Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482

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Monitoring dynamic and quasi-static deformations of large flexible

engineering structures with GPS: Accuracy, limitations and promises
A. Nickitopoulou, K. Protopsalti, S. Stiros ∗
Geodesy and Geodetic Applications Lab., Department of Civil Engineering, University of Patras, GR 26500, Patras, Greece

Received 21 April 2005; received in revised form 2 February 2006; accepted 2 February 2006
Available online 29 March 2006

Abstract

During the last few years the kinematic versions (real time kinematic (RTK) and post-processing kinematic (PPK) modes) of the satellite Global
Positioning System (GPS) have been used to monitor quasi-static and dynamic deformations of large slender engineering structures. However,
the accuracy of the method, the outlier level (including missed and false alarms) and its limitations have not been statistically determined. For
this reason we made a large number of experiments, in which harmonic movements were simulated by a rotating GPS receiver antenna, and the
recorded coordinates were compared with the real ones. The outcome of this study is that in mid-latitude regions (ϕ < 50◦ ) a simple monitoring
system consisting of two GPS receivers and a commercial data processing software permits a standard accuracy of up to 15 mm and 35 mm in
horizontal and vertical coordinates, respectively, at 1.5% outlier level. Harmonic frequencies in the range 0.1 Hz < f < 0.5 Hz to approximately
2 Hz can also be determined.
Summarizing previous research, an outcome of this study is that GPS results can be confirmed by accelerometer data and can shed light on
problems such as Karman vortex vibrations, earthquake-induced oscillations and quasi-static deformations of most slender engineering structures.
In addition, the GPS may prove very useful in view of recent trends for displacement deformation-based antiseismic design.
c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: GPS; Accuracy; Monitoring; Flexible structure; Static; Quasi-static; Dynamic; Displacement; Deformation; Measurement

1. Introduction
The GPS (Global Positioning System) satellite technology
was originally introduced for navigation, but as its high
accuracy was soon recognized, it was adopted for conventional
geodetic surveys and subsequently for seismological and
other geological studies (e.g. Larson and Agnew [1]). The
GPS had an enormous success in determining abrupt seismic
movements and very slow displacements, as well as for the
first time perhaps in documenting deformations of some major
engineering structures, such as small temperature-induced
displacements of major arch dams (Behr et al. [2]). This
success motivated its application in the study of more rapid
displacements, for instance recording the displacements of
bridges and other slender engineering structures (Lovse et al.
[3]; Ashkenazi and Roberts [4]; Brown et al. [5]; Roberts et al.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2610 997877; fax: +30 2610 997877.
E-mail address: stiros@upatras.gr (S. Stiros).
[6]; Nakamura [7]; Ogaja et al. [8]; Ge et al. [9]; Breuer et al.
[10]; Tamura et al. [11]; Brownjohn et al. [12]; Li et al. [13]).
In some cases the GPS was fully incorporated in the monitoring
of major suspension bridges (Wong et al. [14]), especially some
very slender ones, in which oscillations caused traffic problems
(Xu et al. [15]).
There are however many differences in a methodology for
identification of the coordinates of a static and of a moving
receiver. In the so-called “static” mode, the GPS antenna, fixed
in a certain position, receives information continuously sent
by a number of satellites during a certain period. Hence its
coordinates can be determined as an “average value” with an
accuracy of up to a few millimetres following the correction
of short-period errors affecting GPS (for instance delays in the
atmosphere, reflected signals, etc.). In the “kinematic” mode,
corrections to the signals of the moving receiver (“rover”)
are calculated from another, simultaneously operating “base”
receiver fixed in a nearby position, or in lower accuracy
surveys, from relatively remote receivers. Such necessary

