Extensive Survey Project: Dept of Civil Engineering, Brce Batch 2017-18

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT
DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

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INTRODUCTION
The extreme survey camp was conducted at two places Nandicross and Hegdehalli,
located about 30KM North of Bangalore. The survey work involved the investigation and design
of the following projects:-
 New Tank project
 Water supply and Sanitary Project
 Highway Project
 Old Tank Project/Restoration Tank Project
The work essential consisted of the following methods of surveying:
1. Levelling
2. Plane Table Surveying
3. Tacheometry
A brief description of the above mentioned methods of surveying is given below.
Levelling:-
Levelling is a method of surveying used for the determination of thedifference of elevations
of levels of various points on the surface of the earth. Levelling deals with distances in a vertical
plane.
Levelling is an important method of surveying used for many engineering works and
construction projects. It is required to determine the undulations of the earth’s surface for
topographic mapping. It is needed for the design of highways, railways, canals, sewers etc.
Levelling is essential for the layout of construction projects, for locating the excavation levels in
buildings, bridges, dams etc. the drainage characteristics of an area an be obtained by leveling.
The results of the leveling can be used to determine the catchment area, volume of the reservoir
and the area submerged by a reservoir. The results of leveling can also be used to determine the
volume of earth works for roads, railways and canals. Levelling is required in almost all engineering
works of importance in one from or the other. The most commonly used methods of leveling for the
survey work are described below.
Differential levelling:-
Differential levelling is the method of levelling which requires more than oncesetting of the
level instrument. The method is used when the two points, whose difference of elevation is
required, are situated quite apart or when their difference of elevation is large. Differential
levelling is also called as compound levelling. In this method, a number of settings of the
instrument are done one after the other, and the process is continued till last point is sighted.

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Differential levelling is used in practice for profile levelling, cross-sectioning, contouring,
etc., in profile levelling, the differential levelling is done along the line. Cross-sectioning is
required to determine the levels across the line along which profile levelling is done. In
contouring, the levels are determined at various points and the contours, which are the curves
joining the points of equal elevations, are drawn.
Profile Levelling:-
Profile levelling is the process of levelling along a fixed line to determine the elevations of
the ground surface along that line. The fixed line is generally the Centre line of a highway,
railway, canal, sewer or any other such utility. The fixed line need not be a single straight line.
It may consist of different straight reaches connected by curves. Profile levelling is also known
as longitudinal sectioning.
The ground profile is the section of the ground obtained when a vertical plane cuts the
ground surface. The ground profile shows the elevation of the ground along that section. The
profile levelling is done to determine the undulations of the ground surface. The ground profiles
are used to study the relationships between the existing ground levels and the levels of
proposed routes. The gradient lines are drawn and the formation levels at various points are
determined and the amount of cutting and filling can be computed.
Field Procedure:-
Profile levelling is nothing but differential levelling done along a line. Profile levelling is
commenced from a bench mark and end at bench mark, as far as possible.
Let AB be the fixed line along which profile levelling is to be done. Let BM-1 and BM-2 be the
two bench marks. Intermediate points a, b, c etc. are first marked on the line AB at some
suitable interval, usually 20m. The positions of these intermediate points are located by
chaining along the line AB and nothing the distances from the starting station A. When the
ground surface doesn’t have much undulation, the intermediate points are fixed at a uniform
interval. However, if ground surface is irregular and there are abrupt changes in the ground
surface, the interval may be non-uniform. The interval is reduced in the reaches where there
are abrupt changes.
The instrument is setup on a firm ground at some suitable place (say) L1 so as to command a
large number of points on the line. A back sight is taken on BM1 to determine the height of
instrument at L1. The staff is then kept successfully at stations A, a, b, c and d and the
intermediate sights are taken to determine the levels of those points. It becomes necessary to
shift the instrument if the intermediate sight exceeds 100m or so, when further points become
invisible owing to large undulations in the ground.
A suitable turning point is selected on affirm ground or on a permanent object and a

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foresight is taken. The instrument at L2 is determined. The intermediate sights are taken at
point’s e, f, g, h and B. Finally, a foresight is taken at Bm2 to check the levels, sectional
elevation and plan.
Field notes of profile levelling are recorded in the standard level book. The height of
instrument method is used for the reduction of levels. Since the number of intermediate sights
is more, the height of instrument method is more convenient.
Cross Sectioning:-
Cross sections are run at right angles to fixed line along which the profile levelling is done.
These lines are taken on the both the sides of the fixed line obtain the lateral line of the ground
surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earthwork and other purposes.
The cross sections are numbered consecutively from the commencement of center line and
are set out at right angles to main line of section with the help of chain or tape, the cross-staff
or the optical square and the distances are measured on the left and right of the center peg.
The levels of each cross-section point are determined.
Block Levelling:-
This method is employed in the places where the ground profile over a certain area is
required. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of squares of size varying from 2m to
20m, thus forming a grid or block. The level is setup in the middle of the area at a commanding
position. The height of the instrument is determined by taking a back sight on the bench mark
and then intermediate sights are taken on each of grid points.
From the elevations of grid points, the points on the various contours are located by
interpolation. Block levelling is essentially in places where a high degree of accuracy in terms of
the ground profile is required and where costly structures have to be constructed. This method
was used at the locations of waste weirs and cross-drainage works.
Contours:-
A contour is the line joining points of the same level on the earth surface or a contour is the
line of intersection of a level surface with the surface of the ground.
The difference of elevations between two successive contours is known as the contour
interval. For the survey works carried out in the camp, a contour interval of 1m has been used.
The indirect method of contouring has been used, wherein the elevations of some guide points
are determined in the field and the contours of a particularare interpolated from the elevations
of the guide points.
The storage capacity of a reservoir can be determined by the contour map. The contour line

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indicating the full reservoir level is drawn on the contour map. The line begins and ends at the
dam. The volume of water between this line and the river bed can be estimated.
Computation of volumes:-
The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurements done in the field is
required in the design and planning of many engineering works. The volume earth work is
required for the selection of a suitable alignment for a road, a canal and a sewer. The volume
of earthwork is also required for preparation of the estimates and for the payment of materials.
The computation of the volume of water stored in a reservoir is required for its design, planning
and management. The direct consumption of the volume from the measurements of length,
width, and depth is not feasible for large engineering works. The computation of the volume is
done after computing the area of various cross sections. For the estimation of volume of water
in a reservoir, the contour map is used.
Capacity of a reservoir:-
The capacity of a reservoir is determined from a contour map. The volume is computed by
assuming that the reservoir is divided into a number of horizontal slices. For computation of the
volume, the whole area lying within the contour line and the upstream of the dam is
determined with a planimeter. The whole area is enclosed by successive contours are taken as
horizontal sections and the vertical interval between them as the constant distance for
computation of the volume by the trapezoidal rule.
If A1, A2, A3… are whole areas included by the contours and if ‘h’ is the contour interval,
then the volume of the reservoir is given as
V = h [A1+A2+A3+………+A(n-1) ]
Plane Table Surveying:-

In this method of surveying, a plane table is used for taking the measurements and form
plotting the plan in the field. A plane table consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod.
Plane table surveying is a method in which the field observations and plotting of the plan
proceed simultaneously. Thus the plan is plotted as the survey progresses.
The main feature of plan table surveying is that the plotting is done in the field where all the
stations and other features are in view of the surveyor, and a comparison between the plan and

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plotted detail and the actual features on the ground can be made. Thus, the mistakes are easily
detected.
Plane table surveying is a rough method of surveying. It is mainly used for small-scale and
medium scale mapping in open country where great accuracy is not required. It is also used for
plotting the topographical maps in field.
This method was used for capacity surveys, key plan of channel alignment, and alignment of
centerline of existing bund, key plan of highway alignment and for preparation of village map.
Tacheometry:-
Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances
of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of
measurements by tape or chain. This method is very rapid and convenient. The primary object
of tacheometry is the preparation of contour maps or plans requiring both horizontal as well as
vertical both control. An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm is generally
used for tachometric survey. The horizontal distance between the instrument axis and the level
staff is determined using the distance equation.
D = Ks+C
Where
‘s’ is staff intercept,
‘K’ is stadia interval factor,
‘C’ is additive constant of the instrument.
This method was employed for the capacity surveys; in the preparation of the contour map.

