Rend. Sem. Mat. Univ. Poi.

Torino
Voi. 53, 3 (1995)
Number Theory

L. Cangelmi

RESOLVENTS AND GALOIS GROUPS

Abstract. Let f(X) be a monic irreducible integrai polynomial. The modem

definitions of resolvent polynomials of f(X) are recalled, and their relations with
resolvents as classically defìned are shown. We describe several effective methods
based on resolvents for the determination of the Galois group of f(X) and for
the characterization of polynomials with given Galois group. In particular, linear
resolvents and their properties are outlined.

1. Introduction and notations

Let f{X) be a monic irreducible polynomial with integrai coefficients and degree
n. The main classical problem about f(X) was its solution, that is the expression of its
roots as functions of known quantities. In particular, functions involving only rational
operations and extractions of roots were looked for. This was completely achieved for
n < 4 already before Galois. In ali cases the solution was accomplished by the solution
of some auxiliary equations, called resolvent equations. Then, Galois introduced certain
general resolvent polynomials, called Galois resolvents, having the property that any root
of f(X) is a rational function in the roots of them [10]. It became clear that resolvent
polynomials are related to subgroups of the Galois group of f(X); therefore, some resolvent
polynomials were used to obtain conditions on the Galois group (for a complete account,
see [8, Chapters VII, IX and X]).
With the development of computing machines and of programming techniques since
the seventies, the interest for resolvent polynomials has greatly grown, due to their effective
computability. So, many interesting properties of them have been found, and practical
methods for the determination of Galois group have been outlined. Moreover, effective
characterizations of polynomials with given Galois groups have been given.
In this paper, we describe the main results in effective Galois theory which make use
of resolvent polynomials. In Section 2, we explain how the Galois group of f(X) can be
represented as a permutation group on its roots, so coming back to the originai concept of
Galois group as it was defìned by Galois. In Section 3, we give the modem definitions of
208 L Cangelmi

resultant polynomials, and we briefly explain a method to compute them. In Section 4, we

describe the effective procedure to determine the Galois group of a polynomial by means
of resolvents. In Section 5, we defìne the linear resolvents, and we show how they can be
used to give effective characterizations of the polynomials with Galois groups in a given
class of groups.
We fix the following notations which we will adòpt throughout the paper.
Let f(X) be a monic irreducible polynomial in X[X] of degree n. We shall usually
write / for f(X). Let A be the set of the n roots of / in Q and let L denote the splitting
field of / . Hence L = Q(A), that is L is obtairied from Q by adding of ali the roots of / .
Let G be the Galois group of the extension L/Q, that is the group of ali the automorphisms
of the field L which leave Q fixed element-wise. So we have G = Gal(X/Q). The group
G is also called the Galois group of the polynomial / and we write G == Ga,l(/) as well. _
Let Sn be the symmetric group on n elements, that it is the group of ali the
permutations on { 1 , . . . , n}. Then, denote the cyclic group of order ri by Zn , the dihedral
group of order 2n by Dn, and the alternating group on n elements by An. If G is a group
and H is a subgroup of G, we let G/H denote the set of the left cosets of G modulo
//, hence G/H = {gH:g E G}. If A and B are two groups, and B acts on A by
automorphisms, we let A xi B be the relative semi-direct product.
We will write partitions of positive integers in multiplicative form. Therefore,
mel1 niyr, where mi > 1 and e* > 1 for i = l , . . . , r , and r > 1, will stand for
the partition of the positive integer ]T^_i e^?^ given by e\ times mi,....., er times mr.
For a group G acting on a finite set Q of m elements, the partition of m induced by
the lengths of the orbits of £1 under the action of G is called the partition type of Q under
G. For a polynomial g 6 Q[X] of degree m, the partition of m induced by the degrees
of the irreducible factors of g over Q is called the partition type of g. Moreover, if k is a
finite extension of Q, the partition of m induced by the degrees of the irreducible factors
of g over k is called the partition type of g over k.
Any unordered set of r distinct elements is called a r-set. Any ordered set of r
distinct elements is called a ?'-sequence.

