EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

The Body in the Hymns to the Coffin Sides

The hymns to the coffin sides are a group of spells from the Coffin
Texts, in which the various sides of the coffin are addressed as goddesses
that guard the body of the deceased. In each hymn, the goddess is associ-
ated with the parts of the body closest to the coffin side in question, and
she is requested to ensure that each body part is situated in the right place
and that it fulfills its proper function.
The hymns contain a number of well-known themes such as the intact-
ness of the body of the deceased as well as emphasizing the avoidance of
threats connected to each individual part of the body, such as decapitation,
not being able to walk, and so forth. In the following pages, it will be
argued that these familiar Egyptian mortuary conceptions can be under-
stood using the general framework of cognitive linguistics. To this end,
some familiar descriptions of bodily phenomena will be discussed, intro-
ducing various theoretical notions along way. These phenomena will be
analysed in a different conceptual framework from the one usually
employed. Following a brief summary of the research on the hymns to the
coffin sides, it will first be argued that it is possible to understand the dis-
tribution of decoration on the various coffin sides as a classification sys-
tem. This will be exemplified with the object friezes and the way in which
they are distributed among the sides of the coffin. A few basic binary oppo-
sitions will then be used to group the ideal functions of the individual body
parts as expressed in the hymns. These oppositions will then be shown to
conform to the theoretical notion of image schemata, again allowing a
reformulation of familiar ideas in a theoretical terminology. Apart from the
references to the body, the hymns also refer to cosmological phenomena
and their relevance for the deceased. It will be shown that, to a certain
extent, these can also be understood as structured by image schemata. To
further refine the understanding of the references to body and cosmos, the
concept of metaphor, as understood in cognitive linguistics, is introduced.

(*) Parts of this paper were presented at Current Research in Egyptology VI in Cam-
bridge in January 2005, organized by Rachel Mairs and Alice Stevenson. I would like to
thank Lana Troy for correcting my English and Maarten Raven for giving me access to his
forthcoming manuscript 'Egyptian Concepts on the Orientation of the Human Body'.

5
 EGYPfE PHARAONIQUE

With this conceptual framework, it also becomes possible to explain some hm

apparent exceptions in the function of body parts. In the final section, some all
metaphorical expressions used about the coffin itself will be analysed, lat<
facilitating an understanding of some of the cultural models used to struc- of
ture the process of regeneration. SpE
me
THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES hy]
The hymns were first singled out as a unit - based on their common nee
structure and parallel contents - by BARGUET under the heading 'textes ico
specifique des differents panneaux des sarcophages du Moyen eac
Empire' (1). Later, in the same author's translation of the Coffin Texts, rev
these texts were included as the core of a more comprehensive class of wh
spells called 'Les textes specifiques des differents parois des sar-
cophages', which, in addition to the hymns to the coffin sides, includes TH
various other spells that, from considerations of content and positional
evidence, seem to be associated with a specific side of the coffin (Z). A of
similar group of texts, classified on the basis of the statistical connection his
between each text and a certain coffin side, was treated by BARTA, who friE
also summarized the main themes connected to each coffin side e). Most str:
recently, the group of texts has been discussed by WILLEMS who has ula
pointed out that the basic structure of the texts is hymnical and that they est
follow a quadripartite schema (4). WILLEMS'S term for the group of texts, (H:
'hymns to the coffin sides' will be used in the present paper, as will his attI
suggested addition to the group singled out by BARGUET of two further wit
spells with similar structure and contents, namely CT 240 and 828 (5). reI.
The texts in question, CT 229, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 644, 828 san
and 932 are classified together mainly due to their common structure and syr
contents. It is interesting to note that the earlier coffins of what WILLEMS wh
sor
(1) P. BARGUET, RdE 23 (1971), pp. 15-22, reprinted in P. BARGUET, Aspects de la
pensee religieuse de I'Egypte ancienne (Fuveau, 2001), pp. 33-46.
(2) P. BARGUET, Les textes des sarcophages egyptiens du Moyen Empire. Introduction (
et traduction (Litteratures anciennes du Proche-Orient 12; Paris, 1986), pp. 49-86. GM
(3) W. BARTA, 'Bemerkungen zur Anbringung von Totentexten auf den Sargen des (
Mittleren Reiches', IEOL 27 (1981-82), pp. 33-42. of 1.
(4) WILLEMS notes the following main sections in the hymns: 1. address to the goddess (
personifying each side of the coffin, 2. praise of the goddess, 3. requests to the goddess, and (
4. a presentation of the speaker, H. WILLEMS, The Coffin of Heqata (Cairo IdE 36418). refe
A Case Study of Egyptian Funerary Culture of the Early Middle Kingdom (aLA 70; tive
Leuven, 1996), pp. 89-91.
(5) Ibid., p. 89 with n. 258.

6
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

has tenned the 'southern Egyptian group' (6), the coffins AIC, GlT and, to
a lesser extent T3C, include hymns to each of the coffin sides, whereas the
later coffins (G2T, Tl Be, DBe, and T2-3L) each include only a selection
of the total repertoire of hymns. Fig. I shows the attestations of each of the
spells and the place on the coffin where it is found. The reason why the for-
mer group of coffins holds particular interest is the fact that each of the
hymns contains references to both the partes) of the deceased's body con-
nected with each particular coffin side, and to a number of cosmological
icons related mainly to the spatial position of the coffin, and particularly to
each coffin side's relation to the four cardinal points. The hymns thus
reveal a system of correspondences between elements of these two spheres,
which is most readily accessible in the group of early southern coffins.

THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES AS A CLASSIFICAnON SYSTEM

The object friezes on Middle Kingdom coffins provide another example
of the distribution of a certain group of items on each of the coffin sides. In
his discussion of the principles underlying the arrangement of the object
frieze, WILLEMS has noted four main principles (7). The first is the relatively
straightforward relationship between a certain part of the body and a partic-
ular object, which leads to the object being depicted on the coffin side clos-
est to this body part (8), e.g. masks and headrests are placed on the head end
(H)(9). Secondly, '[o]nce an object had received its place, it tended to
attract other, functionally related, objects, regardless of their relationship
with the nearest part of the corpse', e.g. because the headrest is functionally
related to other bedroom equipment, such as beds, the latter is placed in the
same category as the headrest (10). The third principle is considerations of
symmetry, where similar objects are placed opposite each other, and finally,
where the reasons for the arrangement of items may be less obvious, it can
sometimes be related to the layout of earlier tomb paintings C1).

(6) H. WILLEMS, 'Ein bemerkenswerter Sargtyp aus dem friihen Mittleren Reich',
GM 67 (1983), pp. 81-90; WILLEMS, Coffin of Heqata, p. ]f.
(7) H. WILLEMS, Chests of Life. A Study of the Typology and Conceptual Development
of Middle Kingdom Standard Class Coffins (Leiden, 1988), p. 209f.
(8) Ibid., p. 209.
(9) The abbreviated references to the coffin sides are based on the list ibid., p. ] 3f. They
refer to the (H)ead, (F)oot, (Fr)ont, (B)ack, (T)op and (Bo)ttom sides of the coffin, respec-
tively.
(10) Ibid., p. 209.
(lJ) Ibid., p. 210.

z
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

Interestingly, the first three of these principles conform neatly to the Th

principles described by LAKOFF in the construction of so-called radial pri
categories in the linguistic domain (12). LAKOFF characterizes this type of eg<
categories in the following way: 'A radial structure is one where there is pri
a central case and conventionalized variations on it which can not be pre- friE
dicted by general rules' (13). The example used by LAKOFF is the English rad
category 'mother' which is structured around a central case, which tha
'includes a mother who is and always has been female, and who gave tio
birth to the child, supplied her half of the child's genes, nurtured the child, sif!
is married to the father, is one generation older than the child, and is the ani
child's legal guardian' (14). The category is then expanded from this cen- po:
tral case by including also a number of non-central members, which are the
typically characterized by not having one or more of the characteristics ali
quoted for the central case, such as 'stepmother', 'adoptive mother', 'birth tic
mother' etc. These subcategories are not, however, generated productively ho
from the central case, but are rather 'defined by convention as variations co;
on the central case' (15).
If we regard each of the coffin sides as a category and the objects pri
depicted on it as members of that category, it becomes possible to express thE
each of these principles in terms denoting the structure of radial categories. ref
The objects distributed according to WILLEMS'S principle I become the di~
central or basic members of each category, so that the headrest is a basic wi
member of the category of H. By a process of chaining, these basic mem- tai
bers are linked to other objects belonging to the same experiential domain,
sometimes using idealized models (principle 2) (16). In the example used by ex
WILLEMS, the headrest is considered part of an experiential domain of bed- siC
room equipment, and for this reason a number of items from this domain Tb
become part of the same category as the headrest. Because of the way FI
the coffin sides are laid out, with pairs of coffin sides opposite each other, thl
a special relation between each of these pairs are created. In linguistic cat- thE
egories, this phenomenon is known as a basic opposition model (17), and in reI
the case of the coffin sides, we have the H 'category' vs. F, and Fr vs. B. In
ref
wI
(12) G. LAKoFF, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about
the Mind (Chicago and London, 1987), pp. 91-114.
(13) Ibid., p. 84.
(14) Ibid., p. 83. the
(15) Ibid., p. 84. hal
(16) Ibid., p. 95f. pie
(17) Ibid., p. 102f.