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NEW TANK PROJECT

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
The objectives of the surveys conducted in the new tank project are to collect sufficient data
for the design and construction a new water tank for irrigation purpose of lands in and around
“HEGDEHALLI”.The new tank is to be constructed on the upstream side of the proposed dam site.
There are many natural springs which link this stream with underground water.
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial means for the
purpose of cultivation. The basic objective of irrigation is to supplement the natural supply of
water to land so as to obtain an optimum yield from crops grown on the land.
In order to achieve this objective of irrigation, an irrigation system is required to be developed,
which involves planning, designing, construction, operation and maintenance of various irrigation
works viz. a source of water supply, a distribution system for carrying water from the source to the
agricultural land and its application on the land and various other works.
The engineering aspect of an irrigation project involves the development of a source of water for
irrigation and the arrangement for the conveyance of water from the source right up to the
agricultural fields. The development of the source of water constitutes the first phase of an
irrigation project. The water for irrigation may be derived from surface water sources such as
rivers, lakes, ponds, tanks etc., and it is known as Surface water. For obtaining water for irrigation
from rivers, two methods are commonly adopted. In one of the methods, a storage reservoir is
created by constructing a dam across the river and the water stored in the reservoir is used for
irrigation through a canal system. The second phase of an irrigation project comprises the
development of a system for the conveyance of water for irrigation.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS
 Major Irrigation Projects

 Medium Irrigation Projects
 Minor Irrigation Projects
Major Irrigation Projects are usually multipurpose projects which irrigate large tracts of land and
also serve for power generation, navigation, flood control etc.
Medium Irrigation Projects are purely for development of irrigation and sometimes for drinking
water supply also
Minor irrigation consists of irrigation from:

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 Tanks
 Lift Irrigation
 Diversion schemes on small streams
2.3 IRRIGATION TANKS:
Irrigation Tank is generally a small storage reservoir formed across a stream in a valley. Sometimes
these tanks could be having independent catchments, drawing their supplies from the runoff from
the catchment areas. These tanks fully depend on the rainfall in their catchments.
An irrigation tank essentially consists of the following:
 An earthen bund across the valley creating storage
 A surplus weir to dispose of flood discharge
 Sluices to feed the channels
 Channels from the sluices to feed the command area
2.4 EARTHEN BUND:
The main barrier across the valley and stream bed, to store water in the tank, is usually an
earthen bund. For big tanks which are also called reservoirs, the height of the bund in the deep
course goes up to 10 to 15 meters.
Depending upon the method of construction, earth dams can be divided into two categories:
1. Rolled fill dam.
2. Hydraulic fill dam.
In the rolled fill dam, the embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically compacted
layers. The suitable materials are transported from the burrow pits to the construction site by
suitable earth moving machinery. It is then spread by bulldozers, and sprinkled to form layers of
limited thickness having proper water content.
In the case of hydraulic fill dam, the materials are excavated, transported, and placed by hydraulic
methods. Flumes are laid at a suitable falling gradient along the outer edge of the embankment.
The material, mixed with water at the borrow pits, is pumped and washed into these flumes
.
Rolled-fill earth dams can further be subdivided into following types:
 Homogeneous embankment type.
 Zoned embankment type.
 Diaphragm embankment type.
2.4(1) Homogeneous Embankment Type:

A purely homogeneous earth dam is composed of single kind of material
exclusive ,of the slope protection.

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2.4(2) Zoned Embankment Type:

Zoned embankment type earth dam is the one in which the dam is made up of more than
one material. The most common type of a rolled earth dam section is that in which a central
impervious core is flanked by zones of material considerably more pervious.
2.4(3) Diaphragm Embankment Type:

This is a modification over the homogeneous embankment type, in which the bulk of the
embankment is constructed of pervious material and a thin diaphragm of impermeable materials is
provided to check the seepage. The diaphragm may be of impervious soils, cement concrete,
bituminous concrete, or any other material, and may be placed either at the centre of the section
as a central vertical core, or at the upstream face as a blanket.
2.5. SLUICES:
Like all earthen dams, tank bunds are generally provided with sluices or outlets for
discharging water from the tank for irrigation and other purposes. These sluices may be pipes or
rectangular openings passing near the base of the bund, carrying water into the downstream
channel below the bund.
2.6. WASTE WEIR:

Similarly, as in case of all dam reservoir projects, tanks are provided with arrangements for
spilling away the excess water that may enter in to the tank, to avoid over–topping of the tank
bund. These escape arrangements may be in the form of a surplus escape weir or waste weir,
provided in the body or at one end of the tank bund. The weir is a masonry weir with its top level
equal to the Full tank level (F.T.P). When the tank is full up to its FTL and extra water comes in
and discharges over the waste weir. The capacity of the weir is so designed that the water level in
the tanks does not exceed the maximum water level (M.W.L). The top of the bund will be kept at a
level so as to provide suitable freeboard this M.W.L
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2.7. BERMS:
Berms are narrow strip of earth provided on the downstream side of the embankment to see
to that the saturation line lies within the embankment. If the saturation line lies outside the
embankment, there is a chance of slipping of the dry side over the wet side.
The berms when fully formed serve the following purposes:
 The possibility leaks and breaches are reduced as they bring the saturation line more inside
the body of the bund.
 They sometimes provide an additional inspection path.
 They provide additional strength to banks and thus make it safe.

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2.8.CANAL ALIGNMENT:
A canal is provided on the downstream side of the bund, taking off from the sluice points at
a gentle bed slope. This is the paths along which water stored in the tank is supplied to the
command area for the purpose of irrigation.
Based on the alignment, canals are classified as:
 Ridge or watershed canal
 Side slope canal
 Contour canal
In contour canals, gravity flow of water is made use of to irrigate the area on the lower side, down
to the valley whereas in ridge canals irrigation is possible on either sides of the canal.
A contour canal has been provided for the proposed bund.
2.8.1 SURVEYS CARRIED OUT AT HEGDEHALLI:

The survey work consisted of the following:-
 Longitudinal section and cross-sections of the bund
 Capacity surveys
 Block leveling of Waste weir
 Alignment of channel - longitudinal and cross sections
2.8.2 SEEPAGE CONTORL IN EARTHEN DAMS:-

The following are the seepage control in earthen dams,
1. Seepage controls through embankments
2. Seepage control through foundations
2.9. SEEPAGE CONTORLS THROUGH EMBANKMENTS:

 Rock toe or toe filter
 Horizontal blanket or horizontal filter
 Chimney drain
2.9.1 ROCK TOE OR TOE FILTER:

The ‘rock toe’ consists of stones of size usually varying from 15 to 20 cms. A toe filter
(graded in layers) is provided as a transition zone, between the homogenous embankment fill and
rock toe.
Toe filter generally consists of three layers of fine sand, coarse sand and gravel, as per the filter
criteria requirements. The height of rock toe is generally kept between 25 to 35% of reservoir
head. The top of the rock toe must be sufficiently higher than the tail water depth, so as to
prevent the action of tail water.

