Methods of contouring, direct and indirect
interpolation, plotting, areas and volumes,
trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rule, area from
latitude and departure, uses of planimeter,
volumes, trapezoidal and prismoidal formula.
Nur Afeera Syakirin Binti Abdul Manan1
Abstract: Method of contouring grid surveys using a digital
computer is explained and the application of the method to a
flood irrigation designs exceptionally to the areas involving
floods in Sabah which is specifically chosen in Beaufort is
elucidated. Calculations of areas are traced out for more
understanding and available to use for embankments, reservoirs,
cutting, road and building works. The use of planimeter,
trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rule as well as area computation
using latitude and departure for calculating area are justified.
For calculation of volumes with practical and straightforward
formula provided by mathematics arts are also illustrated. These
are discussed with substantial facts that useful for current and
future engineering survey evolution.
Keywords: contouring methods, areas and volumes,
trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rule.
I. INTRODUCTION
C ontours are essential part in topographic maps which
represent the visual abstraction of the Earth’s surface given
that the contours provided sufficient and detailed graphical
load on the map. Therefore, after the completion of survey
as well as the confirmation of planimetric position of all
points on the site, the next thing to do is leveling in order for
the exact positions of the contour line over the site to be
drawn. Therefore, the contour lines have to be created using
the correct methods in order to produce an excellent contour
map. The methods of contouring are direct and indirect
interpolation. Direct method is often referred as to which the
contours to be plotted are traced out in the field by not other
than marking of a series of points in the location [7]. By
using direct method, the contour lines are physically
followed on the ground where the fieldwork is the opposite
of usual leveling in which the levels of known positions are
found [6]. Meanwhile, indirect method does not follow the
contour line, instead a series of spot levels is taken at
identifiable locations such as trees, manholes, and fences.
The contour positions are interpolated between those
locations. Using this method, the spot levels are needed only
at the tops and bottoms of all slopes. The ground is used as a
plane surface between them. In other words, the points are
1
Nur Afeera Syakirin Binti Abdul Manan, BK18110057, 2nd Year,
Civil Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Email:
afeerasyakirin@gmail.com
1
not necessarily locates on the contours to be shown, but
serve on being plotted on the required contours of the
interpolation [7]. This system is used in a wide range of
surveys and requires less labor than using the direct
interpolation method. Direct method is usually compliments
the use in close contouring in small-scale area with
substantial precision. Both methods depend upon the
number and the disposition of the points for the resulting
plan to be greatly accurate [10]. Nevertheless, the method is
infrequently used on large surveys. In this study, the indirect
method of contouring is highlighted for its application of
flood irrigation systems to be suggested in the land
development of Beaufort in regard for its flood impediment..
Computation of areas took account the Simpson’s rule
and trapezoidal rule, area from latitude and departure, as
well as uses of planimeter, meanwhile the computation of
volumes include trapezoidal and prismoidal formula. These
are necessary for cutting or embankments to accommodate
road and building works. Many of the figures encountered
can be calculated by the direct application of the formulas
which will be discussed further.
The objectives of the study are (i) to understand the
method of contouring which involves in direct and indirect
interpolation as well as plotting, and calculation by the areas
and volume in surveying, (ii) to determine the 6M elements
of the study, and (iii) to examine the future development in
method of contouring and computation of areas and volumes
in the location concerned.
The scope of the study is the detailed review of the
methods of contouring and the computation of areas and
volumes for calculation which were considered essential in
the construction surveying and were chosen to be analyzed
in details.
II. METHODOLOGY
To identify the scope of the study which is methods of
contouring, areas and volumes, trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s
rule, area from latitude and departure, uses of planimeter,
volumes, trapezoidal and prismoidal formula by
documentary analysis. The data collection is done by
gathering information from books, journals, thesis, and
online references. The data collected is then arranged,
analyzed, and interpreted to finally be converted into useful
information for research purpose.
 III. LITERATURE REVIEW plans will vary among different authorities which also rely
on the type of work, the terrain involved, as well as the set
As mentioned earlier, contouring has two methods
up practice by anyone concern. As studied by Walter C.
known as direct and indirect method. Direct method is
Boughton, in New Zealand, the Staff of the New Zealand
suitable for small areas and accuracy in creating contours is
Agricultural Engineering Institute and Department of
needed. The procedure started out with the establishment of
Agriculture officers applied the method which is grid
Temporary Benchmark with the reference of Benchmark
surveys to produce contour plans for irrigation design. The
(BM) which is near the surveying area by using flying level
levels are taken at a chain interval for this survey. At the
technique. The level is then set up in a position of maximum
same time, the Ministry of Works in New Zealand also
number of points that can be instructed by the instrument
constructing identical plans using a direct method to locate