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c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2006.02.001
1472 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
corrections and computation of coordinates can be either
in real-time (known as real-time kinematic, RTK, with the
receivers connected by radio-link or a wire), or following
computer processing (post-processing kinematic, PPK).
GPS positioning therefore is a promising tool in civil
engineering: absolute coordinates of points and subsequently
displacements can be computed directly, and not through
double integration of accelerometer data, a process introducing
much bias (Nakamura [7]; Wang et al. [16]), while quasi-static
displacements like those induced by the wind and not detected
by accelerometers can also be recorded (Nakamura [7]). In
addition, kinematic GPS is fully operational at a minimum
recording rate of 1–5 Hz, permitting safe identification of
dominant frequencies of most major flexible engineering
structures ( f < 0.5 Hz), even modelling of earthquake
waveforms (Miyazaki et al. [17]), while GPS data recordings
at the level of 20–100 Hz may permit the GPS to play the role
of a seismograph (Ge et al. [9]).
However, the accuracy of GPS kinematic surveys has not
yet been fully assessed. Some authors consider it rather a priori
granted (Nakamura [7]); others infer it from non-systematic
experiments (Tamura et al. [11]; Breuer et al. [10]), or simply by
splitting signals obtained by the same antenna to two different,
though identical processors (Xu et al. [15]), and hence rather
testing the processor operation and ignoring all satellite signal
distortions. In addition, the very significant problem of outliers
(including missed or false alarms) has been rarely recognized
(Brown et al. [5]). Furthermore, published results refer to two
different techniques (RTK and PPK) producing confusion for
non-specialists, while in some cases sophisticated software and
hardware, not useful for conventional engineering projects,
were used.
In order to contribute to a solution of these problems, in
this article we summarize a large number of experiments made
to define the tolerance, i.e. accuracy, limitations and potential,
of simple GPS commercial instruments and software to record
harmonic movements. Our specific focus was to examine (1)
whether the post-processing kinematic (PPK) and the real-time
kinematic (RTK) techniques can be used to record movements
of slender engineering structures (high-rise buildings, bridges,
antennas, etc.); (2) what is the level of accuracy of these
techniques; and (3) what is the frequency, amplitude and
duration of outliers (including both false alarms and missed
events) occurring during measurements.
Based on such evidence we conclude that GPS data can
shed some light on problems such as Karman vortex vibrations,
earthquake-induced oscillations and nearly static deformations
of slender engineering structures.
2. Main sources of errors in GPS-derived coordinates
The principle of operation of GPS is to compute the
coordinates of a point (receiver antenna) representing the apex
of an inverted pyramid, the base of which is defined by
usually more than four satellites, the coordinates of which
are accurately known. The length of the pyramid sides is
calculated from the time required by the GPS signal to reach
the receiver. However, this signal contains errors, and for this
reason calculation of the receiver coordinates is not a simple
geometric problem—for instance each set of three sides would
lead to a different estimate of the receiver coordinates!
To improve positioning accuracy, satellites transmit signals
in different frequencies, but only dual frequency, more
expensive receivers can analyze all of them.
The quality of GPS measurements depends on certain
factors, mainly the satellite visibility, availability and geometry,
the quality of the signal sent, and the delays caused by GPS
waves crossing the ionosphere and the troposphere, as well as
secondary reflections of the satellite signals. A receiver needs
a clear skyview, and hence the GPS cannot be used indoors,
while poor results are only expected in canyons or in streets
surrounded by high buildings. In mid-latitudes (ϕ < 50◦ )
a minimum of six satellites are usually available for most
(usually >80%) of the time at constellations permitting high
quality positioning. In higher latitude areas, in contrast, satellite
availability is limited, and they are in a geometry leading to
lower quality results (Breuer et al. [10]). Furthermore, accuracy
in horizontal coordinates is much higher than in vertical ones.
For all these reasons efforts are being made to increase the
number and improve the geometry of geodetic satellites and
of their signals, and even launch another system of geodetic
satellites, independent of the GPS satellites administrated by
the US Navy; this is indeed the aim of the European Galileo
mission, still at non-operational level.
Finally, receivers near water reservoirs, metal or other
reflecting surfaces (piers, cables and the deck of suspension
bridges for instance) tend to receive not only signals directly
from the satellites, but also signals reflected from such surfaces
(“multipath effect”), inserting much noise.
The selection of receiver location, and the duration of
measurements, as well as software exclusion of low-quality
measurements or signals (including “cut-off angles”, i.e. rays
at very low angles relative to the horizon and subject to strong
atmospheric etc. effects) permit the control these sources of
error.
3. Methods to assess the accuracy of GPS kinematic
techniques
A main characteristic of conventional geodetic techniques is
that the estimation of certain variables (angles, lengths, coordi-
nates, etc.) is not simply based on repeated measurements, from
which an average value and its precision (i.e. the mean offset of
measurements from their average value) can be computed, but
on redundant observations and on geometric constraints (for in-
stance the sum of angles in plane triangles should equal 180◦),
a process defining the accuracy of the estimators, i.e. the offset