2. Permutation representation of the Galois group

The group G can be represented as a permutation group on the set of the roots A.
This means that the application
G-»Sym(A)
a »—> <r|A
is an injective group homomorphism. Therefore, we say that the group G is a (permutation)
group of degree n, the number of elements of A.
We wish to identify the Galois group of / with a subgroup of Sn- To this purpose,
Resolvents and Galois groùps 209

we need to fix an ordering of its roots: hence let A = { # i , . . . , an}. Then we can define
the following injective group homomorphism
G —> Sn
a i—• s

where s is defined by the relation

'<r(ai) = <x8(i),'fori=lì...ìn.

If we let G denote the group which is the image of G in Sn, then we have

Gal(/) ~ G.

Furthermore, G is transitive, since the polynomial / is irreducible.

We have to realize what happens if we choose a different ordering of the roots.
Suppose we fix a different ordering, A = {a[,..., a'n}: as above, there is an isomorphism
of G with a subgroup G' of Sn induced by the homomorphism
G —> Sn
a •—> s'
where s' is defined by the relation
a a
( i) = a's'(iy f o r i = l , . . . , n .

As there exists a unique permutation r E Sn such that oc\ = cxr^, for ali i = 1 , . . . , n, we
can write, for ali i— 1,..., n and for ali <r £ G:

This shows that r~lsr = s', for ali a € G, hence we have

G' = r~lGr.

Summing up, the representation of G as a permutation group on { 1 , . . . , n} is defined

up to conjugation. In fact, taking different orderings of the roots is the same as considering
equivalent representations of G a s permutation group on -{1,..., n}.

3. Resolvent polynomials
In this section, we give the more general definition of resolvent polynomials: we
start with the classical definition, and then we give the modem defìnition, showing the
relation between them. Firstly, it is necessary to define the action of the symmetric group
Sn on the integrai polynomials in n indeterminates.
210 L. Cangelmì

3.1. Action of Sn on 'L[X\Ì..., Xn]

For s e Sn and F € Z[XU ... ,Xn], define the polynomial sF e 7L[XXì...,Xn]:
sF(X1:... ,Xn) := F(yY5(!),. ..,A^( n )).
So we nave an action of Sn on Z[X\,..., X n ].
Now fix F . Let 5 n • F = {Fi, . . . , Fm} be the orbit of F and let fif = Stab(F)
be the stabilizer of F. In such a case, we say that "F belongs to S"' or that "F is a
S-polynomial". Furthermore, we know that there exists a set of representatives of Sn/S,
say {«!,.,., sm}, such that Fj = SJF, for j = 1 , . . . , m.
More generally, we can fix a subgroup H of Sn and consider the action of H on
Z[XU..., Xn]. lfH-F-= {F{,..., F^,} is the orbit of F and if SH is the stabilizer
of F in # (hence SH = 5 n # ) , we say that "F belongs to 5 ^ in ^ " or that "F is a _
S'H-polynomial in H". Furthermore, there exists a set of representatives of H/SH, say
{s[,..., s'm,}, such that F-, = s'^F, for j ' = 1 , . . . , ??/.
Given any subgroup T of S'n, it is always possible to exhibit a T-polynomial: for
example [19], take the polynomial

However, the number of terms of this polynomial is equal to |T| and its degree is n ( n + l ) / 2 ,
hence it is not of practical use in effective calculations. For groups T of small degree,
T-polynomials of small degree and few terms are well known. In general, the problem of
determining T-polynomials of small degree and with few terms is quite difficult and has
been deeply dealt with by Girstmair [11, 12, 13].