station. The height of instrument is established by taking a
contours in the fields and along the contour locations.
back sight reading on the BM and adding the reading to the
Nevertheless, plotting and contouring of grid surveys by
reduced levels of the BM. The staff is positioned on the
hand seems lacking and slow, more when there are small
point approximately and then moved either up or down the
contour intervals that need to be plotted. It seems clear
slope. The readings are repeated in order to obtain a desired
enough that direct method of contouring required more
reading with precision and accuracy. The points marked
labors involved. Providentially, using grid surveys for
with a peg results in the line joined together produces the
irrigation works gives convenience in such a way for its
required contour. Leveling is done concurrently after
systematic and adaptable to automatic plotting and
locating the contour points. Generally, the points are traced
contouring on computers, and giving new methods for flood
by the instruments such as theodolite, compass or plane
irrigation designs which is based on grid surveys. It is more
table traversing. All points are plotted on the plan and the
favorable for future development of irrigation by having this
contours are joined by dotted curved lines [10].
design. The next section will encounter the method used for
With indirect methods, the surveyed points might be
irrigation works in New Zealand that may be suitable for
set out on grid pattern, be taken on scattered spot heights
Beaufort, Sabah flood irrigation construction, as studied by
which determine the high and low points as well as the
Tour (n.d.) [17].
change of grade, and be taken along straight lines known as
Another study conducted by Kettunen et al (2017) [9]
cross sections [7]. The indirect mainly consists of (i) grid or
revealed the automatic production of contours, approachable
square methods, (ii) cross-section methods, and (iii)
with the method introduced, and high-quality of
tacheometric method. The spot levels used in this method
cartographic map as the primary design drivers. Contours
involved the hills, depression, ridge and valley lines and the
played an essential role in topographic maps and the
differences in the slope which are to be contoured are
generation of contours has become practical since the rapid
observed carefully. Similar to direct method, the plan and
development of surveying techniques. The digitalization has
contours are plotted and drawn by interpolation. It is a
changed the graphic contours into vector features in
cheaper and faster method than direct method which is often
database on computers with only little effort. It shows the
implemented in all kind of surveys. Grid or square method
invention of contours technique from digital elevation
divides the whole area into numerous squares depending on
models (DEMs) which redirecting the production of
the scale of the map, and the side length depends on the
contours from computational task, favorable for making this
nature of the ground and the contour interval. Nonetheless,
technique a less laborious manual work. On top of that, due
the squares do not need to be in the same size and every
to the instant development of data technologies especially in
corner of the squares is marked followed by leveling to
airborne laser scanning and integrated positioning methods,
determine the reduced level of the points. Cross section
the quality of DEMs has surged significantly. DEMs allow
method is preferable in area such as road, railway canal etc.
for fast automatic extraction of contours vectors with
The cross section lines are not necessarily have to be in the
outrageous accuracy in positioning as well as the great
right angles to the centre line of the work. The gap of the
details which cannot be achieved by manual drawing.
cross-sections relies on the topography of the area and the
Contours on maps were used for technical assessment of
origin of the survey. In flat area, the common value is 100m
elevations in construction planning and as for today, the
while in hilly area usually valued as 20 to 30m.
assessment now is more efficient and dependent by
Tacheometric method in the other hand is desirable for hilly
straightforward reading of elevation from DEMs. It provides
areas in which tacheometer instructed the number of stations
high-level accuracy small units and able to be visualized in
further than using a level, thus the number of instrument
varied forms including interactive 3D illustrations, to test
settings is reduced [7].
the formations of terrain in detail. The design approach for
Interpolation of contours is necessary for indirect
contour generation and plotting as well as the results of the
contouring since the spot levels are the only one taken in
production of contour will be described in the Result section
this method. Three methods of interpolation are mainly by
and will be discussed further.
estimation, by arithmetical calculation, and graphical
On the other hand, current methods used for areas and
method. The positions of the contour-points between ground
volume estimation given that the ground profile between the
points are estimated and the contours are drawn through
grid points are based on the trapezoidal rule which known as
those points. This estimation method is preferable for small
linear, and based on Simpson’s rule whether 1/3 or 3/8
scale maps. Arithmetical calculation is used when accurate
formulas is used which is also called nonlinear, mentioned
and reliable results are needed and applied in small areas as
by Yilmaz & Yakar (2008) [19]. In general, lands will
well. Graphical method works straightforward rather than
always be of irregular shaped polygons. Thus, there are
the two methods and accurate results are obtained [15].
different methods used for determining the areas of irregular
For irrigation works particularly, this indirect method –
polygons which are graphical method, coordinate method,
grid survey method is implemented in which the irrigation
and planimeter [2]. This study will essentially discussed