from their “true” values (Mikhail and Ackermann [18]).
In the case of GPS observations, coordinates are computed
independently for each station; this is the major advantage of
the method, for errors do not propagate and accumulate, as
is the case with conventional geodetic measurements (Mikhail
and Ackermann [18]); this is also a major shortcoming, for the
quality of computed coordinates is defined by the repeatability
 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
of observations, and not from their accuracy, which can be
defined only from a comparison with independent estimates
(i.e. estimates obtained with different instruments; Larson and
Agnew [1]; Savage et al. [19]; Edwards et al. [20]; Kapovic
et al. [21]; Tamura et al. [11]). Interestingly, the ratio between
accuracy (i.e. “true” value) and precision (computed average
value) range in GPS data can be large, even of the order of 15
or so (see Cocard et al. [22])!
In static surveys (i.e. with receivers static or nearly static,
such as moving with very low velocities, of up to a few
millimetres per day), especially in permanently operating
networks, the GPS accuracy was mainly proved from the
internal consistency of a very large amount of data collected
over long periods of time; this became possible mostly due to
the elimination of short-period or sporadic errors (Shimada and
Bock [23]; Hartinger and Brunner [24]; Mao et al. [25]; Dong
et al. [26]). Still, some small systematic errors usually remain,
as the comparison between GPS and conventional geodetic
measurements reveals (Larson and Agnew [1]; Savage et al.
[19]).
In most kinematic surveys (i.e. with one or more receivers
moving) on the contrary, no repeatability of observations is
obviously possible, and the quality of GPS results can only be
estimated using three different approaches.
First, from a qualitative approach, to examine whether the
obtained results seem reasonable. Second, from a comparison
between spectra or other displacement parameters calculated
from GPS and other independent (geodetic, accelerometers,
etc.) methods. Third, from a comparison between recorded and
real (known) parameters of the movement determined by GPS
receivers. Clearly, this last approach is the only one that can
provide unbiased estimates of the accuracy of the method.
All three methods have been used in the past, both for PPK
and RTK GPS techniques, but mostly at a preliminary level.
For instance, Ashkenazi and Roberts [4] and Brown et al. [5]
found that the geodetic estimates of the displacement of the
deck of the Humber Bridge excited by traffic loads agree with
those predicted by FEM analysis. In the second case, Celebi
and Sanli [27] found a similarity in the estimates of the natural
frequency of a building deduced from GPS recordings and
an accelerometer record during an earthquake. Lekidis et al.
[28] also arrived at a similar conclusion on the basis of the
comparison of the spectra of a suspended bridge derived from
independent accelerometer, GPS and robotic total station data.
Finally, concerning the third method, various authors have
reported experiments in which GPS receiver antennas were
moving in pre-determined trajectories, linear or circular, and the
accuracy of GPS was computed from the differences between
recorded and real coordinates of the rover receiver. Elosegui
et al. [29] analyzed recordings of a quasi-static linear motion
(1 mm/h), while Hartinger and Brunner [24] and Tamura
et al. [11] reported a quantitative agreement between real
linear (unidirectional or palindromic) and recorded movements.
Preliminary estimations of the GPS accuracy based on a
comparison of recorded and real coordinates of a rover
receiver moving along horizontal circular orbits of constant
angular velocity are also available (Edwards et al. [20]; Breuer
1473
Fig. 1. A cartoon to explain the experimental device used in this study. The
rover receiver antenna is forced to move in a predetermined circular orbit (pre-
adjusted constant angular velocity and radius) on a horizontal plane around a
station fixed in all 88 experiments discussed here. The battery is at an anti-
diametric position permitting equilibrium and unobstructed rotation. The base
receiver is also in a fixed station, with coordinates determined by static surveys
and inserted in all computations.
et al. [10]; Nickitopoulou et al. [30]; Protopsalti et al. [31];
Vanstone [32]).
4. Design of experiments
The aim of this study was (1) to simulate harmonic
movements of slender engineering structures by numerous
experiments in which a rover GPS receiver antenna was moving
on horizontal, circular orbits of constant angular velocity in
a test device, and (2) to compare recorded coordinates of the
receiver with the known parameters of the rotation.
The majority of our experiments were made in two fixed
stations, permitting unlimited skyview, on the roof of the three-
storey Reinforced Concrete building of the Department of Civil
Engineering, Patras University (main test site with approximate
coordinates ϕ = 38◦ 5 N, λ = 21◦ 45 E).
During all experiments both the centre of rotation of the
rover antenna and the base receiver were fixed in nearby
positions. The precise coordinates of one of these stations
were computed by static GPS measurements and inserted in
all subsequent analyses. Since the number of experiments was
large (a few hundreds) and they were made under different
satellite constellations (different time of the hour, periods, etc.),
most short-period systematic errors usually affecting GPS data
(signal distortion due to ionosphere and troposphere delays,
multiple reflections, etc.) were randomized and minimized.
Our experiments were based on a prototype device
consisting of a horizontal rod rotating about a vertical axis
by an electric motor permitting constant, pre-adjusted angular
velocity to be generated (Fig. 1). This device permitted all
combinations of radius of rotation R = 20, 30, 40, 50 cm
with periods of rotation T = 3–19 s. All experiments were
made with the same instruments: two Javad Legacy-H receivers