3 2. Classiceli definitions
In the classic literature, a rational resolvent polynomial (a resolvent, for short) of
f(X) is any irreducible polynomial g(X) G Q[X] which splits into linear factors in L[X].
In other words, ali the roots of g belong to the splitting field of / , that is they can be
written as rational functions of the roots of / [15; 22, §§152 and 162].
In particular, a Galois resolvent of / is an irreducible polynomial g E Q[X] such
that L = Q((3), for any root (3 of g. The best known Galois resolvents are the minimal
polynomials of certain elements of the kind miai -\ \-mnan, with mi,..., mn rational
integers.
On the other hand, an irrational resolvent polynomial of / is any irreducible
polynomial g £ Q[X] which splits into linear factors over some finite extension E of
L. In other words, ali the roots of g belong to a finite extension E of the splitting field of
/ , that is they can be written as rational functions of the roots of / and of finitely more
algebraic numbers [16].
Resolvents and Galois groups 211

A well known example of irrational resolvents are the Lagrange resolvents, whose
roots ali belong to the fìeld £((), where ( is a suitable root of unity.
Now, let g(X) be a resolvent of f(X): we can assume that g is monic and with
integrai coeffìcients. Let /? be one of its roots and suppose tofixsome ordering of the
roots of'/: then /? = F(ai,... , a n ) , for some polynomial F £ Q[Xi,... ,Xn], and we
can assume that F e %[Xi,... ,Xn]. Note that since (3 e L, G acts on it. On the other
hand, if we let G denote the isomorphic image of G in Sn induced by the fixed ordering
of the roots, G acts on the indices of the cti's. Hence, for any a e G, letting s denote its
image in G, we have:

<Tj3=<TF(aii...,an) = F(<r(ai)ì...ìcr(an)) =
F(as(i),..., «,(„)) = sF(ai,..., an)

Now, consider the following polynomial

Y[(X-ap)='[[(X-8F(àlì.;.ìan)):

it is left fixed by ali elements of G, hence it has rational (integrai) coeffìcients. It follows
that it is a multiple of g, which is the minimal polynomial of /3. Then, letting.5 = Stab(F),
it is obvious that g divides also

Y[ (X -sF(alì...,an))ì
seo/snG

which has rational (integrai) coeffìcients as well. Furthermore, with analogous arguments,
we can prove that g must divide also the following two rational (integrai) polynomials:

Y[ (X -sF(au...,an)),
sesn

and, as a consequence,

JJ (X~sF(a1,...,an)).
sesn/s

AH this shows the reason for introducing the slightly different definitions of resolvents
given below.

3.3. Modem definitions

Fix a polynomial F e 7L\X\,..., Xn] and use the notations above. Fix an ordering
212 L. Cangelmi

of the roots of/. We define the resolvent of / with respect to F [19],

R(FJ)(X):= JI (X-sF(a1,...ìan))
s£Sn/S
m
= Y[(X—sjF(alì...ìan))
3=1
m

J= l

i2(F, / ) is a monic polynomial of degree [£„ : S], with integrai coefficients. In fact, since
R(F, / ) is left fixed by any permutation of the roots of / , its coefficients are symmetric
polynomials in the roots of / , hence they can be written as integrai polynomials in the
elementary symmetric polynomials of the roots of / , that is in the coefficients of / .
Furthermore, it is easily seen that the definition of R(F, / ) does not depend on the choice
of the ordering of the roots of / .
If we fix an ordering of the roots of / , the group G is uniquely determined. So we
can fix a subgroup H of Sn such that G C H. Keeping in force the above notations, we
can define the resolvent of / with respect to F in H,

RH(FJ)(X): =H (X-sF(a1,...,an))

m'
= H(X-s'jlF(a1,...,an))

m'
= l[(X-F},{all...iQn)):
j'-i

Rii(F,f) is a monic polynomial of degree [H : SH], and it has integrai coefficients as

well. In fact, RH{F,J) is left fixed by any element in G, because G C H, hence it is left
fixed by any element of the Galois group G. It follows that the coefficients of Rfj(F,f)
are rational, so, being algebraic integers, they are rational integers. Note that the definition
of RH(F, f) does depend on the choice of the ordering of the roots of / (on the other
hand, the choice of H alréady depends on the ordering).