2
about the coordinate method since it is popularly used in
computing area of drainage, cross section of rivers and
channels. The two important rules in this method are
Trapezoidal Rule and Simpson’s Rule. The formulas for
calculating areas with trapezoidal rule as used in integrating
functions are as follows. Trapezoidal rule assumes straight
line segments on the boundary.
Fig.1 Offsets and subintervals for Trapezoidal Rule
A1 = d . (O1 + O2 ) / 2
A2 = d . (O2 + O3 ) / 2
A3 = d . (O3 + O4 ) / 2
The total area is calculated with formula below:
A = (d/2) . [O1 + 2.O2 + 2.O3 + … + 2.On-1 + On]
Calculating areas with Simpson’s rule seems better and
rather than assuming straight lines between adjacent points,
this rule assumes a parabola fitted to 3 adjacent points. This
results in more accuracy since the boundaries are often
curved. The formula is as follows.
Fig.2 Offsets and subintervals for Simpson’s Rule
A1 + A2 = (d/3) . (O1 + 4.O2 + O3)
Total area, A = (d/3) . (O1 + 4.O2 + 2.O3 + 4.O4 + 2.O5
+ … + 4.On-1 + On)
The trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule are especially
suitable for calculating volumes of reservoir which by
calculating the areas of contours and to integrate the
function again. For calculating volumes, Simpson’s rule is
way more accurate than trapezoidal rule as studied by Cut
(2002) [2]. The result shown in next section is the
calculation of volume of layered reservoirs using Simpson’s
and trapezoidal rule.
Planimeter is a mechanical device used for
measurements of irregular areas. There are two types of
instruments which are fixed index model and sliding bar
model. The characteristics of both models are similar which
consists of an arm of fixed length which is called a polar
arm, a tracer arm carrying a tracer point T, and the
measuring unit attached to both of the arms. The polar arm
rests within the pole block P. The tracer arm on the other
hand can be moved in any direction across the plan. As the
tracer point moves, the rolling wheel rotates. Then it will
read hundredths of a revolution to be measured [7]. The uses
of planimeter in small area and large area to be measured by
particularly fixed index model.
To compute area of traverses that have a few sides, the
most useful method is the triangle method. The traverse is
divided into triangles and the areas of the triangles are
calculated respectively. If the traverse has more than four
sides, then it is required to acquire the value of the
3
additional angles and distance by field measurements, or by
doing office works computation [8]. The closure of a
traverse is checked by the computation of latitude and
departures of each of the side of their own. Latitude is
defined as the line of the North-South meridian which is
equivalent to the length times the cosine of its bearing.
Meanwhile, departure is the projection of line on the East-
West, equivalent to the length times the sine of its bearing
[11].
(a) (b)
Fig.3 (a) Southeast bearing, (b) Northeast bearing
The latitudes of lines with North bearings are identified
as north or plus +. On the other hand, the South directions
are classified as south or negative -. Departures are east or
positive for lines having east bearings and lines having west
bearing. As shown in the figure above, (a) and (b)
respectively indicates the explanation of north-east bearing
and southeast bearing.
On the other hand, computation of volumes is necessary
in design and planning on many engineering projects. The
volume of earthwork is needed in order to use suitable
alignment of road works, canal as well as sewer lines [2].
The volume of earth work is calculated after comes into
knowledge with various cross-sections, which are using
trapezoidal and prismoidal formula. The prismoidal formula
is used for calculating volume of prismoid. A prismoid is
basically a solid with end faces lie in parallel planes which
consists of any two polygons and the longitudinal faces
being plane surfaces are extended between end planes. The
longitudinal faces may occur in form of triangles,
parallelograms, or trapeziums [7], [14].
V = d/6 (A1 + A2 + 4Am)
Let d = length of the prismoid perpendicular to the two
end of parallel planes;
A1 = area of cross section of one end plane;
A2 = area of cross-section of the other end plane;
Am = the mid area which the area of the plane
midway between the end planes and parallel to them;
V = volume of prismoid.
Trapezoidal rule formula is,
V = d/2 [(A1 + An + 2(A2 + A3 + … + An-1)]
Where d = distance between sections;
A1, A2, … An = cross sectional areas.
IV. RESULT AND ANALYSIS
A. Methods of contouring and plotting
Below is the method of contouring with grid method. On
a grid survey by manual work which is laid to find the
locations of contours, the points where the contours intersect
with the grid lines are estimated by linear interpolation
between the grid levels [17].
 (a) (b)
(a) (b)
Fig.8 (a) Calculation for levels at the side of the
square for each row, (b) Completed first row in the square