recording at a rate of 1 Hz and two external antennas of
type Javad JPS-LEGANT-E. Extreme care was taken to avoid
exchanges of the antennas and receivers, as well as centring,
eccentricity and elevation errors. During RTK experiments
receivers were equipped with SATEL radiolinks operating at
a frequency of 468.6 MHz.
Preparatory tests. A large number of preparatory test were
made mostly between October 2001 and January 2002 in the
main and other three test sites, at distances of a few hundred
to a few hundred kilometres from the main test site in order
1474 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
Fig. 2. Movement of the rover receiver antenna is not constant during the
“warm-up” and “cool-down” periods, each up to 60 s long, and corresponding
data, shown in frames, had to be removed mostly after a visual inspection.
Deviations from an ideal periodic pattern are due to errors.
(1) to test the apparatus used and the whole system; (2) to
define the methodology for sampling data and (3) to identify
and avoid conditions introducing additional uncertainties in our
measurements.
Orbit and angular velocity stability. Using conventional
geodetic instruments and chronographs it was confirmed that
during experiments with maximum velocity 1.05 m/s (T = 3 s,
R = 50 cm) and avoiding medium or strong winds, the angular
velocity remained constant and the orbits horizontal.
Radiolinking and jamming. Our experiments revealed that
radiolinking was severely affected by certain nearby sources,
and was impossible during Air Force manoeuvres. Such
problems are obviously eliminated in the case of wired
receivers.
“Warm-up” and “cool-down” periods. At the beginning
and the end of each experiment, the angular velocity
was accelerating or decelerating, and for this reason the
corresponding parts in the records, up to 60 s long, were
excluded from our analyses (Fig. 2).
Satellite constellation. Tracking less than six satellites,
representing a rather small percentage of the total number of
experiments made, led to a significantly reduced precision, and
hence all measurements with fewer than six satellites (<5%)
were discarded.
Repeatability of results. A wide range of experiments with
similar rotation parameters were carried out to confirm the
repeatability of our results concerning both the accuracy of
computed coordinates and the frequency of outliers. It was
found that randomly selected experiments are representative
of experiments with the same geometric parameters of the
movement.
Duration of experiments. Since the observation session
duration is a factor affecting the precision (and accuracy) of
GPS static measurements (Eckl et al. [33]), tests with varying
duration of experiments, from 60 s to several hours long,
were made following the methodology explicitly analyzed in
Psimoulis et al. [34]. In particular, it was found that the graph
of the accuracy versus the experiment duration is a curve nearly
asymptotically tending to a certain value; hence after a certain
threshold, any increase in the observation time contributes
very little to the accuracy of coordinates. In analogy to static
observations, and in order to arrive at significant conclusions
regarding kinematic observations, the optimum (from the point
of view of cost-benefit analysis) net duration of experiments
(i.e. excluding periods of up to 60 s at their beginning and
at their end, during which the velocity was accelerating and
decelerating, respectively; see Fig. 2) was selected between 5
and 17 min for both PPK and RTK datasets.
Datasets analyzed. On the basis of the above tests, two
different sets of experiments were conducted and analyzed
separately, one for RTK (real-time kinematic) techniques from
data collected in January and February 2002, and another for
PPK (post-processing kinematic), from data collected between
the end of June and mid-September 2002. Each set consisted of
all 44 possible combinations of four selected lengths of radius
(20, 30, 40, 50 cm) and of 11 selected periods of rotation
(T = 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19 s) of the rover
receiver, and can be considered as representative of a wide
range of different atmospheric and ionospheric conditions, and
of satellite constellations.
5. Data analysis
All computations reported in this article were made using
the PINNACLE (Version 1999) software and refer to the Greek
Datum (HGRD87) and are dependent on the coordinates of the
base station, set to values computed from static analyses.
At a first step the time series of x, y and z coordinates
(corresponding to easting, northing and elevation above a
certain reference level) were calculated for each of the 44
experiments composing the data set for RTK and PPK and
were plotted. It is evident that computed x and y coordinates
are confined to circular bands (Fig. 3(a)), and that of the z
coordinates to linear bands (Fig. 4(a)). This clearly indicates
that the precision of the calculated coordinates in both the x
and the y axes were nearly equal, a result that may not be valid
in higher latitude areas due to satellite geometry (Breuer et al.
[10]; Meng et al. [35]). In addition, x and y coordinates were
uniformly distributed versus time, as Fig. 5(a), corresponding to
a helicoidal 3-D plot of a representative experiment, indicates.
5.1. Mathematical model
Because of the design our experiments during each of the
k = 1, 2, . . . , 44 experiments for RTK and PPK analysis, the
rover receiver was forced to move on predefined horizontal,
circular orbits, recording its coordinates every 1 s for a period
of 5–17 min long (i.e. n = 300–1000 sets of observations for
each single experiment). Yet, due to various errors, the sampled
track would differ from real circular horizontal orbits (Fig. 6).
Hence, concerning x and y coordinates, at any moment i during
experiment k the rover receiver would be at a point i with
computed coordinates X ik , Yik . In this case, the distance Rik
from the centre of rotation Ck of the experimental device to the
computed coordinates X ik , Yik of the rover would differ from
the known radius of rotation by a small amount Ri κ .


