W = PV =
Q2 4 .2
 
W
10 5  1670 )  10 6
Smaller the amount of mechanical work done in = = 40 cal.
removing heat Q 2, greater will be the coefficient of 4.2
performance. u = 540 – 40 = 500 cal.
W = Q1 – Q2
PAGE # 344
22. Two moles of a diatomic gas at 300 K are kept in a in a short time (b) in a long time. Take  = 1.4.
nonconducting container enclosed by a piston. Gas is Sol.
now compressed to increase (a) When the gas is compressed in a short time, the
process is abiabatic. Thus,
T2V2 –1 = T1V1–1
 1 0.4
V   800 
or T2  T1 1  = (300 K) ×  
 V2   200 
the temperature from 300 K to 400 K. Find work
done by the gas =522 K.
Sol. Q = u + w Rise in temperature = T2 – T1 = 222 K.
Since container is nonconducting therefore
Q = 0 = u + w (b) When the gas is compressed in a longtime, the
process is isothermal. Thus, the temperature remains
f equal to the temperature of the surrounding that is 27ºC.
 W = – u = –n R T
2 The rise in temperature = 0.
5
= –2 × R (400 – 300)
2
EXERCISE-1
= –5 × 8.314 × 100 J = – 5 × 831.4 J = –4157 J
23. In a thermodynamic process, the pressure of a
certain mass of gas is changed in such a way that HEAT AN D TE MPER ATUR E :
20 Joule heat is released from it and 8 Joule work
is done on the gas. If the initial internal 1. When an object is heated, the molecules that make up
energy of the system is 30 joule then the final internal the object :
energy will be - (A) begin to move faster
Sol. dQ = dU + dW
(B) lose energy
dQ = U final – U initial + dW
Ufinal = dQ – dW + U initial (C) become heavier
or Ufinal = –20 + 8 + 30 (D) becomes lighter
or U final = 18 Joule
2. The most commonly used thermometric liquid is :
24. A gas is contained in a vessel fitted with a movable (A) water (B) alcohol
piston. The container is placed on a hot (C) mercury (D) None of these
stove. A total of 100 cal of heat is given to the gas
& the gas does 40 J of work in the expansion 3. Absolute zero corresponds to :
resulting from heating.
(A) – 273 K (B) –273º C
Calculate the increase in internal energy in the
(C) 273º F (D) None of these
process.
Sol.Heat given to the gas is Q = 100 cal = 418 J.
W ork done by the gas is W = 40 J 4. Iron glows in red colour when it is heated to very high
The increase in internal energy is temperature because :
U = Q – W = 418J – 40 J = 378 J (A) heat we supply consumes red colour at high
temperature
25. A gas is compressed from volume 10 m 3 to 4 m 3 at (B) mechanical energy is being converted into heat
constant pressure 50N/m2. Gas is given 100 J energy energy
by heating then its internal energy. (C) all metals glow in red colour when heated
Sol. P = 50 N/m 2 (D) heat energy is being converted into light energy
dV = 10 – 4 = 6 m 3
W = PdV = 6 × 50 = 300 J
5. When in thermal contact, the quantity of heat lost by the
( Volume is decreasing, Q = 100 J)
hotter body is __________ the amount of heat gained
W = – 300 J
by the colder body. (neglect loss of heat due to
Q = W + dU
convection & radiation)
100 + 300 = dU
dU = increased by 400 J (A) equal to (B) greater than
26. A quantity of air is kept in a container having walls which (C) less than (D) cannot say
are slightly conducting. The initial temperature and 6. A temperature difference of 30ºC in the Fahrenheit scale
volume are 27ºC (equal to the temperature of the is :
surrounding) and 800cm3 respectively. Find the rise in (A) 54ºF (B) 27ºF
the temparture if the gas is compressed to 200cm3 (a) (C) 86ºF (D) –54ºF
PAGE # 345
7. The first thermometer was developed by :
(A) Joule (B) Fahrenheit 18. For a 5 gm substance the heat supplied (in cals.) and
(C) Galileo (D) Watt temperature (in ºC) curve is given below. Then the
specific heat of substance for liquid state will be :
8. A manufacture marks the thermometer wrongly. At 0ºC
it reads –10ºC, at 100ºC it reads 85ºC. Then the reading
at 50ºC will be : Temp(ºC)
(A) 40ºC (B) 32.5ºC 100 ºC
(C) 37.5ºC (D) 42.5ºC
9. We feel most comfortable at relative humidity :

(A) < 50% (B) 50%
0ºC
(C) > 50% (D) 100%
CA LORI ME TRY : –10ºC

50 100 120 220
Heat supplied(in cals.)
10. 2000 J of energy is needed to heat 1 kg of paraffin
through 1ºC. How much energy is needed to heat 10 (A) 1 cal/gmºC (B) 0.2 cal/(gmºC)
kg of paraffin through 2ºC ? (C) 2.5 cal/gmºC (D) can't be obtain
(A) 4000 J (B) 10,000 J
(C) 20,000 J (D) 40,000 J THE RMAL EXPA NSION :
11. Ratio of thermal capacity of the body and its water 19. The superficial expansion of a metal is  and volume
equivalent is : expansion is , then :
(A) equal to one (B) less than one
(C) more than one (D) none of these  
(A)  = (B)  =
2 3
12. 1 kg of substance is supplied 630 kJ of energy. Specific
heat of substance is 4200 J/kg ºC. Calculate the rise in 2 3
(C)  = (D)  =
temperature of 1 kg substance: 3 2
(A) 40º C (B) 60ºC 20. Choose the correct statement :
(C) 80ºC (D) 150ºC (A)  :  :  : : 1 : 3 : 2 (B)  :  :  : : 2 : 3 : 1
(C)  :  :  : : 3 : 1 : 1 (D)  :  :  : : 1 : 2 : 3
13. 1 kg of water at 20ºC is, mixed with 800 g of water at
80ºC. Assuming that no heat is lost to the surroundings, 21. W ith increase in temperature, the density of a
calculate the final temperature of the mixture : substance in general :
(A) 24.44º C (B) 46.67ºC (A) increases
(C) 44.44ºC (D) 54.44ºC (B) decreases
(C) first increases then decreases
14. How much heat would be required to convert 14 kg of (D) first decreases then increases
ice at 0ºC into water of 0ºC ?
(A) 4704 J (B) 4704 kJ 22. Expansion in a substance is :
(C) 336 J (D) 336 kJ (A) directly proportional to rise in the temperature
(B) inversely proportional to rise in the temperature
15. Calculate the quantity of heat required to convert 10 kg (C) independent of rise in temperature
of ice at 0ºC to water at 50ºC. Specific heat of water is (D) cannot say
4200 J/kg ºC.
23. r is coefficient of real expansion of a liquid, a is
(A) 4506 kJ (B) 3360 kJ
coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid and g is
(C) 5460 J (D) 5460 kJ coefficient of cubical expansion of the container then
the correct relation is :
16. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg ºC. (A) r = a × g (B) r = a ÷ g
Calculate the heat capacity of 10 kg of water per ºC: (C) r = a – g (D) r = a + g
(A) 42 J (B) 420 J
24. Per ºC is unit of:
(C) 42 kJ (D) 420 kJ
(A)  (B) 
(C)  (D) all of these
17. Bunty mixed 440 gm of ice at 0ºC with 540 gm of water
at 80ºC. Then what would remain after sometime : 25. Clock’s pendulum is made of invar because :
(A) only ice (A) It is light in weight
(B) only water
(C) ice and water in same amount
(D) ice and water will vapourise
PAGE # 346
(B) It is easily available 30. Five rods of same dimensions are arranged as shown
(C) Its coefficient of linear expansion is low in the fig. .They have thermal conductivities, k1, k2, k5, k4
(D) It is cheaply available
and k3 when points A and B are maintained at different
26. W hich of the following curve represent variation of temperatures. No heat flows through the central rod if:
density of water with temperature best :
k1 k2
(A) (B)
A k5 B
k3 k4
(C) (D)
(A) k1 k4 = k2 k3 (B) k1 = k4 and k2 = k3
k1 k 2
CON DU CT ION AN D RA DI AT ION : (C)
k 4 = k3 (D) k1 k2 = k3 k4
27. If two conducting slabs of thickness d 1 and d 2 and

31. If heat is supplied to the system it :
thermal conductivity K1 and K2 are placed together face
(A) does work only
to face as shown in figure in the steady state (B) increase the internal energy
temperatures of outer surfaces are 1 and 2. The (C) either does work or increase the internal energy or
temperature of common surface is : both
(D) does nothing
32. Two rods having length 1 and 2, made of materials

K1 K2 with the linear expansion coefficient 1 and 2, were
soldered together. The equivalent coefficients of linear
expansion for the obtained rod :
d1 d2
K11d1  K 22d2 K11  K 2 2

(A) (B)
K1d1  K 2d2 K1  K 2
K11  K 2 2 K11d2  K 2 2d1  1  2   2 1  1 1   2  2

(A) (B)
(C)
1  2 (D)
K1d2  K 2 d1 1   2 1   2
28. Zeroth law of thermodynamic signifies :  1 1   2  2  2 1   1  2