8
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

These oppositions then give rise to the distribution of exceptions treated in

principle 3, in which an exception that would ordinarily belong in one cat-
egory is put in that category's opposite, and vice versa. Thus, each of the
principles shown by WILLEMS to apply to the distribution of objects in
friezes has a parallel in the principles underlying the structure of linguistic
radial categories studied by LAKOFF. This could be taken as an indication
that the person(s) responsible for the layout of the coffin and the distribu-
tion of decorative elements approached the undertaking as basically a clas-
sificatory task, and thus employed some of the same basic cognitive mech-
anisms which are also found in linguistic categorization. This makes it
possible, in principle, to use methods derived from the linguistic study of
the cognitive features of classification systems to study this distribution,
although it should be remembered that this is not, in fact, a regular linguis-
tic classification system, but one which seems to be of a comparatively ad
hoc nature - not unlike various 'similarity judgment tests' employed by
cognitive psychologists (18).
The interest in this perspective with regards to the object friezes lies
primarily in the possibility of finding a similar classificatory structure in
the distribution of other elements in the coffin decoration. The various
references in the hymns to the coffin sides might be expected to have a
distribution that generally parallels the arrangement of the object friezes,
with the main principle being the proximity of each coffin side to a cer-
tain part of the body of the deceased.
As WILLEMS has noted, in the deceased's request to each goddess, 'he
expresses the desire to see his physical integrity restored, the texts on each
side again being meaningfully related to the relative position of the body.
Thus, in the text on H, he asks to receive back his head, while the one on
F contains the request to regain the free movement of his legs' (19). Given
that the early coffins, as mentioned above, contain hymns to each of
the sides of the coffin, a relatively complete description of the services
rendered for the reconstitution of the deceased's body might be expected.
In this respect, the hymns to the coffin sides do not differ much from the
references to bodily reconstitution and cosmological processes found else-
where in the Coffin Texts. What makes the hymns particularly interesting in

(18) Though, interestingly, the lack of examples of completely identical distribution, or

the fact that some of the principles tum out to be countereffective, is not dissimilar to what
happens to linguistic categorization when a language changes. For a rather dramatic exam-
ple from language death, see LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, pp. 96-98.
(19) WILLEMS, Coffin of Heqata, p. 90.

9
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

this context, however, is the fact that various references to the deceased's ot!
body and the cosmos are split up according to their connection with each teJ
coffin side. In other words, the various symbolic references are categorized of
according to their affinity with one of six basic directions (relative to the en
body in the coffin): up (north), down (south), front (east), back (west), left ne
and right. Thus, it becomes possible to study the hymns, and particularly the tht
division of the symbolic references both to the body and to the cosmos, as m:
a classification system like the one expressed in the object friezes. O~
While the texts are probably not ritual texts in the sense that they have ca
been recited during the funerary ritual, they still contain strong allusions to rel
a particular phase of this ritual, namely the Stundenwachen taking place af
during the night before the funeral eO). In the mythological interpretation reI
of the Stundenwachen, the deceased is often portrayed as being surrounded in)
by divinities giving him protection ( 1). This situation is presented in the
hymns by personifying each of the coffin sides as a protecting goddess. RI
This ritual situation provides a basic schema of participants consisting of
the deceased who needs treatment and protection, the goddesses able to
tht
help him, and one or more groups of 'guardians' who constitute a threat to
the deceased. This ritual scenario explains the speech situation which we
aU
su
find in the hymns. Here, the words spoken are attributed to the deceased and
tht
addressed to the goddess. The threat to the deceased is usually mentioned
reJ
only in the third person, and the goddess is generally portrayed as having
pIt
some form of control over them. At the same time, the goddess has a
an
number of epithets relating her to the god Osiris in one of his aspects. This
yo
relation is often referred to as being exactly the same as the one between the
goddess and the deceased, in other words these mythological allusions refer fa'
WI
to the treatment of the god during his own Stundenwachen ( 2 ).
In principle, one could distinguish - based on the contents and verbal
the
forms used - between references given in the epithets ("" WILLEMS'S sec-
to
tion 2, 'praise to the goddess'), request, threats, consequences avoided
ge
(all usually part of WILLEMS'S section 3, 'request'), and presentation
sel
(WILLEMS'S 'presentation of the speaker'). However, as it is mainly the
co
classificatory connections between the coffin sides and the deceased's
body on the one hand, and between the coffin sides and the cosmos on the

(20) Cf. WILLEMS, Coffin of Heqata, p. 9lf

(21) As can be seen e.g. in coffin decoration, where text bands naming the deceased in
relation to various deities are found in characteristic patterns on the outside of coffins,
cf. WILLEMS, Chests of Life, pp. 136-147.
(22) WILLEMS, Chests of Life, p. 91.

10
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

other that is of interest, it becomes less important in which particular con-

text these connections are expressed, as the underlying constellation in all
of the hymns seem to be the same ritual situation. Thus the discussion
emphasizes the association of the head end of the coffin with the head and
neck, rather than whether the association is expressed as being between
the personified coffin side and the deceased (e.g. 'May you place for me
my head on my neck' (23)), the god Osiris (e.g. 'who lifts up the head of
Osiris' (24)), or a group of guardians (e.g. 'May you save me from the
catchers of Osiris who cut off heads and sever necks' (25)). Whether a
relation is expressed as a participle describing the goddess (e.g. 'who gave
a face to the Bull of Djedu' (26)) or as a prospective form in the deceased's
request to the goddess (e.g. 'May you give me my face' (27)), is also lack-
ing in relevance for this discussion.

REFERENCES TO THE BODY

The terms for body parts occurring in the hymns to the coffin sides is
the focus of this analysis. Generally the body parts mentioned are either
attributed to the deceased (or someone in a structurally similar position,
such as Osiris) or to the goddesses. In a small number of the occurrences,
the spatial relation between the goddess and the deceased is described by
referring to the body parts of either the former or the latter. These exam-
ples generally correspond to the physical relationship between the body
and the coffin sides, such as the goddess of the lid being asked to 'spread
yourself over me' (28) or the goddess of Fr being called 'mistress of
faces' (29). These references are shown in Fig. 2 in the right column, but
will not be discussed in more detail here.
The majority of the references to body parts in the hymns deal with
those of the deceased (or actors in the same structural situation) referring
to their proper function or placement, which is to be ensured ritually - a
general theme in the Stundenwachen ritual. At first sight, these references
seem to be of a rather basic nature. As quoted above, the head end of the
coffin is associated with various references to the head and neck of the

(23) CT III, 295c [229J.

(24) CT III, 297h [229J.
(25) CT III, 295h-296a [229].
(26) CT III, 320c [239].
(27) CT III, 321 b [239].
(28) CT VI, 264a [644].
(29) CT III, 320b [239J.

II
 EGYPTEPHARAONIQUE

deceased, whereas the hymn to the foot end deals mainly with the feet and
free movement of the deceased. Even in these cases, where the classifica-
tion of a body part seems to be quite straight-forward, it is possible to gain
important information regarding the concept of the body part in question
as well as its relation to various other parts of the spatial system built up
by the hymns.
In each of the hymns, it seems that the references to each part of the
body are centred on an idea of functionality (e.g. the mouth is to be
opened) and situation (e.g. the face is to be knit on). Thus, for most of the sit
bodily terms occurring in the hymns, the stress is laid on the proper func- ca;
tion and placement of the body part in question. This can be phrased either lat
positively (e.g. the head is placed on the neck) or negatively (e.g. the head ca
will not be cut off), and often this is the only detail about the body part op
given explicitly by the hymn. Another point of interest is the involvement cn
of the goddess in the functionality of each body part. Sometimes she is ab
said to place the body part in its place or to ensure its proper function, but gn
in a number of cases, no such information is given. ex
w~
The occurrences of terms for human body parts are listed in Fig. 2. This
table has two columns of data, one for the desired function and placement eri
of each body part as expressed through requests or actions by the goddess, co
and one for the (usually spatial) relationship expressed between the god- (n
dess and each body part. As mentioned, the latter group will not be dis- fe'
cussed further here. Some of the body parts are treated exclusively on the su
coffin side(s) nearest to the body part in question, e.g. the face (~r) found In
re~
on Hand Fr or the throat (~tt) found on H. The considerable disparity
between the number of extant hymns to each coffin side as well as tht
between the length of each individual hymn makes a proper statistical err
analysis difficult, but as WILLEMS has noted, there does seem to be a ne
strong correlation between the texts and the body inside the coffin, the an
body being divided up according to the six sides of the cubic coffin (30). tht
On the other hand, it is possible to reduce the idealized concepts of the
various body parts to a few basic thematic oppositions in the function of In
the human body. An example of such an idealized concept would be the
simple notion that the mouth is open, not sealed, which can be reduced to c~
a more general idea of opening vs. obstruction. While the actual words en
used may differ, the expressions of proper function in Fig. 2 can almost
all be reduced to the following few basic oppositions:
ba~
(30) WILLEMS, Chests of Life, p. 90 n. 271. 'EI