Ri k = Rik − Rk = (X ik 2 − Y2 ) − R .
k (1)
ik
Furthermore, the instantaneous coordinates X ik and Yik
would be related to the parameters θκ (phase angle), ωκ (angular
 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
Fig. 3. Recorded x, y coordinates of the rover, rotating on a horizontal plane during two representative experiments. Left, coordinates are confined to a well-defined
circular band; to the right, due to outliers, this pattern is violated.
Fig. 4. Recorded z coordinates of rover rotating on a horizontal plane during
two representative experiments. In (a) fluctuations are much smaller than in (b).
velocity) and time i = 1, 2, . . . , n by the following equations:
X ik = Rk sin(θκ + ωκ i ) + υikx (2)
Yik = Rk cos(θκ + ωκ i ) + υiky . (3)
Similarly, the corresponding Z iκ coordinate would differ
from the actual elevation of the antenna Z k , standard in all
experiments, by a small amount Z iκ (Fig. 7), defined by the
relationship
Z iκ = Z iκ − Z k . (4)
To facilitate computations and without any loss of generality,
using a linear transformation (translation) the coordinates X ok ,
Yok , Z ok of the centre of rotation Ck in each experiment k were
computed as the average value of all n recorded coordinates
in that experiment. In the case of the X ok , Yok coordinates,
this is reasonable because first, the selected period of rotation
(T = 3–19 s) is a multiple of the period of sampling (1 s), and
1475
second, observations are confined to a circular zone or a helix
(Figs. 3(a) and 5(a)).
5.2. Error analysis
A number of statistical analyses were carried out for each of
the two data sets examined in this article (44 RTK and 44 PPK
experiments).
5.2.1. Consistency test for the coordinates of the centre of
rotation
The statistics of the differences of the coordinates X ok , Yok ,
Z ok of the centre of rotation Ck for each individual experiment
k were used as a first test for the quality of the data. For each
dataset k = 1, 2, . . . , 44 for both PPK and RTK data, the
differences
X ok = X ok − X k (5)
Yok = Yok − Yk (6)
Z ok = Z ok − Z k (7)
where X k , Yk , Z k are the mean values of X ok , Yok and
Z ok , respectively, were computed and plotted in Figs. 8 and
9. Adopting the 3-σ rejection criterion, an ellipse bounding the
acceptance areas for the horizontal coordinates and a zone for
the vertical coordinates were defined. As a result of this test,
one experiment in the RTK data set was discarded as an outlier
(Fig. 8(b)) and further analysis continued with 44 PPK and 43
RTK remaining valid datasets.
5.2.2. Outlier detection
The x and y coordinates of the rover forced to move on
circular orbits (Figs. 3(a) and 10(a)) are expected to correspond
to sinusoidal curves, with small deviations from the exact
values due to various errors (Fig. 10). Recorded heights on the
other hand are expected to correspond to a nearly horizontal
line, since the orbit of the rotating arm was horizontal
(Fig. 4(a)). In reality, however, the recorded coordinates are
contaminated by errors and deviate from the theoretical curves.
Two types of such deviations were identified in our data
sets, small-scale (Figs. 3(a), 4(a) and 5(a)) and larger-scale
deviations (Figs. 3(b), 4(b) and 5(b)). The latter usually lasted
1476 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
Fig. 5. Helix plot of horizontal coordinates of the moving rover versus time. In (a) a nearly ideal cylinder plot is evident, while in (b) some outliers are noticed.
Fig. 6. Cartoon to explain the real and recorded horizontal orbit or rover during
experiments. During each rotation, 3–19 points were recorded (1 Hz sampling
rate).
Fig. 7. Cartoon to explain differences between real and recorded z coordinate
of the rover receiver.
for a few seconds only and were regarded as outliers and
discarded using the 3-σ criterion (Fig. 10(b)). The quantity of
these errors did not exceed the value of 1.5% of the total amount
of data in all time series examined.
However, during the preparatory experiments a longer-
wavelength (lasting for about 8.5 min) and higher-amplitude
(40 cm) outlier, much different from offsets usually observed in
GPS time series (for instance Fig. 5(b)), was recorded (Fig. 11).
The source of this outlier is unknown. Whether it was due to
software problems, instrument jamming, etc., is beyond the
scope of this paper. What is important is that such effects
seem very rare; in fact this kind of outlier was observed only
once among hundreds of experiments lasting up to a few
hours and during continuous recordings lasting for several days
(Psimoulis [34]).
5.2.3. Statistics of residuals
Observed deviations (residuals) of the radius of rotation and
of the height from their known values for all 87 experiments,
cleaned of outliers and excluding the “warm-up” and “cool-
down” periods, were examined as to determine whether they
follow a normal distribution. In the majority of experiments
residuals were found consistent with the hypothesis of a normal
distribution and characterized by white noise (see for instance
Figs. 5 and 10 showing recorded coordinates very close to the
real ones), indicating that analyzed time series are most likely
affected by random errors only.
5.3. Error estimates
From Eqs. (1) and (4), error estimates for the difference
Riκ between the observed and known length of the radius of
rotation, as well as of the difference Z iκ between observed
and known height of the receiver, can readily be obtained for
each of the valid 87 experiments. Error estimates for these
variables were obtained separately for the PPK and RTK
datasets.
Making certain assumptions, estimates for the accuracy
of coordinates can also obtained. From Figs. 3(a) and 5(a)
showing that recorded x, y coordinates are distributed into
circular zones, equal accuracies for both these coordinates
 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482 1477