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2.9.2 HORIZONTAL BLANKET OR HORIZONTAL FILTER:
The horizontal filter extends from the toe (downstream end) of the dam, inwards, up to a
distance varying from 25 to 100% of the distance of the toe from the central line of the dam.
Generally, a length equal to three times the height of the dam is sufficient. The blanket should be
properly designed as per the filter criteria, and should be sufficiently pervious to drain off
effectively.
2.9.3 CHIMNEY DRAIN:

The horizontal filter not only helps in bringing the phreatic line down in the body of the dam
but also provides drainage of foundation and helps in rapid consolidation. The horizontal filter tries
to make the soil more pervious in the horizontal direction and thus causes stratification. When
large scale stratification occurs, such filter becomes inefficient as shown in figure.
In such a possible case, a vertical filter (are inclined upstream or downstream) is placed
along with horizontal filter, so as to intercept the seeping water effectively, as shown in figure.
Such an arrangement is termed as chimney drain. Sometimes a horizontal filter is combined and
placed along with a rock toe, as shown in figure.
2.9.4 SEEPAGE CONTROL THROUGH FOUNDATION:

 Impervious cutoff
 Relief’s wells and drain trenches
2.9.5 IMPERVIOUS CUTOFF:

Vertical impervious cutoff made of concrete or sheet piles may be provided at the upstream
end (i.e., at heel) of the earthen dam. These cutoffs should generally, extend through the entire
depth of the pervious foundation strata is very large cutoff, up to a lesser depth, called a partial
cutoff may be provided. Such a cutoff reduces the seepage discharge by smaller amount. So much
so, that a 50% depth reduces the discharge by 25% and 90% depth reduces the discharge by 65% or
so.
2.9.6 RELIEF WELLS AND DRAIN TRENCHES:

When large scale seepage takes place through the pervious foundation, overlain by a thin
less pervious layer, there is a possibility that the water may boil up near the toe of the dam, as
shown in the figure.
Such a possibility can be controlled by constructing relief wells or drain trenches, through the
upper impervious layer, as shown in the figure, so as to permit escape of seeping water. Providing
may also control the possibility of sand boiling downstream berms behind the toe of the dam as
shown in the figure. The weight of the overlaying material, in such a case, is sufficient to resist the
upward pressure and thus preventing the possibility of sand boiling. The provision of such berms
also protects the downstream toe, from possible sloughing due to seepage

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2.10. SLOPE PROTECTION:
2.10.1PROTECTION OF UPSTREAM SLOPE:
The upstream of earth dam is protected against the erosive action of waves, by stone pitching or
by stone dumping as shown in the figure.
The thickness of the dumped rock should be about one meter, and should be placed over the gravel
filter of about 0.3-meter thickness. The filter prevents the washing of fines, from the dam into the
riprap. The provision of such a dumped riprap has been found to be most effective and has been
found to fail only in 5% cases.
The stone pitching, i.e. the handpicked riprap requires a lesser thickness and may prove more
economical if suitable rock is available only in limited quantity. However, when provided in smaller
thickness (i.e. single layer), it is more susceptible to damage and has been found to fall in about
30% cases.
Concrete slabs may also be laid over the upstream slope of the earth dam. Then such slabs are
constructed, they must be laid over a filter and weep holes should be provided so as to permit
escape of water, when the reservoir is drawn down. If the filter is not provided, the fines from the
embankment may get washed away from the joints, creating hollows beneath the slab and causing
the consequent cracking and failure of the slab under its own weight. Concrete slab protection has
been found to fail in about 36% cases mainly because of not providing filter below them.
2.10.2 PROTECTION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE:
The downstream slope of the earthen dam is protected against the erosive action of wave up to a
slightly above the water depth, in a similar manner as is explained above for upstream slope.
More over the downstream slope should be protected against erosive action of rain and its runoff
by providing horizontal berms at suitable intervals, say about 15 meter or so has to intercept the
rainwater and discharge it safely. Attempts should also be made so as to grow grass and plants at
the downstream slope, soon after their construction.
2.10.3 OBJECTIVE:
To estimate the quantity of earth work for a proposed construction of the earthen bund
similarly, as in case of all dam reservoir projects, tanks are provided with arrangements for spilling
away the excess water that may enter in to the tank, to avoid over–topping of the tank bund.
These escape arrangements may be in the form of a surplus escape weir or waste weir, provided in
the body or at one end of the tank bund. The weir is a masonry weir with its top level equal to the
Full tank level (F.T.P). When the tank is full up to its FTL and extra water comes in and discharges

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over the waste weir. The capacity of the weir is so designed that the water level in the tanks does
not exceed the maximum water level (M.W.L). The top of the bund will be kept at a level so as to
provide suitable freeboard this M.W.L channel below, to meet the irrigation or other requirements,
as and when needed. A canal is provided on the downstream side of the bund, taking off from the
sluice points at a gentle bed slope. This is the paths along which water stored in the tank is
supplied to the command area for the purpose of irrigation.
2.11. BASED ON THE ALIGNMENT, CANALS ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
Berms are narrow strip of earth provided on the downstream side of the embankment to see
to that the saturation line lies within the embankment. If the saturation line lies outside the
embankment, there is a chance of slipping of the dry side over the wet side.
THE SURVEY WORK CONSISTED OF THE FOLLOWING:

 capacity surveys
 Block leveling of Waste weir
 Alignment of channel - longitudinal
 To estimate the quantity of earth work for a proposed construction of the
2.11.1 Specifications:
 The length of the proposed bund should be least.
 There should be good foundation available.
 A natural subsidiary is desirable at bund site for locating waste weir.
To meet the above specifications, the center line for the bund is fixed by means of at least two
flag posts (P and Q) on either side at elevation of 2m above the top level of bund.
2.11.2 EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

 Theodolite with stand
 Level with stand
 Level staff
 Chain with arrows ranging rod
 Compass with stand
 Wooden pegs to drive along the center line at suitable intervals.

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2.11.3 Procedure:
 Levelling is started from a suitable bench mark established near the bund
 Fix a point ‘A’ along the center line of the bund which has an elevation of 3m higher than
proposed TBL .after ‘A’ in fixed, its chain age is assumed to be ‘zero’.
 Fix a ranging rod in a commanding position on the proposed center line consider it as ‘C’.
 Set up theodolite on point ‘C’ Align the theodolite so that both the points are visible.
 Starting from ‘A’ pegs is driven along center line.
 Reduced levels of these peg points are determined.
 Cross sections are taken at every30 m interval.
 Permanent bench marks are established near the center line of bund.
2.11.4 DRAWINGS REQUIRED:
 The longitudinal section of profile drawn to a scale 1:1000.

 The cross sections at various chain ages showing the profile of bund MWL, FTL etc to some
scale.
 Block levels at site to some scale showing contour interval of 0.5 m.
 Capacity contouring
2.11.5 OBJECTIVES:
 To fix the capacity of tank bund
 To fix the full tank level
 To fix the MWL of tank
 To fix the sill level of sluice
2.12. PROCEDURE:
 Carry out fly levels from nearest TBM.
 For a particular set up of the instrument, the required staff readings are made by tying a
colored material around the reading.
 The center line of bund and that of waste weir is located on the plane table sheet.
 Staff man moves with the staff in the direction indicated by the person at the dumpy level,
simultaneously the person at the plane table bisects the contour point.
 The distance between dumpy level and the staff is calculated by method of tachometer
using the relation D=KS+C.
 The distance obtained is converted to a scale of 1:1000 and plotted on the plane table.
 The contour point should be located at closed intervals.
 Block levels at waste weir.