(C) (D)
(A) mass (B) heat 1   2 1   2
(C) Temperature (D) Inertia
 33.Two identical beakers with negligible thermal
29. The lengths and radii of two rods made of same expansion are filled with water to the same level at
material are in the ratios 1 : 2 and 2 : 3 respectively ; If 4°C. If one say A is heated while the other B is cooled,
then :
the temperature difference between the ends for the
(A) water level in A must rise
two rods be the same, then in the steady state, the
(B) water level in B must rise
amount of heat flowing per second through them will (C) water level in A must fall
be in the ratio : (D) water level in B must fall
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 4 : 3
(C) 8 : 9 (D) 3 : 2
PAGE # 347
8. An Insulated vessel contains 0.4 kg of water at 0ºC. A
EXERCISE-2 piece of 0.1 kg ice at –15°C is put into it and steam at
100ºC is bubbled into it until all ice is melted and finally
COMPETITIVE EXAM PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS : the contents are liquid water at 40ºC. Assume that the
vessel does not give or take any heat and there is no
1. If T represent the absolute temperature of an ideal loss of matter and heat to the surroundings. Specific
gas, the volume coefficient of thermal expansion at heat of ice is 2.2 × 103 J kg-1K-1. heat of fusion of water
constant pressure, is : (IAO/Jr./Stage-I/2007) is 333 × 10 3 J kg –1 heat of vaporization of water is
(A) T (B) T2 2260 × 10 3 J kg –1. The amount of steam that was
bubbled into the water is : (KVPY/2008)
(C) 1/T (D) 1/T2
(A) 34.7 gram
2. A coolant in a chemical or nuclear plant is a liquid that (B) 236 gram
is used to prevent different parts of a plant from getting (C) 0.023 gram
(D) 48.01 gram
too hot. One important property of coolant is that it :
(KVPY/2007) 9. The temperature of a metal coin is increased by 100°C
(A) should have low specific heat. and its diameter increases by 0.15%. Its area
(B) should have high specific heat. increases by nearly : (KVPY/2009)
(A) 0.15% (B) 0.60%
(C) high density and low thermal conductivity.
(C) 0.30% (D) 0.0225%
(D) low density and high thermal conductivity.
10. A solid cube and a solid sphere of identical material
3. An aluminium measuring tape which is correct at 10º and equal masses are heated to the same
C measures the length of a line as 80 cm at 50°. lf temperature and left to cool in the same surroundings.
thermal coefficient of linear expansion of aluminium is Then ; (KVPY/2009)
of 2.50 x 10–5 perº C,the correct length of the line is (A) the cube will cool faster because of its sharp edges.
(B) the cube will cool faster because it has a larger
(IAO/Sr/Stage-I/2007)
surface area.
(A) 79.92 cm (B) 79.68 cm (C) the sphere will cool faster because it is smooth.
(C) 80.08 cm (D) 80.32 cm (D) the sphere will cool faster because it has a larger
surface area.
4. A wire of length 1 cm and a cube of side 1 cm of the
same metal are heated through 1ºC. If the change in 11. We are able to squeeze snow and make balls out of it
length of the wire is x cm then the change in volume of because of : (KVPY/2009)
(A) anomalous behaviour of water.
the cube is : (IAO/Sr./Stage-I/2008)
(B) large latent heat of ice.
(A) x3 cm3
(C) large specific heat of water.
(B) 3x cm3 (D) low melting point of ice.
(C) x cm3
12. lce at 0º C is put in a closed container and heat is
(D) indeterminate as data are insufficient
supplied to it continuously at a uniform rate. Which of
 5.The quantity/ quantities that does/do not have mass in the following graphs gives the temperature variation
its/their dimensions is/are : (IAO/Sr/Stage-I/2008) with time correctly ? (IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
(A) specific heat Temp Temp
ºC ºC
(B) latent heat
150 150
(C) electrical potential difference
(A) 100 (B) 100
(D) electrical resistance
50 50
6. The nature of the graph of pressure P against reciprocal 0 0

Time Time
of volume V of an ideal gas at constant temperature is:
Temp
(IAO/Jr/Stage-I/2008) Temp
ºC
ºC
(A) a straight line not passing through origin 150 150
(B) a parabola 100 100
(C) (D)
(C) a straight line passing through origin 50 50
(D) a rectangular hyperbola 0

Time 0 •
Time
7. Choose the INCORRECT statement from the following. 13. Two identical blocks of metal are at 20ºC and 80ºC,
(IAO/Jr. & Sr./Stage-I/2008) respectively. The specific heat of the material of the
(A) An increase in pressure results in increasing the two blocks increases with temperature. Which of the
melting point of some solids. following is true about the final temperatureT ƒ when
(B) An increase in pressure results in decreasing the the two blocks are brought into contact (assuming that
melting point of some solids. no heat is lost to the surroundings) ? (KVPY/2010)
(C) An increase in pressure results in increasing the (A) Tƒ will be 50ºC.
boiling point of all liquids. (B) Tƒ will be more than 50ºC.
(D) An increase in pressure results in decreasing (C) Tƒ will be less than 50ºC.
the boiling point of some liquids. (D) T ƒ can be either more than or less than 50ºC
depending on the precise variation of the specific heat
with temperature.
PAGE # 348
20. If temperature of a certain mass of aluminium having
14. A new temperature scale uses X as a unit of specific heat capacity of 0.8 J/g 0C is lowered by 6ºC
temperature, where the numerical value of the
and heat lost is 96J, then mass of aluminium is :
temperature tX in this scale is related to the absolute
temperature T by tX = 3T + 300. If the specific heat of a (IJSO Stage-I/2013)
material using this unit is 1400 J kg–1 K –1 its specific
(A) 16g (B) 48g
heat in the S.I. system of units is : (KVPY/2010)
(A) 4200 J kg–1 K–1 (C) 60g (D) 20g
(B) 1400 J kg–1 K–1
21. An ideal gas filled in a cylinder occupies volume V. The
(C) 466.7 J kg–1 K–1
gas is compressed isothermally to the volume V/3.
(D) impossible to determine from the information Now the cylinder valve is opened and the gas is
provided allowed to leak keeping temperature same. W hat
percentage of the number of molecules escape to bring
15. The following three objects (1) a metal tray, (2) a block the pressure in the cylinder back to its original valuye.
of wood, and (3) a wooden cap are left in a closed (KVPY/SA/2013)
(A) 66% (B) 33%
room overnight. Next day the temperature of each is
(C) 0.33% (D) 0.66%
recorded as T 1 , T 2 and T 3 respectively. The likely
situation is : (KVPY/2011) 22. A 10.0 W electrical heater is used to heat a container
filled with 0.5 kg of water. It is found that the temperature
(A) T1 = T2 = T3 (B) T3 > T2 > T1
of the water and the container rise by 3 K in 15 minutes.
(C) T3 = T2 > T1 (D) T3 > T2 = T1 The container is then emptied, dried, and filled with 2
kg of an oil. It is now observed that the same heater
16. A certain amount of heat is required to raise the raises the temperature of the container-oil system by
temperature of x gram of a substance through t 1º C. 2 K in 20 minutes. Assuming no other heat losses in
The same amount of heat when taken away from y any of the processes, the specific heat capacity of the
gram of water, it cools through t 2º C.Therefore, the oil is : (KVPY/SA/2013)
specific heat of the substance is (IJSO/Stage-I/2011) (A) 2.5 × 103 JK–1 kg–1
yt1 xt2 (B) 5.1 × 103 JK–1 kg–1
(A) (B) (C) 3.0 × 103 JK–1 kg–1
xt1 yt1
(D) 1.5 × 103 JK–1 kg–1
yt 2 xt1 23. Find the number of quanta of radiations of frequency
(C) (D)
xt1 yt1 7.55×1015 s–1 that must be absorbed in order to melt
6 g of ice. The approximate energy required to melt 1g
17. 10 g of ice at –10ºC is added to 10g of water at 85ºC.
What is the final temperature and amount of ice left in of ice is 333 J. (h=6.62×10–34Js) (IJSO Stage-II/2014)
the system ?(System is kept inside an ideal insulator ) (A) 0.90 × 1022 (B) 0.111 × 1020
(C) 5.38×1022 (D) 3.99 × 1020
(A) 0°C, 0 g (B) 0°C, 2 g
(C) 37.5°C, 0 g (D) 37.5°C, 5 g
24. For several days, the temperature at the bottom of a
18. In the Arctic region hemispherical houses called Igloos pond is 40 ºC and the air temperature just above the
are made of ice. It is possible to maintain inside an top surface of the pond is –10 ºC. Depth of the pond is
Igloo as high as 20ºC because : (KVPY/SA/2012)
(A) ice has high thermal conductivity L. The Thermal conductivity of ice is 3 times that of
(B) ice has low thermal conductivity water. Thickness of frozen layer of the ice formed must
(C) ice has high specific heat
(D) ice has higher density than water be : (IJSO Stage-II/2014)
19. A circular metallic ring of radius R has a small gap of (A) 3L/4 (B) 4L/5
width d. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the
metal is  in appropriate units. If we increase the (C)3L/5 (D) 3L/7
temperature of the ring by an amount T, then width of 25. On a summer day one feels very uncomfortable sitting
the gap: (KVPY/SA/2012)
in a room, without an air conditioner. A bucket of water
(A) will increase by an amount dT
(B) will not change is kept in the middle of the room for a long time. Room
(C) will increase by an amount (2R – d)T is thermally insulated from the outside environment.
(D) will decrease by an amount dT
Which of the following statement is /are correct ?
(i) If one puts her / his hand in the water, she / he feels
water in the bucket to be cooler because the water is at
a lower temperature than the surrounding.
PAGE # 349
(ii) The quantity of water in the bucket will not change
30. A scientist measures the pressure (P) of a particular
with time. mass of an ideal gas in a fixed volume as a function of
(iii) If ice is brought into the room, the ice begins to temperature (°C). The plot of his reading is shown in
the figure below as the line AB. (IJSO Stage-II/2015)
melt and the room temperature begins to fall. The room
temperature and the temperature of the water in the P
bucket will fall jointly.
H
(iv) Two persons enter the room. Person M is medi- F
cally normal but person N has fever with body tem- G
perature 104ºF. M claims that water kept in a bucket is
E D
warm but N claims that water is cool. Then the water B
C
temperature can be 39ºC.[ Hint : Boiling point of water A
°C
at normal pressure is 100ºC = 212 ºF. Freezing point of
water at normal pressure is 0 ºC = 32 ºF]. He now repeats the experiment with the same gas in
the same volume, but with different mass. Likely plot
of pressure against temperature will be :
(A) ii, iii, and iv (B) iii and iv (A) AB itself (B) CD
(C) ii, iii (D) only iii (C) EF (D) GH
31. Evaporation of (Sweat) water is an essential