(a) PPK.

(a) PPK.

(b) RTK.

Fig. 9. Similar to Fig. 8, but for the vertical coordinate. The acceptance area
has a zonal distribution.

(b) RTK.

Fig. 8. Dispersion of computed coordinates of the centres of rotation in the

horizontal plane relative to their mean values, and acceptance areas (ellipses)
based on the 3-σ rejection criterion: (a) for the 44 PPK datasets and (b)
for the 44 RTK datasets. An outlier was detected in the RTK data and the
corresponding dataset was excluded from further processing.

can be inferred. If it is furthermore assumed that as a first

approximation these coordinates are uncorrelated, from the
laws of propagation of errors and Eq. (1), it can be estimated
that
σR
σX K ∼
= σY K ∼
= √ κ. (8)
2
Fig. 10. Time series of x coordinate of the rotating rover. Top: typical pattern;
Similar estimates can be independently obtained from Eqs. bottom: a nearly perfect sinusoidal record interrupted by a short-duration
(2) and (3). In these equations Rk and ωκ are known constants, outlier.
and i an integer variable (i = 1, 2, n), while θκ can be
easily computed because of the high redundancy of the system 6. Results and discussion
(n > 300). In this case, residuals used for the estimation of
errors can be computed from the differences between observed The standard errors of the coordinate determination of a
coordinates and predicted coordinates using Eqs. (2) and (3). single point as a function of the linear velocity and frequency
1478 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482

Fig. 11. An example of a long-duration outlier, shown in x, y and z coordinate time series and map plot. An about 40 cm transient apparent displacement of the
rover in the y and z axes for 8.5 min is evident (Experiment details: date: 16 January 2002, radius of rotation: 40 cm, period of rotation: 19 s, PPK record).