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2.12.1OBJECTIVE:
To dispose of the surplus water

Specifications:
 There should be a natural diversion to carry surplus water
 There should be good soil at the waste weir for foundation site
 The length and height of body wall must be least.
 The cost of protective work should be least.
Formula for finding length of weir
Qf = 2/3 Cd√2g L H3/2
Where
Cd= co-efficient of discharge=0.62
H = head over weir (MWL-FTL)
L = length of weir
g = acceleration due to gravity
2.12.2 PROCEDURE:
 The reduced level of point ‘p’ is obtained by ferrying fly levels from temporary BM.
 The bearing of the center line of the waste weir RP is taken with the help of prismatic
compass.
 Levels are carried out at every 5m along RP and cross-sections are taken at every 5m or a
distance of 40-45m.
 A neat sketch of the layout and the square block is formed and is indicated with clear
notations to identify the points for which the reduced level has to be determined.
2.13.3 DRAWINGS REQUIRED

Plan of the block to some scale showing RL at each corner with the contours interpolated at an
interval of 0.5m.
Position of waste weir indicating its length and protective works
2.13. CANAL ALIGNMENT:
2.13.1 OBJECTIVE:
To estimate the cost of channel and cross drainage works

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2.13.2 DESIGN ASPECTS:-
(A). Collecting data: -

The catchment area of proposed New Tank project is found to be 15km2 (Dept of Irrigation, Nandi
hills).The average rainfall recorded is found to be 87.5cm.The Avg rainfall of a bad year may be
taken as 2/3 to ¾ of mean of annual rainfall taking it to be ¾ the bad year rainfall. Presently no
bad years.
Assuming the run-off co-efficient for the concerned catchment area to be 20% avg rainfall.
Annual yield= (20/100) x 87.5 = 17.5 cm.
Annual yield from catchment = 15x106x0.175
=2625000cumecs.
(B). Use full storage of water in the reservoir,

Assuming 10% evaporation losses and 10% being the dead storage in the reservoir, the use full
storage may be taken as 80% of the annual yield.
Useful storage= (80/100) x 2625000 = 2100000cumecs
Assuming 4000cumecs of water per hectare as the duty of area that can be irrigated will be,
= (2100000/4000)= 525 hectares
(C). Design of dam:-

Keeping in view the yearly yield of water & free board required height of dam is fixed, the
nature of foundation body wall & their dimensions etc…. were depending upon the geological
formation at the site available construction materials & economy of the construction.
It is decided to have the following features:
FULL TANK LEVEL (FTL) = 988.335
MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL (MWL) = 989.335
Deepest Bed Level = 982.355
Max. Depth of water storage = 989.335 - 982.355
= 6.980m.
Height of free board is taken as 1m.

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Top level of bund = MWL + Free Board.
= 989.335 + 1
= 990.335m
Top width of Bund id taken as 3m. considering the stability of the dam, provide U/S slope as
2.5:1 & D/S slope as 2:1 for the bund with masonry core inside has assume hydraulic gradient as 4:1
for casting material and 3:1 for hearting material. A revetment of 50cm thick stone is provided on
upstream extending 30cm above the MWL with 10cm thick gravel backing.
(D). Design of masonry core:

Top width of puddle core (a’),
a’ = 1.8m (assuming 60% of top width of Bund)
Say take it as 2m.
Bottom width (b) = Top width + 2 x batter x height
= 1.8+ 2 x (1/6) x 6.98
= 4.130m say take it as 5m
Assuming that the hard strata is available at R, = 980.000M.
Height of the core wall below the deepest point = 982.355 – 980.000
= 2.355m.
Bottom width (d’) = bottom width –[ 2 x batter x height]
= 5-[ 2 x ¼ x 2.355 ]
= 3.82m Say 4m
Rectangular grip renches are provided (1.5m 1.5m) size along the bund length on D/S, and
longitudinal drains are provided on U/S, every 10m interval across the bund.
(E). Discharge of water in channel :

Area to be irrigated = 525 hecatre

18
Expansion
NATURE OF AREA OF
DUTY
CROP HECTARES
 Sugar cane 150 800
 Rice 200 1000
 Wheat 100 1000
 Vegetable 100 800
Quantity of water required
For sugar cane, (Q1) = Area/Duty.
= 150/800
(Q1 = 0.1875 cumecs
For rice (Q2) = 200/1000 = 0.20 cumecs
For wheat (Q3) = 100/1000 = 0.10 cumecs
For vegetable (Q4) = 100/800 = 0.125 cumecs
Actual quantity of water required ‘Q’ = (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4) / time factor.
= (0.1875+0.20+0.10+0.125)/4
‘Q’ = 0.6125 cumecs
Since more water is required for Khariff period the discharge may be increased by 50%.
Hence total discharge = (0.5 x 0.6125 + 0.6125)
= 0.91875
= 0.92 cumec.
(E) Design of plug sluice:

Quantity of water to be discharged through the sluice is 0.3 cumec.
Actual discharge =Cd x A x V
= Cd X A x √2gh

19
A = Q/ (Cd√2gh)
= [0.92/(0.66 x √2x9.81x1.5)]
A = 0.257m2.
Let us provide a circular opening,
A = (π/4) x d2
0.257 = (π/4) x d2
d = 0.57m = 0.6m
Sluice barrel:- The main vent way to b above for sluice barrel is about 60cm * 75 cm.
(F). Design of plug:-

Teak wood conical plug is made to have 70cm outer dia as its top given a seating of 5cm
around the plug. This seating of 5cm is provided with a metallic waster. The plug is connected to a
corner and of a opening rod of 25mm dia.
Height of plug = 2 x diameter.
= 2 x 0.6 = 1.2m.
Bottom dia of plug = (1/3) x 0.6
= 0.2m.
Cistern is rear of barrel, provide (2.5 x 4.85) m up to a depth of full supply level from foundation
level. The cistern functions as a discharge dissipater destroying for reducing the energy of incoming
water from tank to the channel dimensions.
(H). Design of C/S of channel:-

A = C/S of the cannel in m2.
V = velocity of flow m/s
Q = discharge m3/s
Q=A*V
A = Q/V

20
For a non-silting and non-scouring canal velocity of 0.9 m/s for the bed slope of 1 in 2000.
Assuming 20% loss in canal,
Q = 0.92 + (20/100)* 0.92
= 1.08 m3/s.
A = Q/V = 1.08/0.9 = 1.20m2.
Assuming, the side slope of the channel as 1.5:1 for most economical trapezoidal section.
Half of the top width = sloping side.
(b+2*n*d)/2 = √(nd) 2+d2
= d√n2+1
b + 2(1.5d) = 2d√1.52+1
b + 3d = 3.6d
b = 0.6d
For most economical trapezoidal section the hydraulic mean depth,
m = d/2
m = area/wetted perimeter
Wetted perimeter =( b+2d√n2+1)
Area = d/2 * ( b+2d√n2+1 )
= d/2 * (0.6*d + 2d√1.52+1 )
1.20 = d/2* (0.6*d+2d√1.52+1 )
d = 0.75m.
Bottom width,b = 0.6*d
= 0.6*0.75m
b = 0.45m.Say 0.5m
b + 2*n*d = 0.45 + 2*1.5*0.75 = 2.70m.

21
Assuming a free board of 0.3m,
Overall depth = 0.75+ 0.3 = 1.05m.
(I). Design of waste weir:-

Q = CM2/3
C = Ryve’s co-efficient = 10
M = Catchment area = 15km2.
Q = 10* 152/3 = 61 cumec.
Rectangular weir :-
Length of weir of rectangular shape is calculated by the fomula,
Q = 2/3*Cd*√2g *L*H3/2
Q = 61 cumec
Cd = 0.65
H = MWL – FTL = 989.335-988.335
= 1m
61 = 2/3 *0.65*√2x9.81 *L*13/2
L = 31.78m Say 32m
It is proposed to make arrangement for storing water up to MWL for the non-monsoon period
Dam stones of 0.2*0.2*0.5m at 2m c/c are provided on the crest of weir.
Total length of weir = 32+ (0.2*31)
= 38.2m Say 39m.
(J). Weir details :-

Top/crest width of weir
A = 0.55 x (√H + √h )

22
H = FTL – top of the foundation level
= 988.335-982.355
= 5.98m
h = MWL – FTl = 989.335 – 988.335
= 1m
Top width = 0.55 x ( √5.98 + √1 )
= 1.35m say 1.5m.
Bottom width = (H+h/√p-1 )
P = Specific gravity of concrete = 2.25
= (5.98+1 /√2.25-1 )
= 6.24m Say 6.30m