(c) (d)
Fig.4 (a) Small segment of a grid survey, (b) Cross-section
along a level, (c) Contours cross the grid lines marked, (d)
Contour lines are drawn with same levels.

The locations of contours between the levels are

determined by linear interpolation. It is necessary to be
specific on how the contours need to be drawn for the same
level to have this kind of contouring undertaken by the
computer programs.
Fig.9 Contours generated with adaptive DEM smoothing in
three challenges areas
B. Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule

Fig.5 A square unit from grid survey

We can see that the midpoint along one side of the unit
is joined to the midpoint on the other side which is drawn by
a straight line. The straight line connects the midpoints of
the sides in another direction [17].
Fig.10 Layered reservoir as irregular brachianticline

Fig.6 Curvilinear surface formed of only straight lines

It shows how the additional points are joined on both

sides. This gives the picture of the surface would be too
difficult if it needs to be used by hand methods, therefore
the plotting and contouring are unavoidable to be done by Fig.11 Contour map of a layered type reservoir with top
computer programs. height of 1m.

Table- I: Volume calculated with Simpson’s and

trapezoidal formulas with even sections.
Volumes Volumes
calculate calculate
No. with with
Devi-
of Used Simpson’s trapezoidal ∆V
E (m) ations
sect areas and top and top (m3)
(%)
-ion formulas formulas
Vs + VT Vt + VT
(m3) (m3)
a0,… 173
5 10 21 756 000 21 929 334 0.80
a10 334
a 0,
2960
25 2 a 5, 22 081 334 25 041 334 13.40
000
a10

Fig.7 Result of contouring by computer

4
 Table-II: Total volume of layered bed in m3 for even D. Uses of planimeter
number of sections The procedures needs to be carried out for measurement
E (m) Layered reservoir, total volume (top-bottom, m3) of small area are as follows:

5 102 872 666

25 102 734 000

C. Area from latitude and departure

i. Error of closure
The resulting error is referred to as error in latitude (EL),
while error that occurs with the addition of departures is
known as error in departure (ED). The traverse will not close
because of EL and ED. Table-III shows the calculation of
latitudes, departures, and error of closure obtained.