of rotation are summarized in Figs. 12 and 13. From these
graphs it is evident that the accuracy (and not simply precision;
see above, Section 3) in horizontal and vertical positioning in
both PPK and RTK techniques is below 15 mm and 35 mm,
respectively, and there is a clear tendency for this accuracy to
decrease by a factor of two with decreasing linear velocity. This
last result is probably due to the fact that during a slower motion
more recordings at a specific point are possible.
Our results may be regarded as representative at least
for areas with favourable satellite constellations (latitude
approximately ϕ < ±50◦), and can be obtained with a pair
of dual frequency 1 Hz receivers and commercial software
and with a level of outliers of the order of 1.5%. These
estimates are consistent with the results of other investigators,
both concerning coordinate accuracy (Breuer et al. [10];
Vanstone [32]; Tamura et al. [11]) and frequency of outliers
(Brown et al. [5]).
The above results were obtained with 1 Hz sampling
frequency, and hence, according to the Nyquist criterion,
are valid for measurements of harmonic frequencies f <
0.5 Hz. This range covers towers, antenna masts and suspension
bridges, but also buildings with N ≥ 20 floors, according to
 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
Fig. 12. Accuracy in GPS positioning as a function of the frequency
and velocity of rotation, summarizing the results of 44 PPK experiments.
Open symbols for horizontal coordinates (assumed of equal accuracy, see
Section 5.3), solid for vertical coordinates. Diamond, square, triangle and circle
correspond to the 20, 30, 40 and 50 cm rotation radius, respectively.
the approximative formula T = 0.1N, where N is the number
of floors in a multi-storey building and T their dominant
period (Celebi and Sanli [27]). Obviously, using sampling
frequencies in the range 2–10 Hz or even higher, higher
harmonic frequencies can be detected.
The above estimates are realistic, but do not represent
the upper bound of the linear or angular velocities that can
be recorded, or of the accuracy of the GPS; using more
sophisticated software and hardware a higher accuracy can be
obtained (Ge et al. [9]; Lekidis et al. [28]).
7. Implications for some major engineering structures
Following the assessment of the feasibility of the GPS to
accurately monitor harmonic and other transient deformation
of major flexible engineering structures, we summarize
and evaluate below results from a number of deformation
monitoring applications of the GPS.
7.1. Karman vortex-induced vibrations of high-rise structures
Analysis of GPS records collected on the top of three
>150 m high towers in different parts of the world revealed
that their dominant vibration was in the direction normal to
the wind (Table 1). For at least one of these structures the
above result has been criticised as an artefact of measuring
errors (Greulich [36]), but movements recorded in all three
cases should be regarded as statistically significant: (1)
recorded dominant frequency is consistent with structural
evidence (e.g. Breuer et al. [10]); (2) observed amplitudes of
1479
Fig. 13. Same as for 12, but for 43 RTK (one experiment was discarded, see
Section 5.2.1).
displacement are significant according to evidence presented
above, and (3) the directions of the dominant oscillation
were different, excluding the possibility of a systematic error
(for instance due to unfavourable satellite constellation; Meng
et al. [35]). GPS records are therefore likely to document
for the first time Karman vortex-induced vibrations of major
engineering structures.
7.2. Major suspension bridges
In the past, measurement of oscillations of major suspension
bridges in response to gusts, heavy traffic and earthquakes was
not an easy task (Stephen et al. [37]; Nakamura [7]), even for
some flexible bridges, the vibrations of which were troubling
traffic (Xu et al. [15]; Zivanovic et al. [38]). For this reason,
the GPS has been introduced either for testing their dynamic
behaviour (Ashkenazi and Roberts [4]) or as a permanent
monitoring system (Wong et al. [14]; Xu et al. [15]). First
results are very encouraging, and a close agreement between
accelerometer and GPS data for low frequencies (>0.3 Hz) was
reported (Nakamura [7]).
Lekidis et al. [28], in particular, identified modes of vibration
at the range 0.37–0.54 Hz in a relatively small (middle span
of 215 m) cable-stayed bridge in Greece, a result consistent
with both FEM predictions and results of observations with
a robotic total station. Their measurements were based on a
system of two base receivers, and centimetre to sub-centimetre
level accuracies were claimed. Still, it was found that the GPS
data contain much noise at lower frequencies ( f < 0.15 Hz),
probably as a result of multiple reflections of satellite signals to
the deck and cables of the bridge (multipath effect).
1480 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482

Table 1
Summary of results of observations of oscillations of three major structures using 1 Hz GPS data

Structure Wind velocity (m/s) Oscillation Reference

Calgary tower (160 m high) f = 0.3 Hz; 3 cm normal to wind, 1 cm along wind Greulich [36]

Stuttgart TV tower (250 m high) 7 f = 0.2 Hz; 4 cm normal to wind, 2.5 cm along wind Breuer et al. [10]
Recordings at 155 m height

Opole (PL) tower (160 m) 6–10 4 cm normal to wind, 0.5–1.0 cm along wind Breuer et al. [10]
References: Lovse et al. [3] and Breuer et al. [10].