23
EARTH WORK CALCULATION FOR BUND:
Chainage Ground Top Depth Avg Side Side Area Sectional Volume
In ‘M’ Rl Bund of Depth Area Area Bd Area In ‘M3’
Level filling S1d2 S2d2 Bd+Sd2
0 990.335 990.335 0.000 - - - - - -
10 989.960 990.335 0.375 0.188 0.088 0.070 0.563 0.642 6.416
20 989.190 990.335 1.145 0.760 1.444 1.155 2.280 3.580 35.796
30 988.785 990.335 1.550 1.348 4.539 3.632 4.043 8.128 81.280
40 988.450 990.335 1.885 1.718 7.375 5.900 5.153 11.790 117.896
50 988.020 990.335 2.315 2.100 11.025 8.820 6.300 16.223 162.225
60 986.160 990.335 4.175 3.245 26.325 21.060 9.735 33.428 334.276
70 985.800 990.335 4.535 4.355 47.415 37.932 13.065 55.739 557.386
80 983.840 990.335 6.495 5.515 76.038 60.830 16.545 84.979 849.793
90 982.975 990.335 7.360 6.928 119.976 95.981 20.783 128.761 1287.606
100 982.655 990.335 7.680 7.520 141.376 113.101 22.560 149.798 1497.984
110 982.905 990.335 7.430 7.555 142.695 114.156 22.665 151.091 1510.906
120 982.955 990.335 7.380 7.405 137.085 109.668 22.215 145.592 1455.916
130 983.595 990.335 6.740 7.060 124.609 99.687 21.180 133.328 1333.281
140 982.355 990.335 7.980 7.360 135.424 108.339 22.080 143.962 1439.616
150 985.995 990.335 4.340 6.160 94.864 75.891 18.480 103.858 1038.576
160 986.480 990.335 3.855 4.098 41.974 33.579 12.293 50.069 500.689
170 987.160 990.335 3.175 3.515 30.888 24.710 10.545 38.344 383.443
180 987.685 990.335 2.650 2.913 21.207 16.965 8.738 27.823 278.235
190 988.975 990.335 1.360 2.005 10.050 8.040 6.015 15.060 150.601
201 990.335 990.335 0.000 0.680 1.156 0.925 2.040 3.080 30.804
Total Volume :- 13052.72 M3
VOLUME OF EARTHWORK: 13052.72 M3

24
CONCLUSION:
The primary object of the minor irrigation tank is to store as well as provide water for the
irrigation purpose. New tank is constructed to give a perennial source of water for irrigation to
agricultural land area. This project involved for the construction of new tank in Hedgehalli.
Finally after the estimation for the project proposed and practically implemented it has to be
situated in terms of benefit and cost ratio. The benefit value coming out of the project should be
greater than the cost involved in the implementation of the project in all the forms including the
loss of land and forest area.

25

26
PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING PROJECT
4.1. INTRODUCTION:
Public Health Engineering is a project carried out for the effective supply of water and proper
sanitation of water maintains. For the economic and efficient functioning of a water supply project
it is necessary to prepare a detailed plan, which incorporates the design of various components of
the project.
4.2 .OBJECTIVE:-
• To formulate and design a water supply schema at Nandi village considering the water is
available at the reservoir as a main source of supply.
• To ensure treated water supply at all times of the year at adequate pressure.
• To meet the supply demand adequately.`
4.3 .IMPORTENCE OF PLANNED WATER SUPPLY :

Water is extremely useful man, providing him the luxuries and comforts, in addition to fulfilling his
basic necessities of life. Water is absolutely essential not only for survival of human being, but also
for animals, plants, and all other living beings. Further it is necessary that the water required for
their needs must be good, and it should not contain unwanted impurities or harmful chemicals or
bacteria in it. Therefore, in order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality
water, it becomes imperative in a modern society, to plan and build suitable water supply
schemes, which may provide potable water to the various sections of the community in accordance
with their demands and requirements. The provision of such a scheme ensures a constant and a
reliable water supply to that section of the people for which it is designed. Such a scheme not only
helps in supplying safe wholesome water to the people for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing etc.
So as to keep the diseases away and thereby promoting better health; but would also help in
supplying water for fountains, gardens etc, and thus helping in maintaining better sanitation and
beautification of surroundings, thereby reducing environmental pollution.
Besides promoting overall hygiene and public health, it ensures safety against fires by supplying
sufficient quantity to extinguish it. The existence of such a water supply scheme further helps in
attracting industries and thereby helping in industrialization and modernization of society,
consequently reducing unemployment and ensuring better living standards. Such schemes therefore
help in promoting wealth and welfare of the entire humanity as a whole.

27
4.4. PLANNING OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES :
In planning a water supply scheme, it is essential, to first of all, search a source of water in the
vicinity of the town or city for which the scheme is to be designed. Sometimes, the water may be
available nearby, and sometimes it may be far away. Further it may be an underground well, or a
river, lake or a stream. It is, therefore, necessary to seek out all the possible sources and evaluate
each in terms of quantity and cost, and then to take a final decision regarding the utilization of a
particular source or sources depending on the availability of water in those sources and the water
demand of town or city. Suitable systems should then be designed for collecting, transporting, and
treating this water. The treated water is finally distributed to the residents and industries
depending upon their requirements, through a network of distribution systems..
The essential elements of a public water supply scheme are
• Sources of supply
• Intakes
• Reservoirs
• Water treatment plant
• Elevated tanks and stands pipes
• Valves
• Hydrants
• Mains, sub mains and branch lines
4.5. DEMAND OF WATER:

To design a water supply scheme it becomes imperative to first of all evaluate the amount of water
demanded by public. In fact, the first study is to consider the demand, and then the second
requirement is to find sources to fulfill that demand. The various types of water demands, which
may have to design a water supply scheme it becomes imperative to first of all evaluate the
amount of water demanded by public. In fact, the first study is to consider the demand, and then
the second requirement is to find sources to fulfill that demand.
The various types of water demands, which may have, can be broken down into the following
classes:
• Domestic water demand

28
• Industrial water demand
• Institution water demand
• Commercial water demand
• Demand for public uses
• Fire demand
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DEMAND:

• Size of city
• Climatic conditions
• Habits of population
• Industrial and commercial activities
• Quality of water supply
• Pressure and distribution system
• Development of sewage system
• System of supply
• Loss of water
• Policy of meeting
Measures to be taken to maintain the quality of water:
• The content of dissolved oxygen present in the water should be high
• The presence of algae, which supply oxygen to the water is desirable
• There should be enough aeration for the purpose of re-oxygenation of water.
• The temperature of the water should be maintained low
• Standards of water for public distribution.
Certain Physical, Chemical and Biological characterstics with maximum permissible limits as
follows

29
4.6. PHYSICAL STANDARDS:

 Total - 500-1000mg/lit
 Ph value - 6.6-8.0
 Hardness - 75-115rpm expressed as CaCo3
 Chlorite - 250 mg/lit
 Nitrates - 45 mg/lit
 Iron - 0.3 mg/lit
 Manganese - 0.05 mg/lit
 Lead - 0.05mg/lit
4.7. TOTAL REQUIREMENT OF WATER :

The annual average daily draft in liters/day required by a town can be worked out by multiplying
the probable number of the persons who are going to use the facilities provided by the scheme,
and the annual average daily consumption of each person (for all uses) called per capital
demand.This estimated quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply
scheme has to be designed, should be worked out with due provision is made In the water supply
scheme is known as the design period. It is necessary to estimate this future population as
accurately as possible. Depending upon the possibilities of future development of the town, the
possible future population of the region just by the end of the design period is generally estimated,
using different methods, such as
• Arithmetic increase method;
• Geometrical increase method;
• Incremental increase method;
• The logical curve method.
The design period chosen, should neither be so long as to throw unnecessary extra financial burden
on the present generation, nor should it be so short as to make the design insufficient for future
needs.