3.4. Computation of resolvents

We have already observed that the coefficients of R(F, f) can be written as integrai
polynomials in the coefficients of / . So, it would be theoretically possible to write down
such polynomials, for any given F. Nevertheless, for large n such polynomials turn out
to be of high degree and with large coefficients. Hence, in practice, a different method is
followed for the computation of the resolvents. This method profits by the fact that the
Resolvents and Galois groups 213

coefficients of R(F, f) are rational integers. We fìx some numerical approximations of the
roots of / , { a i , . . . ,a„}, and we compute the following product (Sn acts on the a,;'s by
permuting their indices in the same way as it does on the a^-'s):

Jl.(X-8F(àli...ìan)).
s€Sn/S

If the above approximations are "accurate enough", then the coefficients of this product are
approximations of the coefficients of R(F, f) within an absolute error less than 1/2. So,
they uniquely determine the coefficients of R(F, / ) , which we know to be rational integers
[19].
Such a method can be also applied to the computation of Rn{F,f). However, in
this case, we have to make the representation of G as permutation group on A explicit:
that is, we have to explicitly determine G in relation with the chosen ordering of the roots
of/.

4. Empirical determination of Galois groups

Fix an ordering of the roots of / , so that the group G is determined. Then,
fix F e Z[Xi,... ,X n ], and let S be the stabilizer of F under the action of Sn. Put
R = R(F, / ) and let m be the degree of R. We can assume that R is square-free (i.e. it
has only distinct roots): indeed, if this is not the case, we can change / by means of a
Tschirnhausen transformation [7; 8, §117; 22, §58], so that the splitting field L is preserved
(hence G is preserved as well) and the respective resolvent R has distinct roots. Then, G
acts on the roots of R, and, since these roots are ali distinct, the action is equivalent to the
action of G on {sF: s £ Sn}.

PROPOSITION 1. [7, 18] The action ofG on the roots of R is equivalent to the
action of G on Sn • F. This action, in turn, is equivalent to the action of G on Sn/S.
Since the orbits of the roots of R under the action of G are equal to the sets of the
roots of the irreducible factors of R over Q, we have the following result.

COROLLARY 2. [7, 18] The partition type of R is equal to the partition type of
Sn /S under G.
If there exists an orbit of Sn/S under G with only one element, then G is contained
in a conjugate of S. Therefore, we deduce the following.

COROLLARY 3. [19] R has a rational (integrai) mot ifand only ifG is contained
in a conjugate of S.
With respect to any ordering of the roots of / , we know that the subgroup G of Sn
is transitive. Therefore, if G is different from Sn, then it is contained in some maximal
transitive subgroup of Sn. Fix an ordering of the roots of / and let M be a maximal
214 L. Cangelmi

transitive subgroup of Sn. Then, let F be a M-polynomial and let R = R(F,f), which
we assume to be square-free. Then, by Corollary (3), R has a rational root if and only if
G is contained in a conjugate of M.
Letting M vary among ali the maximal transitive subgroups of 5 n , there are two
possible cases: either we will find one of them containing G up to conjugacy or not. In
the latter case, it follows that G = Sn. In the former case, if M is the located group, we
deduce that, after a suitable re-ordering of the roots of / , the respective G is contained
in M. Then, we repeat this procedure as follows: we consider the maximal transitive
subgroups N of M, we fix some respective polynomials FN left fixed by N in M, we
compute the respective resolvents RNÌFN,/) (which we assume to be square-free) and
we verify if they have a rational root (Corollary (3) can be generalized to resolvents like
R'H(Fìf) in a n obvious way). So, we deduce whether G is equal to M; if this is not
the case, we will find a subgroup N of M containing G up to conjugacy. We iterate
the procedure until we locate G among ali the transitive subgroups of 5„; moreover, the
respective ordering of the roots of / turns out to be determined too. For an outline of this
method see [19], and for a precise implementation of it see [7].
In order to practically apply this method, it is necessary to know the structure of
the lattice of the transitive subgroups of Sn, up to conjugacy. Nowadays, this is known for
n < 15 [3, 4, 17]. For general n, such structure is not known; anyway, we know that An
is a maximal transitive (normal) subgroup of Sn.
l,n
EXAMPLE: An. For any n > 2, an yln-polynomial is F = TT(^» — Xj)-