12
 THE BODY TN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

(1) Attachment vs. Separation (e.g. head placed on neck/not cut off)
(2) Gathering vs. Dispersal (e.g. limbs gathered, ba not taken away)
(3) Containment vs. Emptiness (e.g. life gathered for the throat, belly
filled with magic)
(4) Verticality vs. Horizontality (e.g. head lifted)
(5) Opening vs. Obstruction (e.g. eyes opened, mouth not sealed)

Each expression in Fig. 2 has been marked with the number of the oppo-
sition to which the expression belongs. It should be noted that in some
cases there may be some degree of overlap between these groups, particu-
larly group (1) and (2) since many of the words used for 'collecting' also
carry strong connotations of 'putting together' or 'uniting'. While these
oppositional pairs show a great degree of abstraction in relation to the con-
crete expressions in the texts, we still find a small number of expressions
about body parts in the hymns that do not immediately fit into these five
groups. They fall into one of three minor groups. First, they might be
expressions of prototypical relations, e.g. the ba is to spend the night
watching over the corpse (in a certain sense a form of continuity or gath-
ering). The second type of expressions deal with states or actions properly
connected to the body part in question, the face (~r) is not sad, the name
(rn) is known (not forgotten), and the Ib-interior is not forgetful. Finally a
few references are found to ritual acts connected with the Stundenwachen,
such as the body U1') being treated, and the flesh (lwf) made to breathe.
In Fig. 2, these three minor groups have been marked (a), (b), and (c),
respectively. In order to be able to reconcile these apparent exceptions,
the level of abstraction above the basic oppositional pairs needs to be
employed, as the possibility of metaphorical structuring by image schemata
needs to be taken into account. For now, the exceptions have been retained,
and their possible metaphorical structuring will be discussed below under
the heading 'Metaphorical mappings'.

Image Schemata
In the recent decades, cogmtlve science has rejected the classical
Cartesian mind-body duality, giving rise to the field often referred to as
embodied cognition (31). A principal idea in this field is that the human

(31) Convenient overviews of this field can be found e.g. in J. A. SEITZ, 'The bodily
basis of thought', New Ideas in Psychology 18 (2000), pp. 23-40; M. L. ANDERSON,
'Embodied Cognition: A field guide', Artificial Intelligence 149 (2003), pp. 91-130 and

13
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

body (and not just the human brain) determines human thought and cog- as
nition due to the inseparable connection between sensorimotor, mental co
and emotional faculties. One of the important theories within this field is be
LAKOFF and JOHNSON'S theory of metaphor (32). The basis ofthis theory is wJ
the idea that early experiences of one's own body and its interaction with nc
the surroundings give rise to a number of simple, schematic structures ch
known as image schemata (or embodied schemata), which playa crucial ev
role in the understanding and classification of the world. JOHNSON m
explains the notion of image schemata in the following way: '[I]n order th
for us to have meaningful, connected experiences that we can compre- as
hend and reason about, there must be pattern and order to our actions, ex
perceptions, and conceptions. A schema is a recurrent pattern, shape, be
and regularity in, or of, these ongoing ordering activities. These patterns pe
emerge as meaningful structures for us chiefly at the level of our bodily Ot
movements through space, our manipulation of objects, and our percep- cc
tual interactions' (33). ur
These patterns are highly schematic structures with very little detail-
ing, which makes it possible for image schemata to structure a very wide Ot
range of mental representations, including both perceptions and rich Jc
mental images (34). At the same time, because they are based on the fun- ar
damental experience of having a human body, image schemata can be di
b)

R. W. GIBBS, 'Embodied experience and linguistic meaning', Brain and Language 84

(2003), pp. 1-15.
(32) G. LAKOFF and M. JOHNSON, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago and London, 1980);
M. JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind. The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason
(Chicago and London, 1987); LAKOFF, Women Fire and Dangerous Things, G. LAKOFF and
M. JOHNSON, Philosophy in the Flesh - The embodied mind and its challenge to Western
thought (New York, 1999). This theoretical framework was first introduced to the field of
Egyptology in the studies of hieroglyphic writing by O. GOLDWASSER ('The Nanner Palette ca
and the "Triumph of Metaphor''', LingAeg 2 (1992), pp. 67-85; idem, From Icon to pp
Metaphor-Studies in the Semiotics of the Hieroglyphs (OBO 142; Freiburg, 1995); idem,
'The Determinative System as a Mirror of World Organization', GM 179 (1999), pp. 49-68; or:
idem, Prophets, Lovers and Giraffes - Wor(l)d Classification in Ancient Egypt (GOF sci
IV/38, Classification and Categorization in Ancient Egypt 3; Wiesbaden, 2002); this direc-
tion of study has been continued by A. DAVID, De l'inferiorite a la perturbation (GOF
IV/38, Classification and Categorization in Ancient Egypt 1; Wiesbaden, 2000) and ou
R. SHALOMI-HEN, Classifying the Divine - Determinatives and Categorization in CT 335
and BD I7 (GOF IV/38, Classification and Categorization in Ancient Egypt 2; Wiesbaden, Th
2000)), and in the study of cultural categorization more generally by P. J. FRANDSEN, 'On as
Categorization and Metaphorical Structuring', CAl 7 (1997), pp. 71-104. CE
(33) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, p. 29, emphasis taken from the original.
(34) LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, p. 453. Dl

14
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

assumed to be more or less universal, although their application and the

concepts they are used to structure may be expected to differ widely
between cultures. Another important feature of image schemata is that
while they can often be most easily detected in linguistic data, they are
not just elements of a linguistic theory, but are assumed to have a psy-
chological reality, which seems to be corroborated by experimental
evidence from psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology, and develop-
mental psychology (35). An example of such an image schema would be
the CONTAINER (or CONTAINMENT) schema described by LAKOFF
as 'a schema consisting of a boundary distinguishing an interior from an
exterior. The CONTAINER schema defines the most basic distinction
between IN and OUT. We understand our own bodies as containers -
perhaps the most basic things we do are ingest and excrete, take air into
our lungs and breathe it out. But our understanding of our own bodies as
containers seems small compared with all the daily experiences we
understand in CONTAINER terms' (36).
By formulating the five pairs of opposition in the function of body parts
outlined above in more general terms, they become directly comparable to
JOHNSON'S image schemata in that they 'operate at one level of generality
and abstraction above concrete, rich images' (37). If we translate the
dichotomies listed above into kinesthetic image schemata as understood
by LAKOFF and JOHNSON, the following is found:

(1) Attachment vs. Separation = LINK schema (38)

(2) Gathering vs. Dispersal = CENTER-PERIFERY schema (39)
(3) Containment vs. Emptiness = CONTAINMENT schema (40)

(35) For an overview, ct. R. W. GIBBS and H. L. COLSTON, 'The Cognitive Psychologi-
cal Reality of Image Schemas and their Transformation', Cognitive Linguistics 6 (1995),
pp. 347-378.
(36) LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, p. 271, emphasis taken from the
original, ct. also JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, pp. 30-38. A list of important image
schemata is given ibid., p. 126.
(37) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, p. 29.
(38) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, pp. 117-119; LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and Danger-
ous Things, p. 274.
(39) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, p. 124f; LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and Dangerous
Things, p. 274. Alternatively, the opposition Gathering vs. Dispersal may also be regarded
as structured by the NEAR-FAR schema, which is not always easy do distinguish from
CENTER-PERIPHERY.
(40) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, pp. 21-23 and 34f; LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and
Dangerous Things, p. 272f, here called CONTAINER.