26. W hen an incandescent bulb is switched on and the mechanism in human beings for maintaining normal
outer glass bulb also gets heated up. This is due to body temperature. For human being, heat of
(IJSO Stage-I/2014) vaporization of water at a body temperature of 37ºC is
(A) Convection of heat from filament of the bulb by the nearly 2.3 × 106 J/kg and specific heat capacity is 3500
medium inside the bulb at all temperatures J/kg–1 K–1. On consuming a certain prescribed diet, the
(B) Conduction and convection of heat from filament to body temperature of an althlete of mass 82 kg is
the bulb by the medium iside the bulb at lower expected to increase by 2ºC. In order to prevent this, he
temperatures and by radiation of heat at higher drinks N bottles of mineral water (250 ml water in each)
temeprature. at 37ºC Assume that the entire amount of this water is
(C) radiation of heat form filament to the bulb at all given out as sweat, which vaporizes. N is nearly :
temperatures (IJSO Stage-II/2016)
(D) Conduction of heat from filament to he bulb by the (A) 4 (B) 3
medium isdie the bulb at higher temperaturs and (C) 2 (D) 1
by radiation of heat at lower temperature.
27. A thin paper cup filled with water does not catch fire 32. Melting point of a substance is 10°C. What does this
when placed over a flame. This is because mean ? (IJSO Stage-I/2016)
(KVPY/SA/2014)
(A) The water cuts off oxygen supply to the paper cup (A) The substance is a liquid at 10°C.
(B) The paper cup does not become appreciably hotter (B) The substance is a solid at 10°C.
than the water it contain (C) There is an equilibrium between solid phase and
(C) Water is an excellent conductor of heat liquid phase at 10°C.
(D) Paper is a poor conductor of heat
(D) The substance is 50% solid and 50% liquid at
28. An aluminum piece of mass 50g initially at 300 °C is 10°C.
dipped quickly and taken out of 1kg of water, initially at
30 °C. If the temperature of the aluminum piece be 160 33. An iron cylinder contains helium at a pressure of
°C, what is the temperature of the water then (Specific 250kPa at 300K. The cylinder can with stand a pressure
heat capacities of aluminum and water are 900 JKg-1K-1 of 1 × 106 Pa. If the room in which the cylinder is placed
and 4200Jkg-1K-1, respectively) (KVPY/SA/2014) catches fire. Predict whether the cylinder would blow
(A) 165°C (B) 45 °C up before it melts (melting point of cylinder is 1800 K).
(C) 31.5 °C (D) 28.5 °C (IJSO Stage-II/2016/Su.b)
29. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion of steel is 34. An earthen pot was filled with 20 litres of water at
11×10–6/°C. The percentage change in the length of room temperature of 25°C and left closed. After some
the rod when temperature changes by 70°C. time it was found that the temperature of the water
(IJSO Stage-I/2015) has dropped by 5°C while the temperature of the
(A) 0.077% (B) 0.085% surrounding and the pot remained the same. How
(C) 0.0576% (D) 0.00077% much is the amount of water remaining in the pot?
(IJSO Stage-II/2017/Su.b)
PAGE # 350
14. CENTRE OF MASS,RIGID BODY DYNAMICS & IMPACT OR COLLISION
CENTRE OF MASS  n 
 
M = m i  is t he total mass of the
Every physical system has associated with  i1 
it a certain point whose motion characterises system.
the motion of the whole system. When the Note: If the origin is taken at the centre of mass
system moves under some external forces, n
then this point moves as if the entire mass 
of the system is concentrated at this point
then  m r =0. hence, the COM is the point
i 1
i i
and also the external force is applied at this

about which the sum of “mass moments” of
point for translational motion. This point is
the system is zero.
called the centre of mass of the system.
Centre of Mass of a System of 'N' Discrete POSITION OF COM OF TWO PARTICLES

Particles
Consider a system of N point masses m1, m2, Centre of mass of two particles of masses
m3, ................ m n whose position vectors from m 1 and m 2 separated by a distance r lies
   in between the two particles. The distance
origin O are given by r1 , r2 , r3 ,............... of centre of mass from any of the particle
 (r) is inversely proportional to the mass of
rn respectively. Then the position vector of the
the particle (m)
centre of mass C of the system is given by.
  
 m1r1  m 2 r2  ........  m n rn
rcm = m1  m 2  ........  mn
;
n

m r i i i.e. r  1/m
 i 1
rcm = n r1 m2
or =
m
i 1
i r2 m1
or m 1r 1 = m 2r 2
 m2 
or r 1 =  r

 m2  m1 
 m1 
and r 2 =  r

 m1  m 2 
Here, r 1 = distance of COM from m 1
and r 2 = distance of COM from m 2
From the above discussion, we see that
r 1 = r 2 = r/2 if m 1 = m 2, i.e., COM lies
midway between the two particles of equal
n masses.
 1 
rcm =
M
m r
i 1
i i Similarly, r 1 > r 2 if m 1 < m 2 and r 1 < r 2 if m 2
< m 1, i.e., COM is nearer to the particle
 having larger mass.
where, mi ri is called the moment of mass
of the particle w.r.t O.
PAGE # 351
ILLUSTRATIONS
Sol. Assuming D as the origin, DC as x -axis
and DA as y-axis, we have
m 1 = 1 kg, (x 1, y 1) = (0, 1m)
1. Two particles of mass 1 kg and 2 kg are
m 2 = 2 kg, (x 2, y 2) = (1m, 1m)
located at x = 0 and x = 3 m. Find the
position of their centre of mass. m 3 = 3 kg, (x 3, y 3) = (1m, 0)
Solution : and m 4 = 4 kg, (x 4, y 4) = (0, 0)
Since, both the particles lies on x-axis, Co-ordinates of their COM are
the COM will also lie on x-axis. Let the x COM
COM is located at x = x, then m1x1  m 2 x 2  m 3m 3  m 4 x 4
r 1 = distance of COM from the particle of =
mass 1 kg =x m1  m 2  m 3  m 4
(1)(0)  2(1)  3(1)  4(0) 5 1

= = = m
1 2  3  4 10 2
= 0.5 m
Similarly,
and r2 = distance of COM from the particle
of mass 2 kg = (3 – x) m1y1  m 2 y 2  m 3 y 3  m 4 y 4
y COM =
r1 m2 m1  m 2  m 3  m 4
Using =
r2 m1
(1)(1)  2(1)  3(0)  4(0)
x 2 =
1 2  3  4
or = or x = 2 m
3x 1
Thus, the COM of the two particles is 3
located at x = 2 m. Ans. = = 0.3 m
10
2. The position vector of three particles of

masses m 1 = 1 kg, m 2 = 2 kg and m 3 = 3 kg
 
are r1  ( î  4 ĵ  k̂ ) m , r2  ( î  ĵ  k̂ ) m and

r3  ( 2 î  ĵ  2k̂ ) m respectively. Find the
position vector of their centre of mass.
Sol.
The position vector of COM of the three (x COM, y COM) = (0.5 m, 0.3 m) Ans.
particles will be given by
   Thus, position of COM of the four particles
 m r  m 2 r2  m 3 r3
rCOM  1 1 is as shown in f igure.
m1  m 2  m 3
Substituting the values, we get 4. Consider a two-particle system with the
1 particles having masses m1 and m2. If the first
 ( 3 î  ˆj  k̂ ) m
2 particle is pushed towards the centre of mass

through a distance d, by what distance should
(1)( î  4 ĵ  k̂ )  (2)( î  ĵ  k̂ )  (3)(2î – ĵ – 2k̂ )
rCOM  . the second particle be moved so as to keep
1 2  3
the centre of mass at the same position?
3. Four particles of mass 1 kg, 2 kg, 3 kg and Sol.
4 kg are placed at the fourvertices A, B, C Consider figure. Suppose the distance of m 1
and D of a square of side 1 m. Find the
position of centre of mass of the particles. from the centre of mass C is x 1 and that of
m 2 from C is x 2. Suppose the mass m 2 is
moved through a distance d towards C so
as to keep the centre of mass at C.
Then, m 1x 1 = m 2x 2
.........(i)
and m 1(x 1 – d) = m 2 (x 2 – d).
.........(ii)
PAGE # 352
Subtracting (ii) from (i)
m 1d = m 2 d
m1
or, d = m d,
2
MASS DISTRIBUTION 2R
yc = xc = 0

Centre of mass of a contineous mass
 A semi-circular disc
distribution will always lie on the line or on the
plane which will bisect the body.
CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEMS
 A system of two point masses m1 r1 = m2 r2

4R
yc = xc = 0
3
 A hemispherical shell
The centre of mass lies closer to the heavier

mass.
 Rectangular plate (By symmetry)