For any / of degree n, R(F, f) = X2 - £)/, where.D/ is the discriminant of / . So

we have: G C An if and only if Df is the square of a rational integer.

EXAMPLE: n'.= 4. The lattice of the transitive subgroups of S4, up to conjugacy, is

the following:

A4
A D4

\ / \
7/2 x Z2 Z4
Examining the discriminant of / , we can see whether G is contained in A4 or not.
Regarding the other maximal subgroup, X1X3 + X2X4 proves to be a L>4-polynomial; by
Resolvents and Galois groups 215

examining the respective resolvent, we can check whether G C D4. If G is contained in

neither of the two maximal transitive subgroups, then G = £4; if G is contained in both .A4
and DA, then G — Z2 x Z2. If G is contained only in D 4 , in order to fìnd whether G — D4
or G = Z4, we take a Z4-polynomial in D 4 , e.g. X i X | + vY2X| + X3X2 + X4XJ, and
we consider the resolvent of / with respect to it (for the computation of such resolvent it
is necessary to re-order the roots of / in a compatible way).
EXAMPLE: n = 5. The lattice of the transitive subgroups of 65, up to conjugacy,
is the following:

A
\ /

Db

Z5

As above, it is possible to describe an effective procedure to determine the Galois

group of a polynomial / of degree 5. Here we limit ourselves to report an effective
condition to determine whether / is solvable by radicals. We first note that ali the
transitive solvable subgroups of S5 are contained in F20 — Z5XZ4, the meta-cyclic
group of degree 5; so it suffices to fìnd a i^o-polynomial. For example [1], we can
take F = (X1 - X2f{X2 - X3)2(X3 - XAf(XA - X5)2(X5 - X,)2 + (X1 - X3)2(X3 -
X&)2(Xs - X2)2(X2 - XA)2{XA - Xx)2. Then, we compute R = 72(F, / ) , a polynomial
of degree 6, and if R is square-free we get: / is solvable by radicals if and only if R has
a rational integrai root.

5. Linear resolvents
The linear resolvents are the resolvents with respect to polynomials F which are
linear in X\,... ,Xn. We will consider two major classes of linear resolvents: there
are the ones with F = X\ + • • • + Xr, for some r e { 1 , . . . ,rc}, and the ones with
F = eiXi + h erXr, for some r G {1,. •., n}, where eu . . . , er are distinct rational
non-zero integers. For the sake of briefness, we shall say that the former ones are linear
resolvents of the first kind, while the latter ones are linear resolvents of the second kind.
216 L Cangelmi

For both kinds of linear resolvents, the results of the previous section keep holding true.
Moreover, we will see that they can be interpreted in further different ways. On the other
side, they can be computed symbolically, by means of the resultant polynomials. Their
importance was first pointed out by McKay and Soicher [18], the resolvents of the first
kind have been widely used by Bruen, Jensen and Yui [2, 14], while Williamson [23, 24]
and the author [5] used the resolvents of the second kind.
We wish to state Corollary (2) in the case of linear resolvents in a slightly different
form, because of its importance. We need the following simple lemma.

LEMMA 4. [18] Let T be a subgroup of Sn. Then we have:

(1) The action ofT on the Sn-orbit of X\ + • • • + Xr is equivalent to the action ofT
on ali the r-sets of { 1 , . . . , n}.
(2) Letting e i , . . . ,e r be distinct rational non-zero integers, the action of T on the
Sn-orbit of e,\X\ -f • • • -f erXr is equivalent to the action ofT on ali the r-sequences of
{l,...,n}.
Applying this lemma to the group G and using Corollary (2), we have the following.