30
PHE DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS:
Design Details if Water supply line :
Population forecast:
Sl. No. YEAR POPULATION A.I.M G.I.M I.I.M
1 1951 1000 - - -
2 1961 1400 400 40 -
3 1971 2200 800 57.14 400
4 1981 2560 360 16.36 - 440
5 1991 3000 440 17.19 80
6 2001 3760 760 23.33 320
7 2011 4472 712 18.94 -48
X = 578.66 r = 26 Y = 62.4
Consider design period of 30years
 ARITHEMATIC INCRESE METHOD:
Pn = po+nx
P2048= 4472+(3.7*578.66)
P2048= 6613.04
 GEOMETRIC INCREASE METHOD:
Pn = Po (1+r/100)n
P2048= 4472(1+(26/100))3.7
P2048=10516.5
 INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD:
Pn=po+nx +(n*(n+1)/2)
P2048= 4472+(3.7*578.66)+(3.7*(3.7+1)/2)
P2048 =6621.74
Taking population as an average of all the 3 methods
Total population will be P2048 = 8018

31
 FLOATING POPULATION
• Number of daily pilgrims= 100
• Marriage’s=100
• Campus=100
Considering per capital demand=135lpcd
Total demand = 100+100+100 = 300 * 135
= 40500 lpcd
 Cattle = 50 assuming 50 lpcd for each cattle
Demand = 50*50 = 2500 lpcd
Demand for forecasted population = 8018*135
= 1082418 l/d
Total demand = 40500+2500+1082418
= 1125418 l/d
= 1125418/103*24*60*60
= 1125.42 m3/day
= 0.0130 m3/sec
Maximun Daily demand= 1.8*total demand
= 1.8*1125.42
= 2025.75 m3/d
= 0.0234 m3/sec
 QUANTITY OF WATER THROUGH THE PUMP:

Assuming Velocity flow =0.9 m/sec
Pump working =8 hrs/day

32
Q = max daily demand/(8*60*60)
= 2025.75/(8*60*60)
Q = 0.070 m3/sec
Using discharge equation,
Q=A*V
0.070 = (πd2/4)*0.9
d =0.315m= 31.5cm Say 32cm
Provide dia of rising main as 32cm
 CAPACITY OF PUMPS
BHP=QWH/75ŋ
H=HS+HF+HT
HS=height of RL-lowest RL+OHT
= 983.270-968.020+10
= 25.25 m
HF= flv2/2gd
= (0.04*1694*0.92)/ (2*9.81*0.32)
= 8.74 m
Where,
L = 1694 m
f = 0.04
OHT = height of water tank = 10m
HV= v2/2gd
= (0.92)/ (2*9.81*0.32)
= 0.130 m
Total Head,H = 34m

33
BHP = (0.070*1000*34)/ (75*0.8)
= 39.66 HP Say 40HP
Provide 2 pumps of 40 HP out of which 1 is stand by.
 TREATMENT UNIT:
1. SCREENS:
Assume velocity of flow through screens=0.1m/s
Area of screens =Q/V
=0.01/.1=0.1M^2
Height of the screens=0.3M
L=A/H=0.1/0.3=0.34M
Provide screen of dimension (0.34 x 0.3)
2. SEDIMENTATION TANK:
Assume sedimentation tank works for 8 hr /day
Quantity of water treated will be ‘Q’ = 2025.75/ (8*60*60)
= 0.070M3/sec
Assume detention time has 1.5 hr =5400 sec
Volume of water to be treated =Q*DT
= 0.070*5400 = 378M3
Assume depth of tank =3m
Area =volume/d= 378/3
= 126 m2
Assume L:B= 3:1, A=3B2
B = 6.5m , L= 19.5m

34
Provide a free board of 0.5m & additional 1m for inlet & outlet depth=3+0.5
Dimension of sedimentation tank will be (19.5*6.5*4.5m)
3. DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION COAGULATION TANK:

Assume the tank work for 4 hr
DT=4 hrs =14400sec
Volume =Q/DT= 0.070*14400 = 1008 m3
Assume depth of Tank, dp =2m,
Area=volume/dp= 1008/2= 504m2
Area = πd2/4
Dia, d = 25.33m = 26 m,
Provide 0.5 m as free board, dia= 26m
DP=2+0.5=2.5m
Provide Coagulation sedimentation tank of dia 26m and depth 2.5m
 DESIGN OF FILTER[SLOW SAND FILTER]:

Maximum demand = 2025.75 m3/day
Assuming filter works 8 hr’s per day
Discharge, Q= 2025.75/(8*60*60)= 0.070m3/sec
Assume L=2*B
Depth of filter meter =1m
Total area=v/d
Assume rate of filtration = 100lt/m2/hr =0.1m3/m2/hr
Area=maximum demand/(rate of filtration)
= 0.070*60*60/0.1 = 2520m2
Area=L*B

35
Assume L=2B, A = L*B
2520 = 2B2
B= 25 m
L= 50 m
DP= 1.5m
Where, 0.5m freeboard
Provide 2 slow sand filter unit
Provide a slow sand filter of dimension 50*25*1.5m
 DESIGN OF DISINFECTION TANK :

Maximum demand = 0.070m3/sec
Assume contact time of 1hr operates for 8hr per day
Volume to be treated =0.070*60*60 = 252m3.
Assume chlorine dosage required for this Disinfection 0.3ppm =0.3mg/liter
Amount of chlorine required =V*0.3
= 252*0.3= 75.6 kg
Chlorine content in bleaching powder is 30%, it means 100 kg bleaching content of 30 kg chlorine
content
The amount of bleaching required = 75.6*(100/30)
= 252 grams/day
Annual consumption of bleaching powder = 252*365
= 91.98kg Say 92kg
Assume depth of 1 m,
Total area =v/d
=252/1=252 m2

36
Assume L=2*B, A=2B2
252 = 2B2
B= 11.25 m,
L= 22.45 m
Thus provide a disinfection tank of dimension (11.25*22.50) m
 DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

Provide velocity of tank=0.9m /sec, pipe dia =32cm
Water transferred 8 hrs /day
Q= 2025.75/(8*60*60)
= 0.070 m3/sec
A=Q/V= 0.070/0.9 = 0.077m2,
A = πd2/4
dia,d = 0.315m Say 32cm
Find the gradient by HAZEN’S formula
V= 0.85*Ch*r0.66*S0.5
Ch=140
R=d/4= 0.32/4= 0.08m
0.9= 0.85*140*0.080.66*S0.5
S= 1.604*10-3
S= 1 IN 623
Say S = 1 IN 650

37
CONCLUSION:
Public health engineering is a project carried out for the efficient supply of water and proper
utilization of water maintained zoological balance b/w living beings and environment.. Organized
community required service of water supply and sewage disposal in order ensure that availability of
sufficient quantity of good water. It becomes necessary to plan and built suitable water supply
scheme the provision of such a scheme shall ensure constant and reliable water supply to the
people as well as the disposal of sewage through sewage system.
They will make area disease free when more required thing for community, treatment for the
sewage is done to ensure that there will be proper disposal of sewage into nearby sea. If present
since in the nearby of the project side no seashore is there, disposal; of sewage done by sewage
drying bed.

38

39
HIGHWAY PROJECT
3.1 Role of Transportation:-

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of
any country. Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every
commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicines needs transport
at the production and distribution stages. In the production stages transportation is required for
carrying raw material like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage transportation is
required from the production centers viz. farms and factories to the marketing centers for
distribution to the retailers and the consumers. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the
process of socio-economic development of the country. The adequacy of transportation system of a
country indicates its economic and social development.
The main advantages of transportation can be summarized as follows:-
 Transportation is for the advancement of the community.