Eclosure = √(EL)2 + (ED)2

Precision = Eclosure / perimeter Fig.12 Procedures while using planimeter

Table-III: Calculation of latitude and departure

Latitude Departure
Scale Bearing Length (ft) Cosine Sine
+N -S +E -W
AB S6°15’W 189.53 0.99406 0.10887 - 188.40 - 20.63
BC S29°38’W 175.18 0.86921 0.49445 - 152.27 86.62 -
CD N81°18’W 197.78 0.15126 0.98849 29.92 - - 195.50
DE N12°24’W 142.39 0.97667 0.21474 139.07 - - 30.58
EA N42°59’E 234.58 0.73155 0.68179 171.61 - 159.93 -

+340.60 -340.67 +246.55 -246.71

Table-IV: Balancing latitudes and departures

Latitude Correction Departure Correction Balanced Latitudes and Departures
Scale
N S E W
AB - +0.01 - +0.03 - 188.39 - 20.60

BC - +0.01 +0.03 - - 152.26 86.65 -

CD +0.02 - - +0.03 29.94 - - 195.47

DE +0.01 - - +0.03 139.08 - - 30.55

EA +0.02 - +0.04 - 171.63 - 159.97 -

340.65 340.65 246.62 246.62

ii. Balancing latitudes and departures
The errors are then balanced out to close the traverse and
done by slight changes in the latitudes and departures of
each side. It is preferable to establish errors using some
systematic techniques. Nonetheless, the surveyor may use a
simple procedure. The correction for the latitude of a side is
calculated as follows.
Correction in latitude / EL = IAB / Perimeter
Correction in latitude = (EL) (IAB / perimeter)
If the sign of error is +, then the correction will be minus
the error. The sign of the corrections can be determined
using the observation of the numbers of zero that is needed
to be balanced. The corrections of latitude and departure are
readily available in Table-IV.
This model reads area in square centimeters (cm2). Every
revolution of the wheel is equal to 100 cm2 of area. If the
scale is in full size, the actual area measured is 325cm2. If
the scale is much smaller, then the area can be calculated by
ratio. If the scale is 1:200, 1cm is equivalent to 200cm.
Hence, since the area is 325cm2 in scale, the actual area is 4
times 325m2 which is equals to 8125 m2. Fig.13 shows a
scale of 1:2500 is required. The pole block is placed in the
closure, while the tracer point is moved around the
boundary. The average number of revolutions is assumed to
be 6.93 [7], [12].
Fig.13 Closure of scale 1:2500
Number of revs = 6.930 pattern and marking the location of contour lines between
Add zero circle constant = 22.300 the levels, as indicated in Fig.10. The printer is set at 8 lines
Total revs = 29.230 per inch down the page and 10 characters per inch across the
Total cm2 = 2923 cm2 page. The program is designed to scroll down the page each
Then on 1:2500 scale, 1 cm2 = (2500 × 2500) cm2 time for one row, and 8 rows for a grid square. This can be
= 625m2 seen in Fig.11. The position of contours along the row is
The total area = 2923 cm × 625 m2
2
regulated and marked by printing of a point. Then, the
= 1826875 m2 program steps into the same row in the right next square.
= 182.688 hectares The calculations and printing on this very row are done
across the page and the next thing to do is the calculations
and printing moves on to the next row, beginning from the
left side. Nevertheless, it is especially suitable if the specific
purpose is to be known for the application. In this study
particularly emphasizes on the surface irrigation systems
which is now have been tested and applied for the surveys
on area specifically intended for surface irrigation systems.
It results on the success of variety of applications of this
Fig.14 Measurement from zero circle program. Moreover, the program has also been used for an
application to record the water distribution patterns of
Moreover, when the zero circle is larger in area than the irrigation sprinklers with varied wind conditions. It seems