15
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

(4) Verticality vs. Horizontality = UP-DOWN schema (41) boc

(5) Opening vs. Obstruction = REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT schema (42) me
cas
The tendency to overlap between (1) and (2) mentioned above con- stn
forms to the general tendency of the CENTER-PERIPHERY schema to be
experienced in conjunction with other schemata (43). scl
At this point, one further partial overlap may be noted, namely between grc
categories 3 and 5, stemming from the fact that the body parts structured stn
by the REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT schema are usually, at the same av:
time, understood as openings in the boundary of a CONTAINMENT gel
schema, through which substances can pass in or out (44). we
Thus, in the hymns to the coffm sides, a relatively small group of image tha
schemata are used to structure the conception of the various parts of the (rfl
human body. Most of the body parts are structured by only one or a few ba
of these, so there seems to be a significant difference between the ways in fie
which the various groups of body parts are conceptualized. An overview fot
of the image schemata used is presented in Fig. 3, and the references to
each of the expressions for the body parts are given in Fig. 2. This list the
provides important information about the nature and function of each pre
body part as conceptualized in the hymns to the coffin sides. nar
The conceptualization of a body part by the LINK schema seems to
entail one of two things. Either the body part in question is in itself a link
between other parts of the body, or its idealized function is understood as ofr
sub
dependent on its LINK to the central part of the body. This can be exem- of I
plified by expressions in the texts for the neck (wsrt) and the head (tp). der
The neck (wsrt) seems to be an example of the former, constituting the whl
DOF
link by which the head (tp) - and possibly also the face (~r), though this
bet'
is not apparent from the texts treated here - is connected to the torso. DUl
The proper function of the head, on the other hand, is dependent on its iibe
trur
being connected to the torso by the neck. Two parts from inside the body veri
are structured primarily by this schema, namely the ib-interior and the BAI
heart (~3ty) (45), the term used for the threat to the function of these two whl
diff
BAI
(41) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, p. xiv; Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live tim
By, pp. 14-21. J. A
(42) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, p. 46f. in I
(43) Cf. ibid., p. 125. phy
(44) See below. anc
(45) For the difference between these, see T. BARDlNET, Les papyrus medicaux de 200
I'Egypte pharaonique - traduction integrale et commentaire, (Penser la medicine; Paris, foil
1995), pp. 68-113, and cf. the quotation cited in n. 79 below. For some arguments in favour elm

16
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

body parts (snl) being the same as that used for cutting the neck. The
members Cwt) are most often understood by other schemata, but in one
case their aspect as linked to the rest of the body (and/or to each other) is
stressed.
The group of body parts conceptualized by the CENTER-PERIPHERY
schema is both the largest and the most diverse. The body parts in this
group are all said to be gathered, collected, given or something similar,
stressing the basic opposition between something being close by and
available rather than far away and unavailable. It contains a number of
general expressions such as members Cwt), body (f:z' and qt), flesh (iwf) as
well as arms and legs ('wy rdwy) mentioned as parallel. Two body parts
that could be regarded as attributes of death are found in this group, efflux
(rqw) and putrescence (f:zw33t), along with two aspects of the personality,
ba (bS) and shade (swt). Finally the face (f:zr) , a body part that is quite
flexible with regard to the schemata that can be used to structure it, is
found in this group as well.
While the LINK and CENTER-PERIPHERY schemata usually leave
the exact things that are linked, or the precise location of the center, unex-
pressed, the CONTAINMENT schema often includes a further reference,
namely the substance contained within the body part in question. Three

of retaining the traditional interpretation of these two terms as more or less synonymous but
subject to a chronological development in the favour of (IJty, see W. WESTENDORF, review
of BARDlNET, Les papyrus mMicaux, in Orientalia 65 (1996), p. 36lf and idem, Handhuch
der altagyptischen Medizin (HdO 36; Leiden-Boston-Kaln, 1999), r, pp. 108t1', esp. 109
where the interpretation is characterized as 'hachst zweifelhaft'. None the less, WESTEN-
DORF describes the difference in the usage of the two tenns resulting from the competition
between the two tenns in the following way: 'jh tendierte auch zu der Funktion eines
Durchgangsorgans fUr die Speisen (deutlich in der Verbindung rJ-jh "Magen"), ferner
iibernahm es die Betonung der emotionalen und geistigen Funktionen; (litj wurde zum Zen-
trum des GefiiBsystems und mit dem anatomisch-physiologischen Begriff "Herz(muskel)"
verbunden', ihid., 109. These are the same main points that constitute the foundation of
BARDINET'S physiological model, so the difference of opinion seems to lie mainly in
whether the variance between the two tenns should be attributed to core lexicographical
differences or to pragmatic ones resulting from a chronological development. Further,
BARDINET'S model clearly has greater explanatory power (see e.g. the analysis of concep-
tions of the canopic jars by BARDINET, Les papyrus mCdicaux, pp. 74-79, the remarks in
J. AssMANN, Tad und Jenseits im Alten Agypten, pp. 36-39, and the application of the model
in F. SERVAJEAN, 'Le lotus emergeant et les quatre Fils d'Horus. Analyse d'une metaphore
physiologique', in S. AUFRERE (ed.), Encyclopedie religieuse de l'univers vegetal. Croy-
ances phytoreligieuses de I'Egypte ancienne n (Orientalia Monspeliensia 11; Montpellier,
2001), pp. 261-298). For these reasons, the model and renderings by BARDINET have been
followed here, though the debate concerning these tenns can by no means be considered
closed.

17
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

body parts are expressly considered as CONTAINERS in the texts exam- (LJ
ined here, the first of which is the throat (/;tt), regarded as containing life. lin
The belly (bt) is presented as a container for magic, while the mouth (rJ)
is said to contain various things. First, the mouth is said to contain Hu, Opl
creative speech (46). Secondly, the mouth is regarded as a container for RE
offerings, and the final references are most probably again to the potent the
speech emerging from the mouth of the deceased, though it is ambiguous, tht
mentioning only that 'what is in my mouth has protected me' (47) or is to as
be 'made sound' (48). Deviating from this pattern slightly, but still clearly (ir,
structured by the CONTAINMENT schema, is putrescence, the difference (/;1
being that the ideal position is outside the container constituted by the in
whole body (49). re~
The body parts structured by the UP-DOWN schema are also found in CC
the LINK group discussed above, with the exception of the hapax tmw me
probably meaning here 'the entirety (of the body)' as suggested by BAR- me
GUET (SO). Thus, the two body parts in question, the head (tp) and the hyl
members Cwt) are ideally regarded, not only as being attached to the torso sai
for
otl
(46) CT TIl, 296g [229]. FAULKNER understands the word ~w to be the word for 'provi-
sions' or 'food', The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts, I (Warminster, 1973), p. 183. In light sid
of the determinative, 1 have chosen to follow BARGUET, Textes des sarcophages, p. 50, dit
WILLEMS, Coffin of Heqata, pp. 403 and 406 n. w, and R. van der MOLEN, A Hieroglyphic
Dictionary of Egyptian Coffin Texts (Leiden-Boston-Koln, 2000), p. 314 in rendering to
the words as a designation of the divinity Hu. For some arguments for the meaning 'food' lOt
of this word being a derivative of the meaning (and personification) as 'utterance', see
is 1
A. H. GARDINER, 'Some Personifications', BSBA 38 (1916), pp. 86-89.
(47) CT VIT, l33b [932]. gu:
(48) CT TIl, 32lh [239]. of
(49) At the same time, however, the putrescence is also supposed to be gathered attc
(CENTER-PERIPHERY), and elsewhere in the Coffin Texts is mentioned that it is not
allowed to drip (s3b)(CT I, 304b [73], cited again below in connection with the 'dam'- to
metaphor). In this way, putrescence shares the somewhat ambiguous role of such other sub- ate
stances as rcJw, a subject which deserve a much fuller treatment than it can be given here.
We will limit the interpretation here to pointing out that we are dealing with two different
image schematic structures which may possibly be combined by assuming an ideal position Co
outside the body, but not far away, e.g. within the coffin. This seems to be the way the ves-
sel containing the lwtyw fluids of Osiris is portrayed in pJumilhac inside a structure con-
taining also a sack with the fragmented body of Osiris, J. VANDIER, Le Papyrus Jumilhac apl
(Paris, 1961), pI. V, lower register. Be that as it may, it is interesting to note that the two ev(
image schematic structures have been assigned to two opposite coffin sides in the hymns,
'baling out' (the CONTAINER schema) being connected with the lid (and thus the direc-
tion UP), while 'collecting' (CENTER-PERIPHERY) is connected with the bottom (an thus
DOWN). I
(50) BARGUET, Textes des sarcophages, p. 84. a st

18
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

(LINK), but also by their ability to be lifted rather than hanging down
limply (UP-DOWN).
The final group contains body parts that are considered as unblocked
openings in one sense or another and are consequently structured by the
REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT schema. As mentioned above, they seem at
the same time to be openings leading into (some part of) the body, and
thus they are also partly understood using the CONTAINMENT schema
as boundaries. The body parts in this group are the mouth (d), the eyes
Urty), and, perhaps metonymically standing for both of these, the face
Uu'). The specific function of the face and eyes are not developed further
in the texts discussed but, as mentioned above, the mouth is not only
regarded as an opening in the boundary of a CONTAINER, but also as a
CONTAINER in itself. This conforms to the Egyptian view of e.g. the
mouth as an entrance to or exit from the body, through which various
more or less abstract 'potentialities' can manifest themselves. In the
hymns to the coffin sides, this seems to be the case with magic, which is
said to be present inside the body (llt), while the mouth serves as the seat
for Hu and for powerful speech in general. This pattern is found also with
other 'substances', such as e.g. lies (51).
Generally, the expressions for the body parts in the hymns to the coffin
sides request that each of the body parts conform to the ideal, living con-
dition of the body part in question. Depending on the image schema used
to understand the function of each body part, this may be expressed in var-
ious ways. The opposite of the ideal condition of the body part, however,
is generally understood to be an attribute of death, a threat from dangerous
guardians or something which may otherwise jeopardize the regeneration
of the deceased. Thus, the references to the body parts can be said to
attempt to negate these attributes of death by requesting or asserting them
to be transformed into the ideal image schematic attributes of life associ-
ated with each body part.