 Transportation is essential for the economic prosperity and general development of the
country.
 Transportation is essential for the strategic movement in emergency for defense of the
country and to maintain law and order.
 In developing counties like India, 80% of the population is living in villages. As a result of
this, development cannot be brought about by developing urban centers alone, but also the
rural areas with the help of good transportation system.
3.2. Modes of Transportation

The four major modes of transportation are:-
 Roadways
 Railways
 Waterways
 Airways
Among these, transportation by road is the only mode which gives maximum service to
one and all. This mode also has maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction,
time and speedof travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle. It is possible to provide door to
door service only by road transport. The other three modes of transportation have to depend on
roads for the service to and from their respective terminals, airports, harbors or stations. The road
network is needed not only to serve as a feeder system for other modes of transportation and to

40
supplement them, but also to provide independent facility for road travel by a well-planned
network of roads throughout the country.
Highway Engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the development of a system of
roads, which can be used by vehicles and people, for the transportation of people and materials.
The road pavements area generally constructed on small embankments, slightly above the
generally ground level wherever possible, in order to avoid the difficult drainage and maintenance
problems. The term ‘road’ or ‘roadway’ has therefore been termed ‘Highway’ and the science and
technology dealing with road engineering is called ’Highway Engineering’.
In a nutshell, highway engineering deals with various phases like development, planning,
alignment, highway geometric design and location, highway traffic operations and its control,
materials, pavement design, constructing and maintenance, finance and administration of a road
system.
3.2.1Characteristics of roads:-
 For short distance it saves time.
 Speed of movement is directly related to the casualty.
 It is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole community alike.
3.2.2 Classification of roads: -

 National Highways (NH)
 State Highways (SH)
 Major district roads (MDR)
 Other district roads (ODR)
 Village roads (VR)
3.3. Highway Alignment

The position or layout of the centerline of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and
curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves come under the vertical alignment. A new road
should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in one or more of the following
disadvantages
 Capital loss initially in construction.

 Recurring losses in cost of maintenance and vehicle operation.
 Increase in accident rate.

41
Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to
increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the roadside. Hence the
importance of careful considerations while finalizing the alignment of a new road need not be over
emphasized
3.4 Requirements of A New Alignment:-

The basic requirements of an alignment between two terminal stations are that it should be:
1. Short – a straight alignment is the shortest alignment between two points, though there
may be several practical considerations which would cause deviations from the shortest
path.
2. Easy – the alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain and operate
vehicles.
3. Safe – the alignment should be safe for construction and maintenance and traffic
operation with safe geometric features
4. Economical – the alignment would be economical only if the total cost including initial
cost, maintenance and vehicle operation cost is lowest.
3.5. Factors Controlling Alignment:-

For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal stations. This
is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as intermediate obstructions and
topography. The shortest route may have very steep gradient and hence not easy for vehicle
operation. Similarly, there may be construction and maintenance problems along a route which
may otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often deviated from the shortest route in order to
cater for intermediate places of importance or obligatory points. A road which is economical in the
initial construction cost need not necessarily be the most economical in maintenance or in vehicle
operation cost. It may also happen that the shortest and easiest route for vehicle operation may be
the Costliest among the different alternatives from the construction view point. Thus it may be
seen that an alignment can seldom fulfill all the requirements simultaneously, hence a judicial
choice is made considering all the factors.
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
 Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
 Other considerations

42
In hill roads additional care has to be given for:
 Stability
 Drainage
 Geometric standards of hill roads
 Resisting length
3.5.1. Obligatory points:-

These are control points governing the alignment of the highways. These control points may be
broadly divided into two categories
Point through which the alignment is to pass
Points through which the alignment should not pass
3.5.2. Traffic:-
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Origin and destination study should be carried
out in area and the desire lines are drawn showing the trend of traffic flow. The new road should
be aligned keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
3.5.3. Geometric Design:-

Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curves and sight distance also govern the final
alignment of the highway.
3.5.4. Economy:-
The alignment finalized based on above factors should also be economical. In working out the
economics, the initial cost and cost of maintenance and vehicle operation should be taken into
account. The initial cost of construction can be decreased if high embankment and deep cuttings
are avoided and alignment is chosen in manner to balance the cutting and filling.
3.5.5. Other Considerations:-

Various other factors which may govern the alignment are drainage consideration, hydrological
factors, political considerations and monotony subsurface water level, seepage flow and high flood
level

43
3.5.6. Highway Geometric Design:-
The geometric design of highway deals with the dimension and layout of the visible features of
highway such as alignment, sight distance intersection.
The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation
with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
Geometric design of highway deals with the following element:
 Cross section elements

 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal and Vertical alignment details
 Intersection element
Highway geometrics are greatly influenced by topography, locality, traffic characteristics and
requirements. The factors which control the geometric design requirement are speed, road users
and vehicular characteristics, design traffic, traffic capacity and benefit –cost consideration.
However, speed is the one factor which is important, governing most of the geometric design of
roads.
The geometric of the highway depends on several other factors, the most important of which are:
 Design speed
 Topography
 Traffic factors
 Design hourly volume and capacity
 Environment and other factors
 Horizontal alignment
Very often changes in the direction are necessitated in highway alignment due to obligatory points.
Various design factors to be considered in the horizontal alignment are design speed, radius of
circular curves, type and length of transition curves, super elevation and widening of pavement on
curves. The alignment should enable consistent, safe and smooth movement of vehicles operating
at design speed. It is hence necessary to avoid sharp curves which cannot be conveniently
negotiated by the vehicles at design speed. Improper design of horizontal alignment would
necessitate speed changes resulting in increased vehicle operation cost and high accident rates.

44
3.6. Engineering surveys for highways locations:-
Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be
carried out. The surveys may be completed in four stages.
3.7 The stages of Engineering surveys are:-

 Map study
 Reconnaissance
 Preliminary surveys
 Final Location and detailed surveys.
3.7.1 The preliminary survey consists of the following steps:

 primary traverse
 Topographical features
 leveling work
 Drainage studies and hydrological data
 Soil surveys
 Material surveys
 Traffic surveys
 Determination of final center line
 Highway cross -section elements
3.7.2 Pavement surface characteristics:

a. The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is based on the availability of
material and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub-grade and climatic condition,
construction facilities and cost considerations
b. The important surface characteristics of the pavement are friction, unevenness, light reflection
characteristics and drainage of surface water
3.8. Cross slope or camber:

Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain
off the water from the road surface . Drainage and quick disposal of water from the road surface is
important to prevent the entry of surface water into the sub grade soil because the entry of water
affects the stability and life of the pavement.

45
3.9. Width of Carriageway:-
The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and the number of lanes.
The lane width is determined based on the width of the vehicle and minimum clearance which may
be provided for safety. Keeping these and other factor in view, the width of the carriageway for
various classes of road has been standardized by Indian Road Congress.
The width of carriageway for a single- lane pavement is taken as 3.8m.
The width of roadway is the sum of the widths of carriageway and the shoulders.
Based on the IRC standards, the width of roadways for a Major District Road with single lane is
taken as 9.0m.
3.10. Design Speed:

The overall design of the geometrics of the highway is a function of the design speed. The design
speed is the main factor on which the various geometric design elements depend. The sight
distance, radius of horizontal curve, super elevation, extra widening of pavement, length of
horizontal transition curve and length of summit and valley curves are all dependent on the design
speed. The design speed of road depends upon classes of the road and terrain. This has been
standardized by IRC. The design speed for MDR in rolling is taken as 50kmph.
3.11. Horizontal curves:-

A Horizontal curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the centerline of the road
.due to the presence of a curve, several modification are required to be made in the pavement
cross section most of which are
 Super elevation
 Extra widening of pavement
 Horizontal transition curve
3.12. Pavement Design:-

The surface of the roadway should be stable and non- yielding to allow the heavy wheel loads of
road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. In order to provide a stable and even
surface for the traffic, the roadway is provided with a suitably designed and constructed pavement
structure. A pavement consisting of a few layers of different pavement materials is constructed
over a well prepared soil sub-grade to serve as the carriageway.

46
Based on the structural behavior, pavement is generally classified into two categories:
 Flexible Pavements
 Rigid pavements
 Flexible pavements
These are the pavement which have negligible flexural strength and are rather flexible in their
structural action under the load. A typical flexible consists of four component
 Soil sub grade

 Sub- base course
 Base course
 Surface course
The pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layers by grain to
grain transfer.
3.13. Rigid pavements:-

These are the pavement which posses considerable flexural rigidity. The load transfer is due to the
slab action of the cement concrete surface slab.
3.14. Design factors:-

The various factors to be considered for the design of pavement are:
 Design wheel load

 Sub grade soil
 Climatic factors
 Pavement component materials
 Environment factor
 Engineering surveys for highway location
 The survey work consisted of the following:
 Map study
 Reconnaissance survey
 Preliminary survey
 Initial and final alignment plan using plane table
 Longitudinal section of centerline of the road
 Cross section at every 60m.