PROPOSITION 5. [18] Let G a permutation representation ofGaì(f) on the roots

of f. Then we have:
(1) Let R = R(Xi + • • • + XTì / ) , for 2 < r < n, and assume that R is square-free.
The partition type of R is equal to the partition type of the r-sets of "{1,..., ri)
under the action of G.
(2) Let R = R{e\X\ -f • • • + erXr,f), for 2 < r < n, where e\ì...,er are distinct
rational non-zero integers, and assume that R is square-free. The partition type of R is
equal to the partition type of the r-sequences of {1, , n} under the action of G.
The last Proposition has a direct application for the determination of the Galois
group of a polynomial. In fact, for a given n, we first study the action of every (up to
conjugacy) transitive subgroup of Sn on the r-sets and r-sequences of { 1 , . . . , n}; so we
obtain a list for the respective partition types. Then, given a polynomial / of degree n,
we compute a linear resolvent R of one of the two kinds, then we factor R over Q, thus
obtaining its partition type. Comparing such partition with the possible partition types in
the list, we can reduce the set of possible candidates for G.

EXAMPLE: n = 7 [7, 18]. In the following table, in the first column there are
the transitive groups of degree 7, up to conjugacy, while in the second column we have
the respective partition types induced by their action on the set of the 35 unordered triplets
Resolvents and Galois groups 217

of{l,2,...,7}.
?5
z7
Di 73 • 14
F21 72 • 21
F42 14-21
PSL2{7) 7 • 28
A7 35
s7 35

Then, given any irreducible polynomial / of degree 7, we compute the linear

resolvent R = R(X\ + X 2 + X 3 , / ) and we factor it, so getting a partition of 35. Comparing
this partition with the possible partitions listed above, we succeed in determining the Galois
group of / , unless it is A7 or 57; but in this case, in order to determine G, we have just
to check whether the discriminant of / is a square or not.

NOTE. The linear resolvents may be replaced by the following resolvents for
what concerns their partition types, since Proposition (5) keeps holding true for these new
resolvents (of course, the action of Sn on X\ + • • • Xn is equivalent to its action on
X\'" Xn, while the action on e\Xi + • • • enXn is equivalent to that on X^1 • • • X^n -
here, since, the e^'s may be negative, we let Sn act on Q(Xi,..., Xn) in the obvious way):

R{XX • • • Xr, / ) , in place of R(XX + • • • + Xr, f),

RiX^-.'X^J), in place of i2(ciA-i + ... + e r X r , / ) .

In the rest of this section, we will state ali the results for the very linear resolvents, but it
is clear that the results are valid for these new resolvents as well.

5.7. Symbolic computation of linear resolvents

Soicher observed that the computation of linear resolvents can be reduced to the
computation of some resultants (see [23]). Since a method for the symbolic computation
of resultants is known, we are able to symbolically compute the linear resolvents. This
fact is of great importance, because it permits us to compute the linear resolvents even
for parametric families of integrai polynomials, that is for polynomials with coefficients in
Z[i\.
To illustrate the relations between resolvents and resultants, we will exhibit the
formulas for r = 2.
We recali the definition of the resultant of two polynomials [21, Sections 27 and
28]. Let <p(X) and il>(X) be two polynomials with integrai coefficients in some field k, of
218 L. Cangelmi

respective degrees r and s, and assume that we ha ve in some algebraic closure of k:

<p(X) = a(X-aì)..-(X-ar)
iP(X) = b(X-b1)--.(X-bs).
Then the resultant of ip and 0 with respect to the indeterminate X is
r s
s r
res*(y>, ip) := a b J J jj(a,' - bj).