land being measured, the rolling drum will move backward. possible to remove significant number of effort made in
The first reading will subtract the second in order to get a plotting and contouring by using the contour plotting
result of the area in square centimeters. program. Fortunately, there might be an opportunity to
First reading = 10.000 expand the operation of grid surveys in Beaufort,
Second reading = 8.324 exclusively for the design of drainage on flat areas in which
Number of revs = 10.000 – 8.324 it requires accuracy in survey information for surface
= 1.676 irrigation design. Such opportunity for surveying the area in
Number of revs = 22.300 – 1.676 a grid pattern and using the computer to plot the contouring
= 2062.4 cm2 with any contour interval needs to be possessed since it may
The true area will be 2062.4 cm2 if the scale of the plane increase the development for future needs in the industry.
is 1:100. For DEMs smoothing in extraction of contour into
topographic map, the idea was made to working holistically
as well as avoiding the feature manipulating its operation,
E. Trapezoidal and prismoidal formula
and on its own contour line vectors. As seen on the Figure 5
The storage capacity of a reservoir can be determined in the Result section, we can see the contours are generated
from contour map and through the calculation by with adaptive DEM smoothing. The contours produced are
Trapezoidal formula or prismoidal formula, the volume of from the areas in southern Finland which were selected
water can be estimated. Say that an area is enclosed by the because of specific challenge for the production of contour.
contour in a reservoir, and the top water level and lowest High quality of the cartographic in the generated contours
point in the reservoir are 195m and 175 respectively, the are clearly shown because of the filters that smoothed the
volume reservoir capacity can be computed [7]. original DEM. Sharp angles and extreme meandering in
contours are able to be prevented. It indicates the solution
Table- IV: Contour and area values for the reservoir. for plotting and creating the elevation contours for
topographic maps is no more a cause of concern where the
Contour (m) 175 181 188 191 195 readers can easily view and interpret the contours with
reliable understanding. The present solution is possible to be
Area (m2) 475 680 2000 2875 3640 developed further for contour and plot production.
Generating contour with EDM has become something
convenient for today’s needs. The solution for this
By using trapezoidal formula, the volume is
operational production was constructed with focus on the
V = h/2 [A1 + A4 + 2(A2 + A3 + A4)]
efficiency and optimized application for the ease of the
= 5/2 [475 + 3640 + 2(680 + 2000 + 2875)] users.
= 38062.5 m3 As shown in the Result section in such a case of layered
By using Prismoidal formula, the volume is reservoir is divided with even number of sections, the
V = h/3 [A1 + A4 + 4(A2 + A4) + 2(A3)] volume calculated with Simpson’s and trapezoidal rule with
= 5/3 [(475 + 3640 + 4(680 + 2875) + 2(2000)] even sections in Table-I. It was possible to calculate total
= 37225 m3 volume of layered reservoir as the difference between
contact or top and contact or bottom. Table-II shows the
V. DISCUSSION total volume of layered bed in cube meter which is even
number of sections. The error is less than 20%. Thus,
The computational task shown in the previous section is
Simpson’s rule for n sections and selected equidistance can
probably suitable for contouring and plotting the grid
be applied properly.
surveys, a study conducted by [6]. The program starts with
Overall, both rules can be compared as of the boundary
the arrangement of the grid levels on a 1 inch times 1 inch
between the coordinates, for trapezoidal rule is viewed as