R
yc = xc = 0
2
 A solid hemisphere
b L
xc = yc =
2 2 3R
yc = xc = 0
8
 A triangular plate (By qualitative argument)
 A circular cone (solid)
h
at the centroid : yc = h
3
yc =
 A semi-circular ring 4
 A circular cone (hollow)
PAGE # 353
Acceler ation of centr e of m as s
of system

a cm
=
dv1 dv dv dv
m1  m 2 2  m 3 3 ..............  m n n
dt dt dt dt=
M
   
m1a1  m 2a 2  m 3 a 3 ..........  mn an
h M
yc =
3 Net force on system
=
5. A uniform thin rod is bent in the form of closed M
loop ABCDEFA as shown in the figure. The
Net External Force  Net int ernal Force
y-coordinate of the centre of mass of the =
M
system is
Net External Force
=
M
(action and reaction both of an internal
force must be within the system. Vector
summation will cancel all internal f orces
and hence net internal force on system is zero)
 
 Fext = M a cm

where Fext is the sum of the 'external' forces
acting on the system. The internal forces
which the particles exert on one another play
Sol.. The centre of mass of semicircular ring is at absolutely no role in the motion of the centre
2r of mass.
a distance from its centre. If no external f orce is acting on a system

Let  = mass/length of particles, the acceleration of centre of
2r 4r mass of the system will be zero. If a c = 0,
r     2r 
 Ycm =     6r it implies that v c must be a constant and if
r  r  r    2r 3  2 v cm is a constant, it implies that the total
momentum of the system must remain
const ant . It l eads t o the pri nci pal of
MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS AND
conservation of momentum in absence of
CONSE RVATION OF MOMENTUM :
external forces.
Velocity of centre of mass of system  
If Fext  0 then v cm = constant
dr1 dr dr dr “If resultant external force is zero on
m1  m 2 2  m 3 3 ..............  m n n
 dt dt dt dt the system, then the net momentum of
v cm =
M the system must remain constant”.
   
m1 v1  m2 v 2  m3 v 3 ..........  mn v n
= Motion of COM in a m oving
M
system of p articles:
Here numerator of the right hand side term
is the total momentum of the system i.e., (1) COM at rest :
summation of momentum of the individual If F ext = 0 and V cm = 0, then COM remains
component (particle) of the system at rest. I ndi v idual components of t he
Hence velocity of centre of mass of the system system may mov e and hav e non-zero
is the ratio of momentum of the system to the momentum due to mutual forces (internal),
mass of the system. but the net momentum of t he system
  remains zero.
 PSystem
= M v cm
(i) All the particles of the system are at
rest.
(ii) Particles are moving such that their net
momentum is zero.
PAGE # 354
example: moving in a straight line suddenly explodes into
various smaller fragments, all moving in different
directions then, since the explosive forces are
internal & there is no external force on the
system for explosion therefore, the COM of the
(iii) A bomb at rest suddenly explodes into bomb will continue the original motion and the
various smaller fragments, all moving in different fragment fly such that their net momentum
directions then, since the explosive forces are remains conserved.
internal & there is no external force on the
(iii) Man jumping from cart or buggy
system for explosion therefore, the COM of the
also exert internal forces theref ore net
bomb will remain at the original position and
mom entum of the system and hence,
the fragment fly such that their net momentum
Motion of COM remains conserved.
remains zero.
(iv) Two men standing on a frictionless platform, (iv) Two moving blocks connected by a
push each other, then also their net momentum light spring on a smooth horizontal surface.
remains zero because the push forces are If the acting forces is only due to spring
internal for the two men system. then COM will remain in its motion and
momentum will remain conserved.
(v) A boat floating in a lake, also has net
(v) Particles colliding in absence of
momentum zero if the people on it changes
external impulsive forces also have their
their position, because the friction force momentum conserved.
required to move the people is internal of the
boat system. (3) COM moving with acceleration :
(vi) Objects initially at rest, if moving under If an external force is present then COM
mutual forces (electrostatic or gravitation)also continues its original motion as if the
external force is acting on it, irrespective
have net momentum zero.
of internal forces.
(vii) A light spring of spring constant k kept
Example:
c o m p r e sse d b e t we e n t wo bl o c k s o f
masses m 1 and m 2 on a smooth horizontal
Projectile motion : An axe thrown in air
surface. When released, the blocks acquire
at an angle  with the horizontal wi ll
velocities in opposite directions, such that
perf or m a com pli cated m oti on of
the net momentum is zero.
rotation as well as parabolic motion under
the effect of
(viii) In a fan, all particles are moving but
gravitation
COM is at rest
(2) COM moving with uniform velocity :

If F ext = 0, then V cm remains constant
therefore, net momentum of the system
a l so r e m a i n s c o n se r v ed . I n d i v i d u a l
component s of t he syst em may hav e
variable velocity and momentum due to
m ut ual f orces (i nt ernal ), but t he net
momentum of the system remains constant
and COM continues to move with the initial
velocity.
(i) All the particles of the system are moving
with same velocity. u 2 sin 2 
H com =
e.g.: A car mov ing with unif orm 2g
speed on a straight road, has its COM
moving with a constant velocity. u 2 sin 2 2u sin 
R com = T= g
g
(ii) Internal explosions / breaking does not

ch ang e t he m o t i o n o f C O M an d n et
momentum remains conserv ed. A bomb
PAGE # 355
Circular Motion : A rod hinged at an end, Momentum Conservation :
rotates, than its COM performs circular The total linear momentum of a system of
motion. The centripetal force (F c) required particles is equal to the product of the total
in the circular motion is assumed to be mass of the system and the velocity of its
acting on the COM.  
centre of mass. P = M v cm
Fc  mω2R COM 
 dP
Rcom Fext = If
dt
Fc 
  
Fc
mg Fext = 0  dP = 0 ; P = constant
Fc Fc
dt
mg When the vector sum of the external forces

mg acting on a system is zero, the total linear
mg
momentum of the system remains constant.
   
P + P + P + ...............+ P = constant.
6. A projectile is fired at a speed of 100 m/s at an 1 2 3 n
angle of 37º above the horizontal. At the highest
point, the projectile breaks into two parts of 7. A shell is fired from a cannon with a speed of
mass ratio 1 : 3, the lighter piece coming to 100 m/s at an angle 60º with the horizontal
rest. Find the distance from the launching point (positive x-direction). At the highest point of its
to the point where the heavier piece lands. trajectory, the shell explodes into two equal
Sol: Internal force do not effect the motion of fragments. One of the fragments moves along
the centre of mass, the centre of mass hits the negative x-direction with a speed of 50 m/s.
t he ground at t he posit ion where the What is the speed of the other fragment at the
original projectile would have landed. The time of explosion.
range of the original projectile is, Sol. As we know in absence of external force
the motion of centre of mass of a body
remains uneffected. Thus, here the centre
of mass of the two fragments will continue
to follow the original projectile path. The
velocity of the shell at the highest point of
3 4 trajectory is
2  10 4  
2u 2 sin  cos  5 5 v M = ucos = 100 ×cos60º = 50 m/s.
x COM = = m
g 10
Let v 1 be the speed of the fragment which
moves along the negative x-direction and
= 960 m
the other fragment has speed v 2,. which
The centre of mass will hit the ground at must be along positive x-direction. Now
this position. As the smaller block comes from momentum conservation, we have
t o r est af t er b re aki ng , i t f a l l s do wn
m m
vertically and hits the ground at half of the mv = v1 + v
2 2 2
range, i.e., at x = 480 m. If the heavier
or 2v = v 2 – v 1
block hits the ground at x 2, then
or v 2 = 2v + v 1
m1x1  m 2 x 2
x COM = = (2 × 50) + 50 = 150 m/s
m1  m 2
8. A man of mass m is standing on a platform of
mass M kept on smooth ice. If the man starts
(m)(480 )  (3m)( x 2 )
960 = moving on the platform with a speed v relative
(m  3m) to the platform, with what velocity relative to
x 2 = 1120 m Ans. the ice does the platform recoil ?
Sol. Consider the situation shown in f igure.

Suppose the man moves at a speed w
PAGE # 356
towards right and the platform recoils at a
speed V towards left, both relative to the ice.
Bullet
Hence, the speed of the man relative to the of mass(m)
platform is V + w. By the question, Block
V + w = v, or w = v – V .............(i) Rifle COM
Sol.
d x
w D-d-x M
D
V As; Mx = m(D – d – x)
ice m(D  d)
///////////////////////////////////////////////// x= from the block
Mm
and x' = D – d – x
Taking the platform and the man to be the
(D  d)M
system, there is no external horizontal force = from the bullet.
Mm
on the system. The linear momentum of the
system remains constant. Initially both the
11. The centre of mass of two masses m & m
man and the platform were at rest. Thus,
x
0 = MV - mw moves by distance when mass m is moved
5
or, MV = m (v – V) [Using (i)] by distance x and m is kept fixed. The ratio
mv m
or, V= . is
Mm m
x
9. A flat car of mass M is at rest on a frictionless Sol. : (m + m) = mx + mO
5
floor with a child of mass m standing at its edge.  m + m = 5 m ; m = 4 m
If child jumps off from the car towards right with
an initial velocity u, with respect to the car, find m
; =4
the velocity of the car after its jump. m
Sol. 12. A uniform disc of mass ‘m’ and radius R is
Let car attains a velocity v, and the net placed on a smooth horizontal floor such that
the plane surface of the disc is in contact with
velocity of the child with respect to earth
the floor. A man of mass m/2 stands on the
will be u – v, as u is its v elocity with
disc at its periphery. The man starts walking
respect to car. along the periphery of the disc. The size of the
m man is negligible as compared to the size of
M
the disc. Then the centre of disc.
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
m Sol. The centre of mass of man + disc shall always