On the other hand, there exist several methods to symbolically compute such resultant. The
best known method says that the resultant is equal to the determinant of a certain matrix,
the Sylvester matrix, of order r + s, whose non-zero elements are the coefficients of <f>(X)
and ip(X).
As a first step, observe that, given <p(X) and ip(X) as above, and assuming
a == b = 1, the monic polynomial of degree r + s whose roots are a?; -f bj, for i = 1 , . . . , r
and i = 1 , . . . , s, can be computed as follows:
r s

II U(X - (fl- + 6i» = vesY(<p(Y)^(X - Y)).

Likewise, the polynomial of degree r + s whose roots are ciibj, for i = 1,... , r and
j ~ 1 , . . . , s, can be computed as follows:
V S

nn(^-^) = ray(^),r^/y)).
Thus, we may write down the following formulas, where e ^ 0,1:
reSy(/(y),/(x-y))\1/2
R(X1+X2,f)(X) =

( rrw(f(Y\ f(X + Y))

fl(X1+eX2,/)(X)=^ } }
// % l,i}„, ^ (otherwise)
(1 + e)"f(X/(l + e))
mx x n m f^r(f(Y),Ynf(X/Y))\1/2
li(AlAj /)m
' - l resy(/(F),X - Y>). J
i-e S y (/(y),X"/(Y/,Y)) nf „= _ n

***'•/)(A} - < ^ m n m (otherwlSe

(otherwise)
resy(/(y),X-y'+') >
For r > 3, with analogous arguments, we get similar formulas, of course more
involved (see also [6]).
Resolvents and Galois groups 219

5.2. Linear resolvents of thefirstkind

Some classes of groups are characterized by means of their action on r-sets and
then we have the interpretation of this in terms of the factorization of linear resolvents of
the first kind.

EXAMPLE: CYCLIC AND DIHEDRAL GROUPS OF PRIME DEGREE p. Among

the permutation groups of prime degree p, the cyclic group Zp and the dihedral group Dp
are characterized by the following properties: they are transitive groups which act on the
2-sets of { 1 , . . . ,p} determining (p - l)/2 orbits, ali of length p.
Let / be a monic irreducible polynomial, with integrai coefficients and of prime
degree p > 3. Let R = R(Xi + X2,f) (R always proves to be square-free). Being /
irreducible, its Galois group has order divisible by p, hence it contains an element of order
p, and is therefore transitive. Interpreting the above characterization for Zp and Dp in
terms of the partition type of R, we have the following.

THEOREM 6. [14] G — Zp or Dp ifand only ifthe partition type of R is p(p~1^2.

EXAMPLE: FROBENIUS GROUPS OF PRIME DEGREE p. A transitive group

of prime degree p is solvable if and only if it is isomorphic to the semi-direct produci
ZP~AZ\, for some / | p — 1, with Z\ acting by conjugation on Zp fixed-point-freely (that
is, it Zi = (r), the conjugation by r on Zp leaves only the identity fìxed); such groups
are also called Frobenius groups of degree p and they are denoted by Fp\. Among the
permutation groups of degree p, the Frobenius groups are characterized by the following
properties:
(a) Fp(p_ij is sharply 2-transitive.
(b) Fpi is transitive, but not 2-transitive, if / < p — 1.
Let / be a monic irreducible polynomial, with integrai coefficients and of degree p;
let #2 = R{Xi + X2,f) and R3 = R(XX + X2 + X3, f) (R2 and R3 always prove to be
square-free). A careful consideration of the possible cases l — p — l, l — (p — l)/2, and
/ < (p — l)/2 leads to the following general result.

THEOREM 7. [2] For p > 13, G is Frobenius (or, equivalently, G is solvable) if.
and only if either R2 is irreducible and R3 has at least three distinct irreducible factors
or R2 is reducible.