Fig. 14. GPS (top) and accelerometer (bottom) spectra of a 100 m high steel structure in Tokyo excited by a Ms = 7.0 earthquake. The 0.57 and 2.16 Hz modes
are common in all spectra. Low-frequency ( f < 0.15 Hz) peaks in the GPS spectra reflect systematic measuring errors (multipath effect at circa 0.15 Hz; see also
Ogaja et al. [8]; Li et al. [13]) and computation errors (“corner” or “edge” effect in the GPS spectrum; Proakis and Manolakis [40]; Pytharouli et al. [41]), while the
4.56 Hz peak is beyond the range of GPS data. Unpublished data provided by X. Li. For further discussion see Li et al. [13].

7.3. Seismic excitation of high-rise, slender structures
Analysis of seismic movements was in the past confined
to accelerometer records, the main disadvantage of which is
that derived displacements through double integration are noisy
due to error accumulation (Wang et al. [16]). The feasibility
of the GPS to record seismic movements is depicted in the
record of a Ms = 7.0 earthquake which excited a 108 m high,
13 m × 13 m wide steel tower in Tokyo. FFT spectra of the GPS
data recorded at the top of the tower at a frequency of 10 Hz
revealed a main peak corresponding to the dominant frequency
of 0.57 Hz, and a secondary peak (2.16 Hz) for both easting and
northing coordinate components, corresponding to the second
mode of the structure, in agreement with accelerometer-derived
spectra (Fig. 14). Such seismic movement corresponded to a
horizontal oscillation with amplitude 2–4 cm, while the vertical
oscillation was below the noise level (1–2 cm).
7.4. Quasi-static movements of high-rise structures
The quasi-static deformations of a 400 m high TV mast
in Poland were monitored during a relatively long period of
no wind. This mast consisted of three vertical metal tubes
forming, in a horizontal cross-section, an equilateral triangle
with a side length of 3.2 m. Three rover receivers had been
fixed at different heights on this mast and a couple of base
receivers on the ground. RTK recordings during a period
of 24 h revealed that the various parts of the mast were
moving relative to each other with possibly quasi-periodic,
very long period (>24 h) movements with relative amplitude
 A. Nickitopoulou et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1471–1482
Fig. 15. (a) 24 h record of displacements of various parts of a mast (left) and (b) of a 100 m high steel tower. (Based on Wasilewski et al. [39] and Tamura et al.
[11]).
of a few centimetres (Fig. 15(a); Wasilewski et al. [39]). Such
deformations can at least partly be attributed to thermo-elastic
effects.
Somewhat similar movements with amplitude of about 2 cm
in both easting and northing with a period of 24 h were
identified by Tamura et al. [11] at the top of a 108 m high steel
tower in Tokyo (Fig. 15(b)).
Such quasi-static displacements cannot be measured by
accelerometers or other techniques.
8. Conclusions
The results of a large number of experiments aiming to
define the accuracy (and not simply the precision) and the
outlier level of the GPS are summarized in this article. These
experiments were made on the basis of a common pair of dual
frequency receivers and commercial software, i.e. hardware and
software, that can be relatively easily and successfully adopted
in most engineering projects.
The major outcome of this study is that it was statistically
demonstrated that the GPS can monitor displacements with an
amplitude better than 15 mm, at a level of outliers <1.5%.
Careful GPS studies, both Post-Processing Kinematic and the
Real-Time Kinematic, can therefore permit modelling of quasi-
static and low-frequency harmonic movements of most major
slender engineering structures.
In addition, more recent systematic studies to be presented
elsewhere also indicate that even if GPS monitoring of
displacements is somewhat noisy, further computation of
dominant frequencies using GPS displacement records is
made with very high accuracy, and differences between real
and computed dominant frequencies of most major civil
engineering structures are random and smaller than 0.06 Hz
(Psimoulis et al. [42]).
The GPS therefore proves a promising tool in civil and
other fields of engineering, complementary to accelerometers,
and its accuracy and range of applications in the monitoring
of structures is expected to increase in the near future. This
may prove especially useful in view of recent trends for
deformation-based antiseismic design (e.g. Panagiotakos and
Fardis [43]; Borzi et al. [44]).
1481
Acknowledgments
This is a contribution to the K. Karatheodori, University of
Patras, and the PENED 2001 Greek Secreteriat of Research and
Technology research programmes. A. Kontogiannis, engineer
of the Public Power Co. of Greece is thanked for the
design and construction of the experimental apparatus used.
D. Beskos is thanked for discussions on the Karman vortex
effect, P. McCombie for providing a copy of the unpublished
thesis of N. Vanstone, X. Li for making available Fig. 14 and
V. Kontogianni for her help in the experiments. This article
benefited from constructive comments of two anonymous
reviewers.
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