v
u remain at rest. Since the man is always at
M
periphery of disc, the centre of disc shall always
be at distance R/3 from centre of mass of two
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
body system. Hence centre of disc moves in
circle of radius R/3.
Ini tially, the system was at rest, t hus 13. A person P of mass 50 kg stands at the middle
according to momentum conservation, of a boat of mass 100 kg moving at a
momentum after jump must be zero, as constant velocity 10 m/s with no friction
m (u – v) = M v between water and boat and also the engine
mu of the boat is shut off. With what velocity
v= (relative to the boat surface) should the
mM
10. In a free space a rifle of mass M shoots a person move so that the boat comes to rest.
bullet of mass m at a stationary block of Neglect friction between water and boat.
mass M distance D away from it. When the
bullet has moved through a distance d
towards the block the centre of mass of the
bullet-block system is at a distance of :
PAGE # 357
Sol. Momentum of the system remains conserved The kinetic energy lost is stored as the elastic
as no external force is acting on the system energy in the spring.
in horizontal direction.  (50 + 100) 10 = 50
× V + 100 × 0  V = 30 m/s towards right, 1
Hence, (50 N/m) x 2 = 2J – 1J = 1 J
as boat is at rest. VPboat = 30 m/s 2
or, x = 0.2 m.
14. Two men of masses 80 kg and 60 kg are
standing on a wood plank of mass 100 kg,
that has been placed over a smooth surface. 16. Figure shows two blocks of masses 5 kg and
If both the men start moving toward each 2 kg placed on a frictionless surface and
ot her wi t h speeds 1 m / s a nd 2 m / s connected with a spring. An external kick
respectively then find the velocity of the plank gives a velocity 14 m/s to the heavier block
by which it starts moving. towards the lighter one. Deduce (a) velocity
gained by the centre of mass and (b) the
separate velocities of the two blocks with
respect to centre of mass just after the kick.
5kg 2kg
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
Sol. Applying momentum conservation ;
Sol. (a) Velocity of centre of mass is
(80) 1 + 60 (– 2) = (80 + 60 +
100) v
 40 1 5  14  2  0
v= =  m/sec. v cm = = 10 m/s
240 6 52
15.. Each of the blocks shown in figure has mass (b) Due to kick on 5 kg block, it starts
1 kg. The rear block moves with a speed of moving with a velocity 14 m/s immediately,
2 m/s towards the front block kept at rest. but due to inertia 2 kg block remains at
rest, at that moment. Thus, velocity of 5
The spring attached to the front block is light
kg block with respect to the centre of mass
and has a spring constant 50 N/m. Find the
is v 1 = 14 – 10 = 4 m/s and the velocity of
maximum compression of the spring.
2 kg block w.r.t. to centre of mass is v 2 = 0
Assume, on a friction less surface – 10 = –10 m/s
17. The two blocks A and B of same mass
connected to a spring and placed on a smooth
k=50N/m
1kg 1kg surface. They are given velocities (as shown in
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// the figure) when the spring is in its natural length:
Sol. :
Maximum compression will take place when
the blocks move with equal velocity. As no
net external horizontal force acts on the
system of the two blocks, the total linear
momentum will remain constant. If V is the Sol. Suppose B moves with a velocity more than
10 m/s a should move at a velocity greater
common speed at maximum compression, than 5 m/s and increases the overall energy
we have, which is not possible since there is no
(1 kg) (2 m/s) = (1 kg)V + (1 kg)V external force acting on the system. Hence
or, V = 1 m/s. B should move with a maximum velocity 10
m/s.
1
Initial kinetic energy = (1 kg) (2 m/s)2 Also both A and B can never stop so as to
2
keep the momentum constant.
= 2 J.
Also both A and B can never move towards
Final kinetic energy
left simultaneously for momentum remaining
1 1 conserved.
= (1 kg) (1m/s)2 + (1 kg) (1 m/s) 2 Hence only (A) is correct.
2 2
=1J
PAGE # 358
I=m×0+m×0
RIGID BODY + m × I2 + m × I2
= 2ml2
A body, in which relative position between the particles
is fixed and is not distributed by any external forces, is
Z
called rigid body. Such a body thus preserves its shape
or configuration and does not bend, stretch when in
motion.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia of a rigid body about a fixed is O X

X
defined as the sum of the product of the masses of all v1
r1
the particle constituting the body and the square of m1
their distances from the axis of rotation.
Let us consider a body rotating about a given axis.
Suppose the body consists of large number of Y
particles. Let m1, m2, m3 ----- be the masses of various
particles of body at perpendicular distance r1, r2, r3, ----
-- respectively from the axis of rotation YY'. The amount
KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION AND MOMENT
of inertia of the body will be obtained by multiplying the
OF INERTIA
mass of each particle by square of its distance from
the axis YY' and adding such products for all the
particles. Consider a rigid rotating with a uniform angular velocity
i.e., I = m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r33 + ........  about an axis O perpendicular to the plane of paper.
or I = mr2 Each particle of the body possesses some kinetic
so, the moment of inertia depends upon. energy by virtue of its motion and their sum total being
(i) Mass of the body. equal to kinetic energy of the rotating body as a whole.
(ii) The distribution of the mass of the body from the Consider a particle of mass m1 at a distance r1 from
axis of rotation. the axis of rotation. Let v1 be linear velocity of the particle.
Units : The unit of moment of inertia in CGS system is 1

g cm2 and kg m2 in SI  K.E. of particle m1 = mv2
2 1 1
Note : For a discrete particle system (a system in which Since v1 = r1 ,
the point masses are kept at appreciable distance,
the moment of inertia of the system about an axis is 1
 K.E. of the particle = m (r )2
the sum of the moment of inertia of the individual 2 1 1
masses about the axis of rotation.
1
Y = m r 2 2
2 11
Similarly, a particle of mass m 2 at a distance r2 from

r1
the axis of rotation moving with linear velocity v2 will
m1
m2
have kinetic energy
r2
r3 1 1
m3 = m2v22 = m r 2 2
2 2 22
Hence the total K.E. of the body is given by
1 1
Self Test : Find the moment of inertia of a four identical = m1r122 + m r 2 2 + --------
2 2 22
point mass system located at the corners of the square
about an axis passing through one of the sides of the 1
square. = (m1r12 + m2r22 + --------) 2
y 1 2
m1 l
m
1
= mr22
2
m l m Since mr2 = I
y' 11
1 2
Hence, rotational K.E. = I
2
PAGE # 359
Definition of I : (a) Theorem of perpendicular axes :
It states that the moment of inertia of a plane lamina

If  = 1, I = 2 K.E.
about an axis perpendicular to the plane of lamina is
Thus, the moment of inertia of a body is numerically
equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the lamina
equal to twice the kinetic energy of rotation when its
about the two axes at right angles to each other, lying
angular velocity is unity.
in its own plane and intersecting each other at the
point where the perpendicular axis passes through it.
Concept Iz = Ix + Iy
The rotational analong of mass (m) is
moment of inertia (l) (b) Theorem of parallel axes :
K.Etranslational = 1 mv2
This theorem is true for a plane lamina as well as a
2
three dimensional body. It states that moment of inertia
K.Etranslational = of a plane lamina about any axis is equal to its moment
of inertia about a parallel axis passing through the
centre of mass of the body plus the product of the mass
of the body and square of the perpendicular distance
RADIUS OF GYRATION (K) between the two axes.
Z
Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the
axis of rotation, at which, if the whole mass of the body
is concentrated, its moment of inertia about the axis is
the same as that with the actual distribution of mass.
Expression : Consider a body of mass, M which O x
1
y X
1
consists of n particles, each of mass m, situated at a r
P
distances r1, r2, r3, ........rn from the axis of rotation. Then
the moment of inertia of the body about the given axis Y
is given by
I = mr12 + mr22+.......+ mrn2 Proof : Let A'B' be an axis, about which we want to find
= m (r12 + r22+ .......+ rn2) moment of inertia and AB be a parallel axis passing
through the centre of mass C of the body and at a
(r12  r22  ......  rn2 ) distance h from A'B'. Let P be a particle of mass m at a
I = (m × n)
n distance x from AB and (x + h) from A'B'.
The moment of inertia of P about A'B' = m(x + h)2
 (r12  r22  ......  rn2 )  The M.I. of the whole lamina about AB is given by
I=M  I = m(x + h)2
 n 
= m(x2 + h2 + 2xh)
If K is the radius of gyration about the given axis, then
= mx2 + mh2 + 2h mx
I = MK2
= I0 + Mh2 + 2h mx
 (r12  r22  ......  rn2 )  A
Here MK2 = M  
 n 
A'
 (r12  r22  ......  rn2 ) 
K=  
 n  M
Thus, the radius of gyration of a body about a given P
Q
axis is equal to the root mean square distance of its m
h x
particles from the axis of rotation.
Units = cm in CGS and metre in S.I.
Radius of gyration for a given body will be different B'
about the different axis of rotation. It depends upon the B
distribution of mass about the axis of rotation.
Where , I0 is the moment of inertia of the plane lamina
GENERAL THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA about AB. mx is moment of mass of the particle P about
AB. Since body is able to balance itself about its centre
There are two general theorems of moment of inertia. of mass, the algebraic sum of moments of masses of
They enable us to determine the moment of inertia of a all the particles.
body about an axis if the moment of inertia about some
mx = 0
other axis is known.
 I = I0 + Mh2
PAGE # 360
METHODOLOGY TO FIND THE MOMENT OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
INERTIA OF A BODY
The term angular momentum is the rotational ana-
In case of a symmetrical body of a uniform mass logue of linear momentum. As we known, the linear
distribution, the moment of inertia is calculated as momentum is given by the product of mass and
follow. velocity, therefore, angular momentum is given by
the product of moment of inertia and angular veloc-
Step (i) : Choose an infinitesimal element of the body,
ity.
L = I
which is symmetrical to the axis about which the
moment of inertia is required. Here symmetry means
the whole mass of the infinitesimal element should TORQUE AND ITS PRINCIPLE
be at a fixed distance from the axis of rotation. In
complex cases, the shape of this mass should match If a body is free to move about an axis and a force is
applied on the body then it rotates about that axis. The
a known symmetrical figure like a ring, disc, hollow capability of the force to rotate the body or to change
cylinder or a hollow sphere, known symmetrical figure the rotational motion of the body is known as torque.
like a ring, disc, hollow cylinder or a hollow sphere. Torque of force F about the axes passing through the
point O is
Step (ii) : Find the mass of an infinitesimal element in
Torque = force × perpendicular distance
terms of the given parameters. Generally we find mass
per unit length or mass per unit area or mass per unit
volume depending on the case. F
Step (iii) : First calculate the moment of inertia of an
infinitesimal mass about the given axis by multiplying r
this mass by the square of its distance from the axis. O  P
M
Step (iv) : Integrate this expression over appropriate
range, depending upon the shape of the body
concerned.
Step (v) : Make use of theorem of perpendicular and = F(OM)