COSMOLOGICAL REFERENCES

The body inside the coffin plays an important role in the hymns, as is
apparent from the previous section. Another function of the hymns, how-
ever, is to link the body, as classified according to the coffin sides, with

(51) Cf. R. NYORD, 'Spittle, Lies and Regeneration. Some religious expressions on
a stela from the First 1ntennediate Period', GM 197 (2003), p. 87f.

19
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

a number of external references, typically various cosmological, mytho-

logical and geographical phenomena (52). Space prevents an exploration of
each of these allusions, and a few examples suffice to show the way in
which these external references are structured. First, it should be noted
that the canonical orientation of the coffin with the head to the north, fac-
ing east, serves in itself to impose a cosmic structure. This obvious but
important observation gives the following cosmic references: H: north, F:
south, Fr: east, B: west, Bo: down and T: up (53).
Moving on to the texts themselves, a number of external references are
found in the epithets to the goddesses, one of the clearest examples being
the goddess personifying the lid who is addressed as Nut, the sky goddess,
corresponding to the position of the lid in relation to the deceased. A cou-
ple of formulae, occurring in one form or another in the hymns to several
of the coffin sides, will be considered here.
The first of these could be called the 'seeing' formulae and are attested
on each of the vertical coffin sides. They describe the goddess addressed
as '[you] at seeing whom X rejoice(s)' where X can be various divinities
or creatures with certain cosmological associations depending on the side
of the coffin. The creatures mentioned on B are 'the Westerners' (54), thus
corresponding to the actual orientation of the coffin. The opposite side, Fr,
inserts the god Osiris in this formula (55). While a well-known epithet of
Osiris is 'Foremost of the Westerners' (56), in the Coffin Texts he often
seems to have another cardinal association, especially when the situation
referred to is the journey of the deceased to reach Osiris. This is particu-
larly clear in the ferryman spells where the deceased is explicitly said to
travel to the 'eastern side of the sky' (57) in order to treat his 'father'. It
thus seems reasonable to assume that Osiris occurs here as the goal of the
eastward journey of the deceased, so that this external reference is once

(52) Cf. the cosmological correspondences analyzed by E. MEYER-DIETRICH in the

coffin M5C, Neehet und Nil. Ein iigyptiseher Frauensarg des Mittleren Reiches aus reli-
gionsokologiseher Sieht (Uppsala, 2001), p. 229 et passim, as well as the general remarks
in WILLEMS, Chests of Life, pp. 233-37.
(53) For the details and developments of this orientation cf. M. J. RAVEN, 'Egyptian
Concepts on the Orientation of the Human Body', lEA 91 (2005, pp. 37-53.
(54) CT III, 307d [237]; VII, 28s [828].
(55) CT III, 320e [239]; 324h [241].
(56) For which cf. LGG (C. LEITZ (ed.), Lexikon der iigyptisehen Cotter und Cotter-
bezeiehnungen, (OLA 110-116; Leuven, 2002)) V, 783b-786a.
(57) E.g. CT V, 80b [397], and cf. also WILLEMS'S reconstruction of the topography of
CT 398, Coffin of Heqata, pp. 167-170.

20
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

again dependent on the orientation of the coffin. This situation is con-

trasted by the references on Hand F, which seem to be organized, not by
the cardinal orientation of the coffin, but by the placement of the body
inside the coffin. On H, the deity seeing the goddess is Re (58), while F
mentions 'those of the Duat' (59). These references seem to be based on an
UP-DOWN opposition rather than on cardinal points. Thus by means of
these references, the body of the deceased becomes the reference point for
cosmic phenomena, not by referring to its actual position, but rather to its
living, ideal position, i.e. upright, rather than prostrate. The effect of this
seems - as with the internal references - to be the dissolution of the
features connected to death by replacing them with ideal features con-
nected with life. A similar example where this transformation is effected
by iconographic, rather than linguistic means, is found in the beaded belts
of a number of 13th Dynasty tombs from Lisht discussed by SPENCE
where the sides of the belts are symbolically connected with Upper and
Lower Egypt, thus evoking an upright, east-facing position of the
deceased in opposition with the actual position of the mummy, lying
down facing east (60).
The second example to be treated here consists of a number of refer-
ences to the services performed by the goddess for Osiris in his aspect as
'Bull of X' where X can be one of a number of toponyms. The instances
of this formula are 'who mourns the Bull of the West' (61), 'who makes
akh the Bull of the West' (62), 'who supports the Bull of the Nedit' (63),
'who gave a face to the Bull of Djedu' (64), and 'who opens the face of the
Bull of Djedu' (65). The toponyms show an almost perfect pattern of dis-
tribution on the coffin sides, the 'West' being associated primarily with B
(and once, for less obvious reasons with H), Nedit with B, and Djedu with
Fr. The connection between B and the West is in accord, once again, with
the orientation of the coffin, but the role of Nedit and Djedu in the texts
seem to need another type of explanation. Nedit is well known as the

(58) CT III, 294c [229].

(59) CT III, 302g [236].
(60) K. SPENCE, Orientation in Ancient Egyptian Royal Architecture (unpublished the-
sis, University of Cambridge, 1997), p. 120f and fig. 27.
(61) CT III, 294f [229], hymn to H.
(62) CT III, 307c [237]; 318n [238]; VII, 28r [828], hymns to B.
(63) CT III, 312a [237]; 3181 [238], hymns to B.
(64) CT III, 320c [239].
(65) CT III, 325b [241].

21
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

mythological place where Osiris died and is often connected to death and
inertia (66), i.e. the very situation which the Stundenwachen are meant to
overcome. Djedu (Busiris), the important Lower Egyptian cult center for
Osiris, on the other hand, is presented as a goal for the journey of the
deceased (67), sometimes with the explicit purpose of seeing Osiris (68).
Having arrived there, the deceased is described as having access to offer-
ings, and this seems to be the primary role of the city in both the Pyramid
Texts and the Coffin Texts (69). The disparity between these two places is
thus remarkable, and the difference between Osiris in his aspect as Bull of
Nedit as opposed to that of Bull of Djedu seems to be one of progression
caused by the Stundenwachen rituals. Thus, from the limp, passive exis-
tence in Nedit, the rituals change the deceased into a well-provided, active
being. Further, the references to these two locations are placed in relation
to the deceased, so that one place (and hence, state of being) is in front of
him, and the other behind him, an accurate metaphorical expression of the
situation of the deceased during the rituals. This idea is clearly structured
by a PATH schema CO) in which the regeneration of the deceased is
regarded as a journey, this time not (primarily) conceptualized as a west-
east journey, but rather as one between two (more or less) mythological
places and the ontological states of being connected with each. The front
side of the deceased is thus connected (through F of the coffin) to the
ontological status he wants to attain, while his back side is connected to
the status he must relinquish and metaphorically put behind himself.

Metaphorical mapping
In the last example, the image schema is used, not just to structure a sin-
gle concept, but to transfer the structure of one domain (a journey) to
another (the regeneration of the deceased). In this process of metaphorical
mapping, the image schema is used to make a set of correspondences
between the elements of the two domains as structured by the image
schema. LAKOFF and JOHNSON use notations in the form REGENERATION

(66) Explicitly so in CT V, 388d; f-g [469]; 398j [470].

(67) CT IV, 74b [312]; V, Ib; 7c [355].
(68) CT IV, 821-m [312].
(69) For the references, see C. JACQ, Recherches sur les paradis de l'autre monde
d'apres les Textes des Pyramides et les Textes des Sarcophages (Paris, 1993), p. 23.
(70) JOHNSON, The Body in the Mind, pp. 113-117; LAKOFF, Women, Fire, and Danger-
ous Things, p. 283 calls this schema SOURCE-PATH-GOAL.

22
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

IS A JOURNEY to refer to such metaphorical mappings (71). Once again,

an important point in their theory is that 'metaphor is not just a matter of
language, that is, of mere words [... J on the contrary, human thought
processes are largely metaphorical. This is what we mean when we say that
the human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined' (72).
To return to the Coffin Text example just discussed, we would have
one domain with a journey (with elements such as a traveller, a point of
departure and a destination), another one with the process of regeneration
of a deceased person (containing elements of at least two different onto-
logical states and a transformation from one to the other), as well as a set
of image schemata (including at least the SOURCE-PATH-GOAL and
FRONT-BACK image schemata), which result in a metaphorical mapping
in which the regeneration of the deceased is construed of as a journey
from one mythological location to another (73).