6
straight unlike Simpson’s rule where the boundary is an arc
of a parabola. While applying Simpson’s rule, the number of
ordinates must be odd. Trapezoidal rule has no limitation in
this case where it can be used for numerous ordinates.
Nonetheless, the Simpson’s rule gives more accurate result
than the trapezoidal rule which gives an approximate result.
Meanwhile, in error of closure cases, the field time can
be saved up if the surveyor carefully checked for the
calculations before he can be rechecking the field
measurements. If the angles balance, there might be a
mistake in distance. This occurs due to a side roughly
parallel to the direction of the error of closure line. This can
be seen if a traverse has a large error in latitude nevertheless
has small error in departure. Furthermore, if the error in
departure is larger than that of the latitude, the distances for
any sides whose calculated departures and latitudes were
checked again. These errors may not be found as easy as it
seems to be, and the surveyor has to carefully repeat the
measurement for most of the sides of the traverse.
The purpose for balancing is to be able to obtain more
accurate values for the locations of the corners of the
traverse. This is accomplished by changing the latitudes and
departures of each side, thus the algebraic sums will become
zero. It is often that one has no idea in getting the correction
of the errors, and often there is another person which
performing the calculations which is not involved in the
measurement. Therefore, a systematic balancing method
such as the compass rule, the transit rule and several others
are required. As shown in the Table-IV, the latitudes and
departures for the traverse are balanced by the compass rule.
These days, computer programs are available to solve all
problems regarding the balancing area calculation. It is one
of the systematic methods of balancing. The least square
method is the preferable way in adjusting the data survey,
but rarely used for geodetic organizations. It was developed
from the probability’s law and the measured values are
adjusted in such a way of sum of squares of the errors is
minimum. Adjustments are best made by this least-square
method.
On the other hand, planimeters are actually great
instruments that need to be known by more. It is always
challenging when computing area of irregular plot, thus by
using planimeter, area of any shape and boundary can be
calculated easily. The planimeter has been one of the most
valuable of the Engineer’s mechanical assistants. Planimeter
performs operation with an accuracy and rapidity, and it is
included in almost every form of engineering work.
Planimeter has so much to be appreciated and value the
significance of the instrument since it is not limited to
accurate measurement of plane areas.
As seen earlier, the capacity of reservoir can be easily
estimated by the computation of formulas of trapezoidal and
prismoidal. In the industry, the capacity of a reservoir is
calculated in terms of the water stored until the full reservoir
level is full with its supposed capacity. The prismoidal
formula is applied when the sections are in odd number. The
area is calculated using trapezoidal rule when the sections
are even. The volume of the remaining section can be
calculated by the prismoidal formula, thus adding up the
results to obtain the total volume.
The subtopics discussed in this study are eventually
useful for engineering works as well as in surveying,
especially if the project is initially for flood irrigation work
or reservoirs. As the location concerned in Beaufort, Sabah
7
with its flood issues arising, the method of contouring for
constructing the flood irrigation systems can be applicable
to lean and rely on. The findings on how a program can be
used for generating this earthwork can be investigated and
researched by expert practitioner in the rural area
mentioned. The issues had not stopped, despite various
solutions had come into light. Several changes may be
needed for the issue to find its true solution. One of it can be
considering the research findings on a reliable program
mentioned in the literature review, as been used by the New
Zealand government to our country. Followed by the
computational task of method of contouring and plotting, the
computation of areas and volumes played a vital role in
reservoir problems as well. The use of the Simpson’s rule
and trapezoidal rule, planimeter, prismoidal rule and
computation of traverse are using latitude and departures are
also have positive participation in the programs related.
Thus, the most required element is the person in charge in
applying the research findings.
In this study, the 6M elements has been elaborated
indirectly where all subtopics actually satisfied the 6M
elements required which are manpower, materials,
machinery, money, maintenance, and management.
Manpower involves in the process of contouring with
several people taking measurements, plotting, and
contouring. Materials, in this case, probably the provision of
equations and formulas to calculate the areas and volumes
whether in regular or irregular areas plotted on plan. The
planimeter which is the instrument to measure a curved area
can be considered as the Machinery as well where such
equipment if not used may be difficult to compute a task.
The financial subjects are also essential in construction
especially when hiring an expert to do contouring which
skills and patience is required for executing the procedures.
Maintenance for the subtopics mentioned may referred to
how the formula constantly improved, such as one-third
(1/3) Simpson’s rule to be integrated further to produce
three-eighth (3/8) equation to produce accuracy in
measuring areas. Last but not least, the moving forward
management to ensure the construction projects run
smoothly, a basic move or step is carefully considered in
engineering survey works which measuring of areas and
volumes are to be rechecked constantly, or else defects
might arise once a structure had been constructed. Thus,
these 6M elements are very crucial in order to do a great
project ahead for a lifetime learning and future development
in surveying.
VI. CONCLUSION
To conclude, this study has analyzed and disclosed with
proper aspects and components used for areas and volumes
measurement related to the contouring method in order to
construct a project. We can understand that 6M elements in
this study are required and fundamental for use and
appreciate the existence for such method in engineering
survey. The best method for practice in surveying has been
determined whereas the method computed for contouring
used by developed country can be used for Malaysia in the
industry and future development in the subtopics mentioned
has been examined which can be effectuated in location
concerned of irrigation works for flood solutions.
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AUTHOR PROFILE
Nur Afeera Syakirin Binti Abdul Manan.
BK18110057, Civil Engineering Student (Second Year),
Universiti Malaysia Sabah.