parallel axes, wherever necessary. From OMP
OM
sin = , OM = rsin
CENTRE OF GRAVITY (C.G.) r
It is a point inside or outside the body at which the Hence, = Fr sin..... (i)
whole weight of the body is supposed to be acting. If
an external force is applied on the centre of gravity, it Case-I If  = 0º
will make the body move in the direction of the force
From equation (i)= Fr sin 0º= 0
just as a particle moves.
 IMPORTANT NOTE :
Case-II If  = 90º
For bodies of regular shape having uniform density From equation (i)= Fr sin 90ºFr max.
the C.M and the C.G. lie at the geometrical centre of the
body.
Case-III If  = 180º
Example :
From equation (i)= Fr sin 180º = 0
 For Ring : The centre of the ring (it lies out side the
body)
The net external torque acting on a rigid body rotat-
 For Rectangle or Square : At the point of intersection of
its diagonals. ing about a fixed axis equals the moment of inertia
 For cylinder : At the centre of the axis. about the axis of rotation multiplied by its angular
acceleration relative to that axis.
dL
ext   
dt
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

PAGE # 361
Suppose that the resultant external torque acting
or 1212 = 2222
on a body is zero. Then we find.
dL
=0 1  1 
dt or 1 112  =  2   222 
2  2 
or L = constant.
1 (K.E.)1 = 2 (K.E.)2
where, K.E.1 and K.E.2 are the rotational K.E. at
It thus follows that if no external torque acts upon a
the two instants
body, the angular momentum of a body rotating
If 1 > 2
about a fixed axis remains constant. It is known as
K.E.1 < K.E.2
the principle of conservation of angular momentum.
Thus, if the M.I. increases, the K.E. decreases and
vice versa. Hence, the rotational kinetic energy is
If as a result of the change in the distribution of
not conserved, through angular momentum is
mass, the moment of inertia changes from I1 to I2,
conserved.
the angular velocity must also change from 1 to 2
so that the angular momentum remains unchanged.
COMPARISON OF LINEAR AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
That is
11 = I22
Examples : A diver, after leaving the jumping board,

Linear motion Rotational motion
wants to take a complete turn in the mid air before Displacement, s
hitting the water. To do this, he decreases his dx d
Linear velocity, v  Angular velocity  
dt dt
moment of inertia by rolling in his arms and legs
dv d
towards the centre of his body. Just before hitting Linear acceleration a  Angular velocity,  
dt dt
the water, he decreases his angular velocity by Resultant force, F  ma Resultant torque   
stretching out his limbs to full length.  v  v 0  at    0  t

 1 2  1 2
a = constant  x  x0  v0 t  at    0  0 t  t
An ice skater or a ballet dancer can increases her  2 2
2
 2 2
2
v  v0  2a( x – x0 )   0  2( – 0 )
angular velocity by folding arms and bringing the
stretched leg close to the other leg. When she
stretches her hands and leg outwards, the moment
1 1 2
of inertia increases and hence angular velocity Kinetic energy, K = mv 2 Kinetic energy, K = 
2 2
decreases. She can increase her rate of rotation or Power, P = Fv
angular velocity by folding her arms and bringing Linear momentum, p = mv

the stretched leg close to the other leg.
dp dL
Resultant force, F = Resultant torque,  
dt dt
Rotational K.E. is not conserved :
In all the problems relating to the conservation of
the angular momentum, though the angular
momentum of the body is conserved, their rotational
kinetic energy is not conserved.
According to the law of conservation of momentum

11 = 22
PAGE # 362
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME SYMMETRICAL BODIES
Body Axis of Rotation Figure Moment of

Inertia
(a) Through centre of mass Ml 2

and perpendicular to length. 12
1. Uniform thin rod
(b) Through one end and Ml 2
perpendicular to length.
3
(a) Passing through its centre

and perpendicular to its plane. MR2
2. Ring or hoop
(b) About its diameter. MR 2
2
(a) Passing through its centre MR2

and perpendicular of its plane. 2
3. Disc
(b) About its diameter. MR2
4
4. Hollow disc/ (a)Passing through its centre R R 2

M(R1  R22 )
Annular disc of radii I
and perpendicular to its plane. 2
R1 and R2
2
(a) About its own geometrical C MR
axis.
5. Hollow cyliner
C
(b) Passing through C.G. and  l 2 R2 

M  
perpendicular to length.  12 2 
 
(a) About its own geometrical C

MR2
axis. 2
6. Solid cylinder
C
(b) Passing through C.G. and  l2 

2
perpendicular to geometric axis. M   
 12 4 
C
(a) About its diameter. 2

MR2
3
7. Thin spherical shell
C
(b) About tangent 5

MR2
3
C
2
(a) About its diameter. MR2
5
8. Solid sphere
C
(b) About tangent 7

MR2
5
9. Rectangular lamina (a) Passing through its M(l 2  b 2 )

centre of mass and perpendicular 12
to its plane of length and breadth.
PAGE # 363
(ii) Oblique collision :
COLLISION OR IMPACT
If the velocities of the colliding particles are along
different lines before and after the collision.
Collision is an event in which an impulsive force
(b) On the basis of energy :
acts between two or more bodies for a short time,
which results in change of their velocities. (i) Elastic collision :
In an elastic collision, the colliding particles regain

 NOTE : their shape and size completely after collision.
,
i.e., no fraction of mechanical energy remains
(i) In a collision, particles may or may not come in
stored as deformation potential energy in the
physical contact.
bodies. Thus, kinetic energy of system after collision
is equal to kinetic energy of system before collision.
(ii) The duration of collision, t is negligible as
Thus in addition to the linear momentum, kinetic
c om pared to the u su al time intervals o f
energy also remains conserved before and after
observation of motion.
co llisio n.
(iii) In a collision the effect of external non impulsive (ii) Inelastic collision :
forces such as gravity are not taken into an
In an inelastic collision, the colliding particles do
account as due to small duration of collision
not regain their shape and size completely after
(t) average impulsive force responsible for
collision. Some fraction of mechanical energy is
collision is much larger than external forces
retained by the colliding particles in the form of
acting on the system.
deformation potential energy. Thus, the kinetic
The collision is infact a redistribution of total energy of the particles no longer remains
momentum of the particles. Thus, law of conserved. However, in the absence of external
c on servatio n of lin ear mo m entu m is forces, law of conservation of linear momentum
indispensable in dealing with the phenomenon still holds good.
of collision between particles. (iii) Perfectly inelastic :
If velocity of separation along the line of impact just

LINE OF IMPACT after collision becomes zero then the collision is
perfectly inelastic. Collision is said to be perfectly
The line passing through the common normal tothe inelastic if both the particles stick together after
surfaces in contact during impact is called line of collision and move with same velocity,
impact. The force during collision acts along this
line on both the bodies.  NOTE :
Direction of Line of impact can be determined by : Actually collision between all real objects are neither
(i) Geometry of colliding objects like spheres, discs, perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic, its inelastic
wedge etc. in nature.
(ii) Direction of change of momentum.  E xam p l es of l i ne of i m p a ct a nd c oll i s ions

b a s e d on l i ne of i m p a c t :
If one particle is stationary before the collision then ,
the line of impact will be along its motion after (i) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such
collision. that their centres are moving along line CD.
CLASSIFICATION OF COLLISION
(a) On the basis of line of impact :
(i) Head-on collision :
If the velocities of the colliding particles are along

the same line before and after the collision.
PAGE # 364
Head on Collision
(ii) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such
that their centre are moving along dotted lines as Just After collision
shown in figure. v1 v2
Line of impact
C D
A B
u1 > u2 v1 < v2
u2 v v2
u1 v v1
ND ND NR
NR
m1 m1 m1

m2 m2 m2
Oblique Collision Deformation Reformation
 F ext = 0 (momentum is conserved for the

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)
system.)
 m 1u 1 + m 2 u 2 = (m 1 + m 2)v = m 1v1 + m 2v2
The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio m1u1  m 2u2 m1v1  m 2 v 2
 v= = .......(1)
of the impulses of reformation and deformation m1  m 2 m1  m 2
of either body. Impulse of Deformation :
J D = change in momentum of any one body during