5.3. Linear resolvents of the second kind

The factorization of the linear resolvents of the second kind admits an interesting
interpretation in relation to the factorization of the polynomial / over some subfields of
its splitting fìeld L. This interpretation was pointed out by the author [5], and it was also
used by Williamson in [24]. It is founded on Trager's algorithm for the factorization of
220 L. Cangelmi

polynomials over number fields [20] (see also [21, Section 42]).
PROPOSITION 8. [5] Let f £ X[X] be a monic irreducible polynomial ofdegree ri.
Let a be a root of f and R= R(X\ + eX2, / ) , far some e ^ 0,1 such that R is square-
free. Then, every irreducible factor of f over Q(a), different from X — a and ofdegree d,
corresponds to an irreducible factor ofR over Q, ofdegree nd. Therefore, the partition type
off overQ(a) is I n i • • • nt ifandonly ifthe partition type of RoverQ is (nrii) • • • (nnt).
We must observe that R(X\ -f- eX2, / ) is not square-free for only finitely many
integers e (see, e.g., [23]).
EXAMPLE: NORMAL POLYNOMIALS. An irreducible polynomial / of degree ri
is normal if and only if one (and therefore, any) of its roots is a primitive element for the
splitting fìeld L. Thus, if we fìx a root a of / , any other root can be written as a polynomial
(of degree < n — 1, with rational coefficients) of a; furthermore, the fìeld Q(a) is equal to
L, and so the extension Q(a)/Q is normal (the definition of normal polynomials originates
from this fact). An equivalent definition of normal polynomial is that the Galois group
of / has order equal to n (hence, it is a regular group when considered as a permutation
group on the roots of / ) . Thus, if / is a normal polynomial and a is one of its roots, /
must split into linear factors over Q(a).
PROPOSITION 9. [5,18] The polynomial f is normal if and only ifthe partition
n 1
type of R is n ~ .
EXAMPLE: GENERALIZED DIHEDRAL GROUPS OF ODD DEGREE. A generalized
dihedral group is a semi-direct produci AxZ2, where A is an abelian group and Z2 acts,
by conjugation, on A by inverse (i.e. if Z2 = (r) and x E A, xT — x~l).
Let / be an irreducible monic polynomial, with integrai coefficients and of odd
degree n; then, let R = R(X± •+• eX2ìf), for some e ^ 0,1 such that R is square-free.
It is easy to prove that if the Galois group is generalized dihedral of order 2n, then the
partition type of / over Q(a) is 1 • 2(~n~1^2, where a is one of the roots of / . Then,
Williamson shows that also the converse holds true.

THEOREM 10. [23, 24] G is a generalized dihedral group, G — Ay\Z2, with

\A\ = n, if and only ifthe partition type of R is (2npn~1^2.
EXAMPLE: FROBENIUS GROUPS WITH COMPLEMENT OF PRIME ORDER. A
Frobenius group with complement of prime order p is a semi-direct product Ny\Zp, with
Zp acting by conjugation on N fixed-point-freely (i.e. if Zp = (r) and x £ N, then
xT - x if and only if x — 1). It necessarily follows that N is nilpotent (a famous result of
Thompson) and, if n is its order, that p\n — ì.
As usuai, let / be a monic irreducible polynomial, with integrai coefficients and of
degree ??,; then, let R = R(Xi + eX2,f), for some e ^ 0,1 such that R is square-free.
 Resolvents and Galois groups 221

As in the previous case, if the Galois group is Frobenius of order pn with complement of
order p, then the partition type of / over Q(a) is 1 • p( n_1 )/p, where a is a root of /..
Applying some ideas of Williamson [24] to the effective characterization given in [5], we
can show that the converse holds true as well, under an essential further condition.

THEOREM 11. (see [5, 24]) G is Frobenius with complement of prime order
p, G = N-AZP, with \N\ = n, if and only if the partition type of R is (pn)( n ~ 1 )/ p and
[L : Q] = pn.
The latter condition may be effectively verified in several ways, one of which relies
on the factorization of another linear resolvent of the second kind.

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Leonardo CANGELMI
Dipartimento di Metodi e Modelli Matematici per le Scienze Applicate
Università di Roma "La Sapienza"
Via A. Scarpa, 16
00161 Roma, Italy.