(71) LAKOFF and JOHNSON, Metaphors We Live By, passim.

(72) Ibid., p. 6, emphasis taken from the original.
(73) The phenomena of metaphor and metonymy have been described within a broader
theoretical framework by FAUCONNIER and TURNER under the heading of conceptual blend-
ing (for an overview ofresearch in and with this concept, see M. TURNER, Cognitive Dimen-
sions of Social Science (Oxford and New York, 2001), p. 16). While the terminology is
slightly different, the processes described by conceptual blending have much in common
with LAKOFF and JOHNSON'S theories of metaphor (for a comparisons and attempts to com-
bine the two theories, see F. J. Rurz DE MENDOZA IBANES, 'On the nature of blending as a
cognitive phenomenon', Journal of Pragmatics 30 (1998), pp. 259-274 and J. E. GRADY, T.
OAKLEY and S. COULSON, 'Blending and Metaphor', in R. W. GIBBS and G. J. STEEN (eds.),
Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics. Selected Papers from the Fifth International Cognitive
Linguistics Conference, Amsterdam, July 1997 (Amsterdam and Philadelphia, 1999), pp.
101-24. The main difference is that conceptual blending covers a much wider range of phe-
nomena in which two domains or mental spaces are simultaneously activated in a single
representation. Thus, apart from the metaphorical and metonymical examples discussed by
LAKOFF and JOHNSON, conceptual blending can also explain such examples as 'When I was
twelve, by parents took me to Italy' (example taken from S. COULSON and T. OAKLEY,
'Blending basics', Cognitive Linguistics 11.3/4 (2000), p. 177), which are not metaphorical
but which none the less blends input from two different mental spaces (in the example, one
space for the present speech situation and one for the time when the speaker was twelve).
This example leads us to another difference between the two theoretical formulations.
While LAKOFF and JOHNSON propose that the connection between the two domains is (I)
image schematic and (2) one-way in the sense that the mapping always goes from a source
domain to a target domain, FAUCONNlER and TURNER'S model for conceptual blending
includes a generic space constituting the link between the two input spaces, which may
(and often does) contain image schemata, but also elements of a more specific nature, such
as the identity of persons or general conceptions of activities linking the two input spaces.
In addition to these three spaces (two input spaces and a generic one), the model contains
one further space, the blended space, containing elements from all the three other spaces
(cf. the basic diagram in G. FAUCONNlER and M. TURNER, The Way We Think. Conceptual

23
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

A number of the bodily functions that were placed in the three subcate-
gories discussed earlier can now be put in one of the main categories by
taking metaphorical structuring into account. The only member of the (a)
category, the relationship between the ba and the corpse (b3t) was sug-
gested above to be an instance of the CENTER-PERIFERY schema. The
references in category (b) to the attitudes of the face (IJr), the face should
not be sad, and it is mighty, can probably be understood as an instance of
the UP-DOWN schema. To make this connection, it is necessary to look at
some metaphorical expressions used to understand the function of the face
in relation to emotions. One expression for being sad, and thus probably
more or less synonymous to the verb snm used in the passage under discus-
sion, is IJr r brw, literally 'face down(cast)' (74). On the other hand, an
expression often found in mortuary texts asks the deceased to 'lift his head'
or mentions someone else doing it for him as a sign of life and power (75).
In the same way, the expressing that the face is mighty might be connected
metaphorically with the direction up (76). Thus the face being sad may be
tentatively connected to a downward direction and the face being mighty to
an upward direction, leading to the proposal that the metaphors connected
to the face are structured by an UP-DOWN schema (77). The expression
stating that the deceased has power over his body (cjt) might be too general

Blending and the Mind's Hidden Complexities (New York, 2002), p. 46, fig. 3.6). Thus, in
this model, the mapping does not have to be one-way, because both of the input spaces may
play an equal role for the constitution of the blended space.
(74) For the expression r f}rw, see WB III, 393, 1. A good example of the use of this
expression is found in a mythological description of mourning gods: 'These gods sat with
the heads on their knees, their faces down(cast). They remembered the person of this god,
Osiris', pSailier IV, XVI, 5-6 = C. LEITZ, Tagewiihlerei. Das Buch f;lt nf;f; pf;.wy t:jt und
verwandte Texte (A.A 55; Wiesbaden, 1994), I, p. 232 and II, pI. 70,5-6. Cf. also the ritual
use of this gesture in depictions of enemies, pBM 10188, XXXII,44-45 and 48 = R. O.
FAULKNER, The Papyrus Bremner-Rhind (British Museum No. 10188) (BiAe 3; Bruxelles,
1933), p. 91, I. 6 and 10.
(75) Also explicitly of the face a few times: fli f;r: PT 62a-b [93]; 1879a [662]; CT VI,
236v [622]; lsi f;r: CT VI, 92j [507]. For expressions of lifting the head or face in general,
see WB I, 572,13-15 and WB V, 405,7-8.
(76) See H. ROEDER, Mit dem Auge sehen. Studien zur Semantik der Herrschaft in den
Toten- und Kulttexten (SAGA 16; Heidelberg, 1996), pp. 82-86 for examples and refer-
ences.
(77) Cf. the explanations by LAKOFF and JOHNSON for the English metaphors HAPPY IS
UP; SAD IS DOWN ('Physical basis: Drooping posture typically goes along with sadness
and depression, erect posture with a positive emotional state') and HAVING CONTROL or
FORCE IS UP; BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL or FORCE IS DOWN (,Physical basis:
Physical size typically correlates with physical strength, and the victor in a fight is typically
on top'), Metaphors We Live By, p. 15.

24
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

to fit into the image schematic categories, or it might be understood as

an instance of the UP-DOWN schema again, given the connection demon-
strated by ROEDER between the concept of s&m and 'hochsein' or
'erhabensein' (78). The final members of category (b) all deal with the
notion of remembering vs. forgetting (the name (rn) by the lb-interior).
Given BARDINET'S interpretation of the lb-interior as that which is con-
tained within the !Jt (79), it would seem that the concept of the name and
its placement is structured by a CONTAINER schema, in which the name
is contained in the lb-interior or the belly. This is clearly the underlying
idea in the passage 'I will not forget this name of mine which is in this
belly (!Jt) of mine' (80). The role of the lb-interior in remembering in gen-
eral is clear from other passages from the Coffin Texts: 'It is so that you
may remember what you have forgotten, that 1 have placed your lb-inte-
rior inside your belly (!Jt) for you' (81). Even more unambiguous are
instances where the act of remembering is explicitly paralleled with 'plac-
ing in the lb': 'Remember, Seth, and put into your lb, this word which
Geb spoke against you' (82), probably also 'Swallow all [that which you
have?] remembered, which was in your lb against this N' (83). This may
indicate a certain parallelism between the name and magic (~k?), which is
often said to be placed in the same position as mentioned above (84).
The final subcategory, (c), containing ritual acts connected to the Stun-
denwachen contains utterances that are not easy to reduce to image
schemata. While the statement that the flesh is made to breathe might be
interpreted as a form of opening (and REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT), the
general expressions of the body U1') being treated or corruption (lwtyw)

(78) See n. 76 above.

(79) 'Contrairement au coeur-haty UzJty] qui correspond a une realite anatomique assez
precise, Ie ib [lb] est un ensemble. II comprend la totalitc des parties corporelles situees der-
riere Ie coeur-haty, dans ce grand creux du corps qui forme ce que les Egyptiens appellent
Ie shet Ibt] et qui correspondrait, dans la tenninologie moderne, a la fois au ventre et au tho-
rax', BARDINET, Les papyrus medicaux, p. 71.
(80) CT V, 238c-d [411] (M23C).
(81) CT I, 265e-f [62].
(82) CT VII, 37e-g [8371.
(83) CT VI, 37ll-m [742].
(84) Magic occurs in a number of instances where its placement in the Ib is paralleled
with remembering, cf. passages such as 'He lets me receive what has been allotted to me.
It is in order to receive this which my lips give, that I have been watchful with my mouth
and with my belly. 0 my Ib, lift yourself to your correct position that you may recall what
is in you (... ) I have remembered all the magic which is in my belly', CT VI, 2781-p and
r [657], and similarly a number of places in the texts connected with the Fields of Offer-
ings, CT V, 364a-b; 368c-d [4671; 38Ii-k; 383e-f [4681.

25
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

being hidden or veiled seem difficult to categorize according to image

schemata in a simple way.
It should be emphasized that each of these examples of metaphorical
structuring of body parts and more abstract phenomena deserve a much
more detailed analysis than what can be given to them in this connection,
and the tentative interpretations given above are meant merely as guide-
lines by which most of them might be included in the main categories
discussed above.