Im pulse of reformation
e= deformation.
Im pulse of deformation
= m 2 (v – u 2) for m 2 mass
= m 1 (–v + u 1) for m 1 mass
Velocity of seperation along line of impact Impulse of Reformation :

=
Velocity of approach along line of impact
J R = change in momentum of any one body during
Reformation.
The most general expression for coefficient of
= m 2 (v2 – v) for m 2 mass
restitution is
= m 1 (v – v1) for m 1 mass

Impulse of Reformation (JR ) v 2  v1
velocity of separation of points of contact along line of impact e=  =
e= Impulse of Deformation ( JD ) u1  u 2
velocity of approach of point of contact along line of impact
calculation of e : Velocity of separation along line of impact

=
Velocity of approach along line of impact
Two smooth balls A and B approaching each other
such that their centres are moving along line CD  NOTE : e is independent of shape and mass of object
in absence of external impulsive force. The but depends on the material.
velocities of A and B just before collision be u1 and The coefficient of restitution is constant for a pair
of materials.
u2 respectively. The velocities of A and B just after
(i) e = 1
collision be v1 and v2 respectively.
 Im pu lse of Refo rm atio n = Imp ulse of
Just before collision
Deformation
u1 u2
 Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
Line of impact  For the system of colliding bodies, k f = k i

(If, no dissipative force act)
C D
A B  Elastic collision.
PAGE # 365
(ii) e = 0 (ii) e = 1
 Impulse of Reformation = 0 an d m 1 = m 2 = m,
 Velocity of separation = 0 we get v1 = u 2 and v2 = u 1
 Kinetic Energy is not conserved i.e., when tw o p articles o f eq ual mass c ollide
 Perfectly Inelastic collision. elastically and the collision is head on, they
(iii) 0 < e < 1 exchange their velocities.,
 Impulse of Reformation < Impulse of Deformation e.g. : 1
 Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach
 Kinetic Energy is not conserved
 Inelastic collision.
 NOTE : In case of contact collisions e is always less
than unity.
 0e1
COLLISION IN ONE DIMENSION (HEAD ON) v1=0

2m/s m
e.g. : 2 m
m2 m1
v1 Before Collision
v2
(a)
Before Collision
u1 > u2
(iii) m 1 >>>> m 2
m2 m1 m2
m 1 + m 2  m 1 and 0
v'2 v'1 m1
(b)  v1 = u 1 No change
After Collision an d v2 = u 1 + e(u 1 – u 2)
v2 > v1 18. Two identical balls are approaching towards each

other on a straight line with velocity 2 m/s and 4
v 2  v1 m/s respectively. Find the final velocities, after
e=  (u 1 – u 2)e = (v2 – v1) elastic collision between them.
u1  u 2
By momentum conservation, m 2m/s 4m/s m

m 1u 1 + m 2u 2 = m 1v1 + m 2v2 .......(i)
also, v2 = v1 + e(u 1 – u 2) .......(ii)

Sol. The two velocities will be exchanged and the final
on solving equation (i) and (ii) motion is reverse of initial motion for both.
m1u1  m 2u 2  m 2 e(u1  u 2 )
v1 =
m1  m 2
4m/s m m 2m/s
m1u1  m 2u 2  m1e(u1  u 2 )
v2 =
m1  m 2
19. Three balls A, B and C of same mass ‘m’ are placed
Special Case :
on a frictionless horizontal plane in a straight line as
(i) e = 0  v1 = v2 shown. Ball A is moved with velocity u towards the
middle ball B. If all the collisions are elastic then, find
 for perfectly inelastic collision, both the bodies,
the final velocities of all the balls.
move with same velocity after collision.
m m m
u
A B C
//////////////////////////////////////////
PAGE # 366
Sol. A collides elastically with B and comes to rest but B 21. A block of mass 2 kg is pushed with velocity 10 m/s
starts moving with velocity u towards a very heavy object moving with 2 m/s as
m m m shown in figure. Assuming elastic collision and
u
A B C frictionless surfaces, find the final velocities of the
////////////////////////////////////////// blocks.
2m/s very
After a while B collides elastically with C and comes
to rest but C starts moving with velocity u 10m/s heavy
2kg object
m m m /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
u
A B C
Sol. Let v1 and v2 be the final velocities of 2kg block and
//////////////////////////////////////////
heavy object respectively then,
 Final velocities V A = 0; V B = 0 and V C = u
v1 = u 2 – 1 (u 1 – u 2) = 2u 2 – u 1
20. Two particles of mass m and 2m moving in [Here u 2 = –2m/s, u 1 = 10 m/s]
opposite directions on a frictionless surface collide v1 = –14 m/s and v2 = –2m/s
elastically with velocity 2v and v respectively. Find
their velocities after collision, also find the
fraction of kinetic energy lost by the colliding
partic les.
22. A ball is moving with velocity 2 m/s towards a

2v v
m 2m heavy wall moving towards the ball with speed
1m/s as shown in fig. Assuming collision to be
elastic, find the velocity of the ball immediately
after the collision.
Sol.Let the final velocities of m and 2m be v 1 and v2
respectively as shown in the figure:
2 m/s 1 m/s
v2
m 2m
By conservation of momentum:
Sol.The speed of wall will not change after the
m(2v) + 2m(–v) = m(v1) + 2m (v2)
collision. So, let v be the velocity of the ball after
o r 0 = mv1 + 2mv2 collision in the direction shown in figure. Since
o r v1 + 2v2 = 0 .........(1) collision is elastic (e =1),
and since the collision is elastic:
v2 – v1 = 2v –(–v)
or v2 – v1 = 3v .........(2)
Solving the above two equations, we get,

v2 = v and v1 = –2v Ans.
i.e., the mass 2m returns with velocity v while

the mass m returns with velocity 2v in the
direction shown in figure:
v
m 2m v 1 m/s
The collision was elastic therefore, no kinetic

energy is lost, KE loss = KE i - KE f After Collision
separation speed = approach speed
1 2 1 2  1 2 1 2  or v–1=2+1
or,  2 m( 2v )  2 ( 2m)(  v )    2 m( 2v )  2 ( 2m)v  = 0
   
or v = 4 m/s
PAGE # 367
Collision & COM
EXERCISE-1
9. During inelastic collision of two particles :
Rigid Body Dynamics (A) (KE) final = (KE) initial
(B) (KE) final must be greater than (KE) initial
1. Find the angle subtended by an arc of 2m at the centre (C) (KE) final must be less than (KE) initial
of a circle of radius 2m :
(D) (KE) final may be greater or less than (KE) initial
(A) 1 rad (B) 2 rad
(C)  rad (D) 2 rad 10. Two balls collide at the same temperature, which
2. A disc rotates clockwise with a constant angular velocity quantity is conserved ?
at two revolutions per second. What is the direction (A) Temperature (B) Velocity
and magnitude of the angular velocity ? (C) Kinetic energy (D) Momentum
(A) 1 rad/s, inwards (B) 2 rad/s, outwards
(C) 4 rad/s, inwards (D) 8 rad/s, outwards 11. The first ball of mass m moving with a velocity u
collides head on with the second ball of mass m
3. What will be the angle covered in 4 second, in above
at rest. If the coefficient of restitution is e, then
question ?
th e ratio of the veloc ities of the first and the
(A) 4 rad (B) 8 rad
second ball after the collision is :
(C) 12 rad (D) 16 rad
1 e 1 e
4. A gridstone has a constant angular acceleration of 2 rad/ (A) (B)
s2. If it starts from rest find the angular speed of the 1 e 1 e
gridstone after 2 seconds :
1 e 1 e
(A) 4 rad/s (B) 2 rad/s (C) (D)
(C) 1 rad/s (D) zero rad/s
2 2
5. The handle of a door is at a distance of 1m from the

12. A particle of mass m moving towards the east with
axis of rotation. A force of 5N is applied on the handle at
speed v collides with another particle of the same
an angle of 30º to the position vector of the handle.
mass and same speed v moving towards the north.
Find the torque on the door :
If the two particles stick to each other, the new
(A) 85 Nm (B) 90 Nm
particle of mass 2m will have a speed of :
(C) 95 Nm (D) 2.5 Nm
(A) v (B) v/2
6. A solid square plate is spun around different axes with (C) v / 2 (D) v 2
the same angular speed. In which of the following
choice of axis of rotation will the kinetic energy of the 13. A particles of mass 5 m initially at rest explodes
plate be the largest ? into three fragments with mass ratio 3 : 1 : 1. two
(A) through the central normal to the plate. of the fragments each of mass m are found to
(B) along one of the diagonals of the plate. m o ve w it h a sp ee d 60 m /s in m u tu al ly
(C) along one of the edges of the plate. perpendicular directions. T he velocity of third
(D) through one corner normal to the plate. fragment is :
–1
7. Energy of 484 J is spent in increasing the speed of a (A) 60 2 ms (B) 20 3 ms –1
wheel from 60 rpm to 360 rpm. Find the moment of
(C) 10 2 ms –1 (D) 20 2 ms –1
inertia of the wheel.
(A) 0.2 kg m2 (B) 2kg m2
14. A bullet of mass A and velocity B is fired into a
(C) 0.7 kg m2 (D) 7 kg m2
block of mass C and sticks to it. The final velocity
of the system equals :
8. Calculate the moment of inertia of a copper sphere of
diameter 20 cm about a tangent to the sphere B A
(A) B (B) B
–3
(sphere= 8.9 g cm ) : A B AC
(A) 5.206 × 106 g cm2 (B) 2 × 106 g cm2 A B AC
6 2 (C) A (D)
(C) 4.8 × 10 g cm (D) 18 × 106 g cm2 C B
PAGE # 368
15. A ball collide directly on a similar ball at rest. The
first ball is brought to rest by the impact. If half of
the kinetic energy is lost by impact, the value of
coefficient of restitution is :
1 1
(A) (B)
2 2 3
1 3
(C) (D)
2 2
16. Two masses m A and m B moving with velocities vA
and v B in opposite directions collide elastically.
A fter th at th e m asses m A an d m B m o ve w ith
velocities vB and vA respectively. The ratio of m A /
m B is :
vA
(A)  (B)
VB
v A  vB v A  vB
(C) (D)
vA v A  vB
17. A b all of m ass m ap proach es a w all of m ass