REFERENCES TO THE COFFIN ITSELF

The concept of metaphorical mapping can be used to analyse two pecu-

liarities in the texts, which have been noted by previous commentators.
These concern references which are not primarily internal ones to the
body inside the coffin or external ones to the cosmos, but rather refer-
ences to the coffin itself and various ways of construing its role.
The first metaphor to be considered here is seen in the references dis-
cussed by BARGUET (85) and WILLEMS (86) to each of the two short ends of
the coffin (H and F) as a 'dam' (dnlt) (87). This word is also used for the
coffin sides in another passage from the CT: 'Come, let us lift his head!
Come, let us gather his bones! Come, let us put his limbs in order! Come,
let us set up a dam as his border! This (person) shall not be tired under
our arms, so the efflux which exuded from this akh drips. (Rather,) the
lakes shall be filled for you, and your names of the Rivers shall be made
for you' (88). The grammar in the final part of the passage is quite ambigu-
ous, particularly regarding the question whether the dripping of the
effluxes is seen as something which is desirable for the purpose of filling
the lakes mentioned next or as something negative to be avoided by set-
ting up the dam. A little earlier in the same liturgy (89), the 'dripping' (sJb)

(85) BARGUET, Textes des sarcophages, p. 20.

(86) WILLEMS, Coffin of Heqata, p. 93 and 407, n. aj.
(87) CT III, 297i [229]; 303a; 303e [236]. For this word, see WB V, 465, 1-2, van der
MOLEN, Hieroglyphic Dictionary, p. 833f (sv. gnlt). FAULKNER'S suggestions 'headrest(?)'
(Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts, I, p. 183, n. 8 to CT 229) and 'pillow(?)', ibid., III, p. 27
and 28 n. 23 seem unnecessary. The root seems to mean something like 'to divide' as sug-
gested by A. H. GARDINER, 'The ancient military road between Egypt and Palestine' , lEA 6
(1920), p. 104, d. also W. C. HAYES, Ostraka and name stones from the tomb of Sen-Mut
(no. 71) at Thebes (New York, 1942), p. 40f.
(88) CT I, 306f-307c [74].
(89) For which, see most recently J. ASSMANN and M. BOMMAS, Altiigyptische Totenli-
turgien, Band 1: Totenliturgien in den Sargtexten des Mittleren Reiches (Heidelberg,
2002), pp. 63-65 and 333-468.

26
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

of bodily fluids is clearly mentioned as something which Isis and Neph-

thys are trying to prevent eO) in the ritual situation treated in the liturgy.
While a dam might in principle be used for keeping something out as well
as keeping something in ( 1), it seems to be the latter of these two func-
tions that is stressed in this case. Thus we are dealing with a metaphor (or
'blend', ef. n. 73) in which the coffin with its sides is combined with an
area surrounded by dams, probably an irrigated field (92), with additional
correspondences between the efflux (rcjw) and the irrigation water, with
the possible further identification of the deceased body with grain lying in
the field. We find examples of the same metaphor in the Coffin Text
spells 269 ('Becoming barley of Upper Egypt') and 330 ('Becoming
Nepri'), as well as in non-linguistic evidence such as com Osiris figures
and Osiris beds. The metaphor THE COFFIN IS A FIELD is structured
by the CONTAINER image schema, the things contained being not only
the body, but equally important the efflux of the deceased. This fact once
again underlines the ambiguity discussed above in that the body (con-
ceived in some cases as a CONTAINER) is itself contained within the
coffin, which is also a CONTAINER for certain former parts of the body
of the deceased ( 3 ).
The second instance is the examples of nautical terminology found in
the hymns. The rubric for CT 237 (a hymn to B) identifies this hymn as
'the spell for the great port-side wall' (94), while the speaker expresses his
wish to 'support those of the Great Starboard' (95) in a hymn to Fr. While I
the nautical terms for 'port' (t3-wr (96)) and 'starboard' (lmy-wrt (97)) can
I

(90) CT I, 304b 173], similarly CT VI, 384q [755J; 386e [756].

(91) A concise characterization of the function of a dnlt-dam - including opposing,
collecting and conducting water - is found in a royal inscription of Dynasty 18: 'For the
king, he is a dam of stone - he opposes the flood and collects water so that it all flows
<towards> the Nile mouth', P. LACAU and H. CHEVRIER, Une chapelle d'Hatshepsout
{! Karnak, (Cairo, 1977), I, p. 126, I. 16-18. For the word wryt meaning 'flood', see ihid.,
p. 128, n. s.
(92) E. ENDESFELDER, 'Zur Frage der Bewasserung im pharaonischen Agypten',
ZAS 106 (1979), p. 44 suggests the meaning '(Quer)damm' of the word dnit, in which
case the space between two dnlt-dams would perhaps allude to a canal rather than a field.
However, there seems to be little lexicographic evidence for a specific meaning as a 'trans-
versal dam' for this word, and the more general interpretation has been followed here.
(93) Cf. n. 49 above.
(94) CT III, 306e [237].
(95) CT III, 322a [239].
(96) WB V, 230,16-231,3 and van der MOLEN, Hieroglyphic Dictionary, p. 704f.
(97) WB I, 73,6-13 and van der MOLEN, Hieroglyphic Dictionary, p. 31.

27

7
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

also be used to refer to the cardinal directions east and west respectively,
these directions do not confonn to the orientation of the coffin, suggesting
that they should be understood here as relative directions on a boat (98).
This seems to be further corroborated by the reference in the hymn to T to
navigation towards the northern sky (99). These references seem to point to
an understanding of the coffin as a boat sailing north. BARGUET suggests
that the references to the deceased transporting offerings to Heliopo-
lis (100) be connected with this idea, so that this city might be the destina-
tion of the voyage (101). Either way, it is clear that while the means of
expression are different, the metaphorical mapping resulting from these
expressions is very similar to the last example of external references, in
that the metaphor combines the ritual conception of the deceased lying in
the coffin with a conception of the process as a journey, here explicitly in
the fonn of a navigation (102).

CONCLUSION

As the preceding discussion has shown, the distribution of texts and

other elements of the decorative programs on Middle Kingdom coffins
can be fruitfully analysed by regarding the coffin as classification system
with the various sides of the coffin as 'categories' containing various ele-
ments of the decoration. The function of body parts can be characterized
in tenns of a relatively small number of image schemata, pointing to a
few, important notions underlying the proper function of the human body
as conceived in a mortuary context. The texts serve to prevent the rever-
sal of these basic characteristics of the sound, living body by personifying
each of the coffin sides as a goddess with the power to protect and recon-
stitute the body of the deceased.
The method by which fragmentation (with the associated loss of func-
tionality) is counteracted characteristically involves in itself a fragmenta-
tion of the body by sorting its parts according to categories that ensure the
correct position of the body parts by means of the physical layout of the
coffin. This process is structurally similar to the well-know phenomenon

(98) BARGUET, RdE 23 (1971), p. 21.

(99) CT VI, 2641 [644].
(100) CT III, 306a [236]; 315e [237]; 326b [241].
(101) BARGUET, RdE 23 (1971), p. 21f.
(102) For other evidence for the Stundenwachen being interpreted as a navigation, see
WILLEMS, Chests of Life, pp. 156-159 and idem, Coffin of Heqata, pp. 176-186.

28
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

of Gliedervergottung, or divinization of the limbs, in which process lin-

guistic fragmentation plays a significant role (103).
An important mechanism in the distribution of text on the coffin
involves metaphorical processes as discussed by LAKOFF and JOHNSON. In
both the metaphors and the passages regarding the proper function of
body parts, the hymns to the coffin sides serve the function of not only
describing, but also ensuring (104) the bodily reconstitution of the deceased
and his transformations expressed metaphorically.
Apart from the utterances regarding the human body inside the coffin,
the hymns with their distribution on the various sides of the coffin also
serve to construct a spatial system in the form of a cosmological model
oriented around the body. By means of such image schemata as FRONT-
BACK and PATH, these systems imbed the rituals performed for the
deceased within a wider cosmological and mythological context.
Finally, the hymns contain metaphors referring to the coffin itself,
expressing, and thereby ensuring, various aspects of the ritual function of
the coffin by invoking such images as THE COFFIN AN IRRIGATED
FIELD or THE COFFIN IS A BOAT.
By using these various techniques, the hymns to the coffin sides contain
a succinct summary of the function of the coffin, and by addressing the
various parts of the coffin they establish efficacious correspondences
between the body of the deceased inside the coffin, the cosmos as mod-
elled through the coffin, and the coffin itself as a ritual artefact.

University oj' Copenhagen Rune NYORD

(103) Cf. the comments by L. MESKELL, Arclweologies of Social Life. Age, Sex, Class
et cetera in Ancient Egypt (Oxford. 1999), pp. 114-117.
(104) It should be noted that recent research on mental spaces (cf. n. 73 above) stress
the capability of conceptual blending to function not just as depiclive or representational
(describing a prevalent situation), but also as pel.formatil'e in the sense of AUSTIN and
SEARLE, i.e. the blending process may be understood to bring about the state of affairs rep-
resented in the blended space. Further, this process need not always (or even primarily) be
linguistic, but can also be brought about by actions, depictions etc., the broad formulation
of the blending principle allowing it to cover and analyze ritual and magical activities and
their efficacy (E. SWEETSER, 'Blended spaces and perforrnativity', Cognitive Linguistics
11.3/4 (2000), pp. 305-333; cf. also J. S0RENSEN, '''The Morphology and Function of
Magic" Revisited', in I. Pyysiainen and V. Anttonen (eds.), Current Approaches in the
Cognitive Science of Religion (London and New York, 2002), pp. 177-202). It seems natu-
ral to interpret the metaphors discussed here in this light as performative representations
aiming at ensuring the regeneration of the deceased, even if they are not ritual in the strict
sense, as discussed above.

29
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

229 236 237 238 239 240 241 644 828 932
A1C H F B Fr Fr Fr T Bo
(2) (7)
G1T H F B Fr Fr Fr T
G2T B
TlBe B
T3Be B
T3C H F Fr Fr
T2L B B
T3L F B

Fig. I - Occurrences of the hymns to the coffin sides on Middle Kingdom coffins.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of copies occurring on the coffin side
in question.

Body part Proper function Relation of goddess to body part

Arms Cwy) Fr: Bo:
(2) gathered together (with feet) opens her arms to the Inert One
(CT III, 325d [241]) (CT VII, 132g-h [932])
T:
raises arms over (CT VI, 264c [644])
Ba (h3) H: -
(2) built up (CT III, 295g [229])
(2) knit together (CT III, 295a [229])
(2) not taken to the slaughterhouse
of him who eats raw meat
(CT III, 296b [229])
(a) spends the night watching over
corpse (CT III, 296i [229])
Back (s3) - B:
to whom Osiris has turned his back
(CT III, 308a; 312d [237]; 3180 [238])
Back of the head - B:
(f:z3) who is behind (f:z3t)(CT III, 307a;
308d; 311h [237]; 316k; 317e;
317j; 318k [238]; VII, 280; 29j
[828])
Belly (tzt) Fr: -
(3) filled with magic
(CT III, 321e [238])

30
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

rBody (cjt) Fr: -

(b) deceased has power over
(CT 324b [240])
B:
(2) received (CT III, 3l9c [238])
Body (~') Fr: -
(c) treated (CT III, 322b [239])
B:
(c) treated (CT III, 3l2e [237])
(2) received (CT III, 318q [238])
(2) gathered (CT III, 3191 [238])
Corpse (bJt) H: -
(a) ba shaH spend the night watching
over corpse (CT III, 296i [229])
Corruption T: -
(iwryw) (c) veiled (III, 297a [229])
(c) hidden (VI, 265b [644])
Efflux (rcjw) F: -
(2) colIected (CT III, 304e [236])
Bo:
(2) coHected (CT VII, 132j [932])
Entirety Bo: -
(of the body) (4) lifted (CT VII, 132g [932])
(tmw)

Eyes (irty) Fr: -

(5) opened (CT III, 325c; 325m [241])
Face (~r) H: Fr:
(I) knit on (CT III, 295f [229]) mistress of faces
(b) not sad (CT III, 296j [229]) (CT III, 320b [239])
(2) given (CT III, 320c, 321b [239]) to whom the Inert One has turned
(5) opened (CT III, 321g [239]) his face (CT III, 321a [239])
(2) not taken away (CT III, 323c [240]) lady of faces (CT III, 321 b [239])
Fr:
(5) opened (CT III, 325b [241])
B:
(b) mighty (CT VII, 29h [828])
Feet (rdwy) F: F:
(2) given in order to walk On whom Osiris has trodden
(CT III, 303f [236]) (CT III, 303b [236])
(2) what is in the walking of the feet Dam which is under the feet (105)
is coHected (CT III, 303g [236]) (CT III, 303e [236])

(105) GIT and AIC have 'She who is under the feet', omitting the word 'dam'.

31
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

(2) movement of feet not taken away

(CT Ill, 305b [236])
(2) threat has no power over
(CT Ill, 305f [236])
Fr:
(2) Gathered together (with arms)
(CT Ill, 325d [236])
Flesh (lwj) B: -
(2) what has issued from flesh
gathered (CT Ill, 30ge [237];
316b [238]; VIT, 29b [828]))
(2) gathered (CT Ill, 316m [238];
VIT, 291 [828])
(c) made to breathe
(CT Ill, 312b [237] TIBe; 3181 [238])
Forehead (1}3t) - H:
mistress of the forehead and neck (106)
(CT Ill, 294b [229])
Front side (1}3t) - B:
who is in front of (m 1}3t)
(CT Ill, 308b [237])
Head (tp) H: H:
(I) placed on neck (CT Ill, 295c; belongs to (or guards) the head
297j [229]) (CT III, 294a [229])
(1) not cut off (CT Ill, 296a; under head (107) (CT Ill, 295b;
296c [229]) 297i [229])
(4) lifted up (CT Ill, 297h [229]) B:
Bo: in the presence of (m tp)
[... ] (CT VII, 133h [932]) (CT III, 317d [238])
T: Fr:
(1) not cut off (CT VI, 264q [644]) on the head (I}r tp)(CT ill, 320a [239])
Heart (1}3ty) H: -
(I) not severed (CT III, 296h [229])
Interior (lb) H: -
(I) not severed (CT ill, 296h [229])
(b) not forgetful (CT III, 296k [229])
Bo:
(2) not taken (?) away
(CT VII, 133e [932])

(106) Following ne. For the same reading of the variant in G1T and Al C, see WILLEMS,
Coffin of Heqata, p. 395f, n. k.
(107) Rendering l:Jrt tp literally. For the meaning 'by the head', later simply '''beside''
in the quite special sense of a person or thing being beside a recumbent person', see
B. GUNN, 'Notes on Egyptian Lexicography', lEA 27 (1941), p. 144f.

32
 THE BODY IN THE HYMNS TO THE COFFIN SIDES

Members (\VI) H: -
(I) joined (CT III, 295e [229])
Fr:
(2) gathered (CT III, 326a [241])
B:
(4) lifted (CT III, 309d [237])
(1) gathered together
(CT III, 316m [238])
(1) assembled (CT III, 319q [238])
(I) united (CT VII, 291 [828])
- -

Mouth (1'3) H: -
(3) Hu in mouth shall not be removed
(CT III, 296g [229])
F:
(5) not sealed (CT III, 304g;
305a [236])
Fr:
(5) opened (CT III, 325c; 325m [241])
(3) what is in mouth made sound
(CT III, 321 h [239])
B:
(5) opened (CT III, 312g 1237J; 316a;
316n [2381; VII, 29a; 29m [828])
(3) offerings of the mouth given(?)
(CT VII, 29n [828])
(c) satisfied (CT VII, 29f; 29p [828])
80:
(3) what is in mouth protects
(CT VII, 133b [932])
Name (rn) H: -
(b) not forgotten (CT TIl, 296e [229])
8:
(b) known (CT III, 318q [238 J
--

Neck (wsrt) H: H:
(I) head placed on neck mistress of the forehead and neck (,OR)
(CT III, 295c; 297j [229]) (CT TIl, 294b 1229])
(1) not severed
(CT III, 296a; 296d [229])
Fr:
(I) not severed (CT III, 323d 1240])

I 'I ose (fn~f) H:

(5) breath not held back
(CT III, 298c [229])
-

(108) Cf. n. t06.

33
 EGYPTE PHARAONIQUE

Putrescence Bo: -
(~w33t) (2) gathered (CT VII, 132k [932])
(3) baled out (CT III, 297b [229];
VI, 265d [644])-
Shade (swt) H: -
(2) built up (CT III, 295a [229])
Throat (~tt) H: -
(3) Life gathered for the throat
(CT III, 295d; 297k [229])
Voice (ljrw) T: -
(b) true (VI, 2640 [644])

Fig. 2 - Occurrences of terms for body parts in the hymns to the coffin sides

LINK
Head (tp) Neck (wsrt) Members Cwt)
Face (~r) Interior (lb) Heart (~3ty)
CENTER-PERIHERY
Ba (bJ) Shade (swt) Members Cwt)
Face (~r) Feet (rdwy) Body (~')
Flesh (iwl) Body (tjt) Arms Cwy)
Efflux (rtjw) Putrescence (~w33t)

CONTAINER
Throat (~tt) - contains life Mouth (rJ) - contains Hu, Belly (ljt) - contains magic
offerings, something which
protects
Putrescence (~w33t) -
not to be contained in body

UP·DOWN
Head (tp) Members Cwt) Entirety (of the body) (tmw)
REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT / boundary of CONTAINER
Face (~r) Mouth (rJ) Eyes (lrty)

Fig. 3 - Body parts grouped according to structuring image schemata

34