(M>> m) with speed 4 m/s along the normal to
the wall. The speed of wall is 1 m/s towards the
ball. The speed of the ball after an elastic
collision with the wall is :
(A) 5 m/s away from the wall
(B) 9 m/s away from the wall
(C) 3 m/s away from the wall
(D) 6 m/s away from the wall
EXERCISE-2
1. The centre of gravity of a body coincides with

the centre of mass : (IJSO Stage-I/2015)
(A) always
(B) never
(C) if the acceleration due to gravity is uniform
over the body
(D) if the body has a uniform distribution of
mass
PAGE # 369
ANSWER KEY
1. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
EXERCISE#1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. C C C A C AB C C B A C B C B B
Ques. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B B C D C A D B A B A A A A C
Ques. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. D D D B A ABD C D C D A C B B D
Ques. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
Ans. B A A D A C A C C C B B A A
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. D B D D D A,B A
2. UNIT & DIMENSIONSEXERCISE

Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. C D A D A A B B A C B C C B B
Ques. 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A D B B A
3. RECTILINEAR MOTION, PROJECTILE MOTION

& RELATIVE MOTION
EXERCISE#1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A B A C D A D B C B C C B A A
Ques. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B C A C D D D C D B B C B B B
Ques. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. C B A C A B D D B D A A C B C
Ques. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. B A,C C A B C A B C B A A D B A
PAGE # 370
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A C C B,D C B A A B A A B A B ABD
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Ans. A D B C C B A C B C C D D A
32. 1 second and 5 m from prashant 33. 50 m/s
4. FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION(NLM)

EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B C C B A B D C B B C C C C C
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B D A A A C D B A D C B C B A
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. C C D C C D A A C B A,C C A,B B B
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51
Ans. B B A C C D
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B A B C ACD C,D B B D D A C A A D
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. D B D A B C A A B A C B C D A
Que. 31
Ans. C
5. WORK, ENERGY & POWER

EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B C C D C D B B C C A B D D C
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C A B A B C A B A D A B B C C
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. A C D A C A B C B B A C C B B
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. B A A C A D D B D A B D D A A
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Ans. A C C A C C C D A C D A D C
PAGE # 371
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B C B A D C C D A A C B A B C
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Ans. D D C C D D A B
24. (a) 0.6 Sec. (b) 0.5 m 25.(i) 50 watt (ii) 340.33 Joule (iii) 90%
43. (i) 1 second and 5 metre from prashant
6. GRAVIATION
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. C A D A B C B D C C C D B D B
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B C A A C C C C D A A C A C C
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. A B A D C D A B B A B C B A B
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. A D C A C D C A A D C B A B A
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans. A C A D C B D D B C
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. B D D B B C BCD D A C C D
7. CIRCULAR MOTION
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A D A C D B C B C D A B A A B
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Ans. A A D C C B C
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5
Ans. C C B A C
PAGE # 372
8. FLUID
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A A D A B A C B A D C A B D B
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B D B C C C C A B C A D C A A
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Ans. A A C A D C C C A B D A
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. C C D A B D B B B C C B D B A
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ans. C A B C D C D B B D A
27. 8.78 N×s/m
9. S.H.M. & WAVE MOTION AND SOUND

EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A A C D A B, C B A A D B B B A A
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. A A A A B A B A D D D C D C A
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. A B B A C C A B B B A D D B D
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. A C C A A C D C A A C A B A D
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. A C A B A A B D B B C A C A B
Que. 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
Ans. C A C C B C B A B A
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. D B ABC D D ACD B D C B
Que. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. B B B C C B A
PAGE # 373
10. ELECTRICITY
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A A C C C B B D B B A A A D D
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B C B C B C B B A B D C B B C
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. B B D C B B C B B A
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B BD ABD C C ABCD C A C B A A D D CD
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. D D C B C A A B D A B D C A A
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. D D C D C A A C B D A C B D D
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. B A C D A B A B D C A A B D D
Que. 61 62 63 64 65
Ans. D D D D A
11. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT AND E.M.I.

EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A D D A C A D B B B A A A A D
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C D A B B C D A C D A C B D D
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. B C D D C C A B D B A D D D A
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. C B C C C A B B C A B B A C B
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B A A BC C B C C D B A B A C C
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Ans. D B C A C B B C
24. 7N
PAGE # 374
12. LIGHT
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B A C B C C C C B A C A D C B
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. B B B A A D C A B D C B C A B
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. D A B A B C C C B B A A C A B
Que. 46 47
Ans. C C
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B B A A D C C B C D B C B C A
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. A B C D D D B B D C BC B D D B
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. B C C A A A B B B B D B B B D
Que. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. C C C A C A D B A B C A A A D
Que. 61 62
Ans. C D
63. (a) 6.66 cm (b) 1 cm

13. HEAT
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A C B D A A C C B D A D B B D
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C B B C D B A D D C D D C C A
Que. 31 32 33
Ans. C C AB
EXERCISE#2
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. C B C B AB A D D C B A B B A A
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C A B A D A A D D B C B C A C
Que. 31 32
Ans. D C
33. 1.5 x 106 Pa 34. 19982 gm

14. CENTRE OF MASS, RIGID BODY DYNAMICS
& IMPACT OR COLLISION
EXERCISE#1
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A C D A D D C A C D B C D B C
Que. 16 17
Ans. A D
EXERCISE#2
1. (C)
PAGE # 375

IJSO Stage-I & II - Physics Sheet-2017-18 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IJSO Stage-I & II - Physics Sheet-2017-18 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

We hope you this material in its accuracy and appropriateness.

Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP) Division

1. Mathematical Tools & Vector 1 - 28

2. Unit & Dimensions 29 - 40

4. Force and Newtons laws of motion (NLM) 75 - 104

5. Work, Power & Energy 105 - 126

6. Gravitation 127 - 147

7. Circular Motion 148 - 157

8. Fluid 158 - 179

9. Wave Sound & SHM 180 - 208

10. Electricity 209 - 242

11. Magnetic Effect of Current & EMI 243 - 272

12. Light 273 - 322

13. Heat 323 - 350

15. Answer key 370 - 375

Sol. V(3) = 4 / 3(3)3 = 36 m3 . An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard

3. A function (x) is defined as (x) = x2 + 3, Find 0) 9

( b ) Geometrical Meaning of Differentiation

hyp r Secant : A secant to a curve is a straight line, which

3. sin 2 = 2 sin  cos  ; Q

(c ) Rules for Differentiation 9. The derivative formula :

f x x2 x3 x4 .... If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their

4 2 13. Let y = uv be the product of the functions u and v. Find

Sol. From the product Rule with u = x2 + 1 and v = x3 + 3, we

d = 2 (–cosec x cot x) = – 2 cosec x cot x

(b) y = sinx cosx 19. y = ex . loge (x)

= sinx (– sinx) + cosx (cosx)

dy dy du Rule No. 12 : power chain rule :

21. W e sometimes have to use the Chain Rule two or d d

Differentiation as a rate of change :

Sol. : The (instantaneous) rate of change of the area with

27. Does the curve y = x4 – 2x2 + 2 have any horizontal

Conditions for minima are:

26. Particle’s position as a function of time is given as x =

 there exists a minima at t = 0.9

Antiderivatives OR Indefinite Integrals :

Indefinite Integral Reversed derivative formula : 1

dx  k  Reason : The derivative of the right-hand side is

Rule No. 1 : constant multiple rule :

 [f (x)  g(x)] dx   f (x)dx   g( x)dx 2 1  cos 2x 1 cos 2x

This last equation tells us that the body’s velocity t

The indefinite integral F(x) + C of the function f(x) gives 2 3/2

W ith (1/7) out front, the integral is now in

We can put the integral in the form 1

1 d 1  sec 2 2  d 2  From graph shown in figure if we divide whole area in

substitution fails, we can try to simplify the integrand

DEFINITE INTEGRATION OR INTEGRATION WITH LIMITS

Sol. We sketch the region under the curve y = x, a  x  b

where g(x) is the antiderivative of f(x) i.e. g´(x) = f(x)

Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and

Representation of Vectors : 44. Draw vector corresponding to the following

Other examples of polar vectors are velocity ,

(E) Like Vectors :

Eg. : SOME IMPORTANT POINTS REGARDING VECTORS

Vectors lying in the same plane are termed as co-planar.

Eg. : î and ĵ , ĵ and k̂ , î and k̂ are co-planar but î , ĵ , k̂ A= B= C

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

Angle between two vectors means smaller of the angle

(A) Statement : If two vectors acting simultaneously at

A (B) Analytical approach to parallelogram law of

(i) Triangle law of vector addition : If two vectors are

Q Polygon law of vectors is an extension of the triangle