47
3.15. Highway project:-
In the new highway project the engineers has to plan, design and construct either a network or
new roads or a road link.
New highway project can be divided into following stages:-
 Selection of route.
 Finalization of highway alignment and geometric design details
 Collection of materials and testing of sub grade soil and other construction materials,
construction stages including quality control.
Steps in new alignment:
 Map study
 Reconnaissance survey
 Preliminary survey
 Location and final alignment
 Detailed survey
 Material survey
 Design
 Earth work
 Pavement construction
 Construction controls
Re –Alignment:-
 As the olden roads were meant for slow traffic, they are found deficient in the
geometric design elements for the present day automobile traffic
 Necessary of re- alignment
 To improve the horizontal alignment design element.
 Re construction of week and narrow bridges.
 Construction of by pass to avoid the road running through a town or city
Drawing and Reports:
 Key map
 Index map
 Preliminary survey plans
 Detailed plan and Ls
 Detailed Cs
 Drawing of road intersection

48
3.16. CBR TEST:-

This is a penetration test developed by the California division of highway, as a method of
evaluating the stability of soil sub grade and other flexible pavement material. The result has been
correlated with flexible pavement thickness requirement for highway and airfields. The CBR test
conducted in laboratory on a prepared specimen in the mould or in the field. This test causes a
cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter to penetrate the pavement component material at
1.25mm/min. The load values to cause 2.5mm and 5mm penetration are recorded. These loads are
expressed as percentage of standard load values obtained from the average of a large numbers of
tests on crushed stones are 1370kg and 2055kg at 2.5mm and 5mm penetration respectively.
Laboratory CBR Test:
The CBR value of the soil was considered to be an index which is related to its strength. The value
is highly dependent on the condition of the material at the time of testing. CBR value has been
correlated with the modulus of the sub grade reaction, modulus of resilience and plastic index.
CBR definition:-
It is a ratio of the load taken by the soil at 2.5mm or 5mm penetration by plunger of 50mm
diameter at the rate of 1.25mm per minutes to the load taken by the standard crushed stone at the
same penetration.
Apparatus:
 Moulds with base plate
 Collar
 Spacer discs
 Metal rammer
 2.5kg 31cms fall
 4.89kg 45cms fall
 Adjustable stem with perforated plates and tripod
 Annular weights of 2.5kg each
 Loading machine with 500kg capacity, rate of deformation equal to 1.25mm per minute
 50mm dia plunger
 Dial gauge least count = 0.01mm
 Sieves 19, 4.75mm sieve.
 Measuring jar, filter paper and oven

49
Preparation of test specimen:-

Undisturbed specimen; push the mould inside, remove the mould by digging away the soil
surrounding it. If the specimen is loose in the mould by digging away the soils surrounding it. If the
specimen is loose in the mould, the annular cavity may be filled with paraffin wax. Find the density
and water content.
Re-molded specimen; sieve the soil on a 19mm sieve. Take the soil that passes through the 19mm
sieve, allowance of larger materials is made by replacing it by an equal amount of material which
passes the 19mm sieve but it is restrained on the 4.75mm sieve.
Static Compaction:-
 Volume of mould = cc
 Weight of dry soil= *d gm
 d=dry density by proctor test or sand replacement test
 m=moisture content (field) or OMC
 Weight of wet soil=
 Amount of water
Procedure:
a) Mix the soil with water required
b) Fill it in the mould and tamp with a steel rod
c) Place a filter paper on top of the soil
d) Place the spacer disc
e) Compress it with a compression testing machine
f) Wait for 5minutes. The spacer disc should flush with the top of the mould
g) Before testing soak it for four days
h) [For existing roads, d and m are obtained by sand replacement method. For new roads d and
m are obtained by proctor density test.]
Dynamic Compaction:-
 Find d and m by proctor test
 Find the weight of the soil to be taken
 Weight of soil = volume *dry density.
 Add the amount of water
 Amount of water = weight of soil

50
Procedure:-
 Fix the mould to the base plate
 Place the spacer disc.
 Place a coarse filter paper over the disc
 Keep the assembly in the water tank Take 50 gm of soil to find moisture content
 Fill the soil in the mould and compact as per compaction used in proctor test.
 Remove the extension collar
 Level the soil surface by trimming and filling it if necessary
 Again take 50gm of soil to find the moisture content
 Remove the mould from the base plate
 weigh the mould with the soil
 Remove the mould from the base plate
 Place a filter paper on base plate.
 The compacted mould is inverted and placed on the base plate with the filter
 It is soaked for four days.
Procedure for soaking:-

a. Place the filter paper on the soil.
b. Place perforated plate and adjustable stem on the specimen
c. Keep the surcharge weight of 2.5kgs
d. Keep the assembly in the water tank.
e. Keep the gauge
f. Fix the dial gauge
g. Note the initial real readings.
h. Record the reading for every 24hours
i. After 4 days record the final reading
j. Then remove the dial gauge, perforated plate, adjustable stem, tripod and surcharge
weight. drain the water for 15minutes
k. Weigh the mould with the base plate.
Penetration test:-
 Place the surcharge weight in soil specimen.
 Keep the mould in the machine
 Apply kg seating load to ensure the plunger is fully in contact with the soil
 The load and penetration dial gauges are set to zero
 The load is applied such that the penetration of the plunger is 1.25mm per minute
 Note down the value of load at 0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5,3.0,3.5,4.0,5.0,7.0,10,and 12.5mm
penetration

51
 Remove the load and take 50gm of soil to find the moisture content.
 The mould is reversed and the test is repeated as a check test.
 Record the observations
 Soil identification
 Amount of soil fraction above 20mm that has been replaced
 Density
 Moisture content
 Expansion ratio
 Penetration test readings
 Surcharge weight used
 Plot load penetration curve.
 Apply correction to curve if necessary
 Find the CBR values.

52
CBR CALCULATIONS :-
DIAL GAUGE LOAD IN

PENETRATION PROVING RING
READING IN (Kg)
(1 DIV = 0.01MM) READING IN (KN)
(DIV) (6.17 * PRR)
0 0 0 0
50 0.5 2 12.34
100 1.0 3 18.51
150 1.5 3 18.51
200 2.0 4 24.68
250 2.5 4 24.68
300 3.0 4 24.68
350 3.5 5 30.85
400 4.0 5 30.85
500 5.0 6 37.02
750 7.5 9 55.53
1000 10.0 12 74.04
1250 12.5 15 92.55
CBR CURVE
100
90
80
LOADS IN KG
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
PENETRARTION IN MM

53
Load for each divisions = 0.0606060kn
= (0.0606060*1000)\9.81
= 6.17kg
6. CBR Calculations:
Load at 2.50mm penetration = 24.68kg
CBR at 2.50mm = (24.68 / 1370) *100 = 1.8%
Load at 5.0mm penetration = 37.02kg
CBR at 5.00mm = (37.02 / 2055) *100 = 1.8%
Hence considering CBR as 2%
Total pavement thickness for CBR 2% = 850mm
(From pavement catalogue IRC: 37-2001)
Pavement composition from pavement design =
Catalogue for CBR 2%
I. Bituminous surfacing = 40mm BC and DBM = 100mm

II. Road base = 250mm WBM
III. Sub base = 460mm Granular material
HIGHWAY DESIGN
Horizontal Curve
1. CAMBER PROVISION :
Provide a cross fall of 1 in 40
Assume, W=3.75 for single lane
Carriage way width = 7m

54
Rise of crown with respect to edges = (7/2) * (1/40)
= 0.0875m = 87.5mm
Assuming Design speed = 50 kmph
2. Radius of curvature, R = [v2] / [127(e + f)]
R = [50]2 / [127(0.07+0.15)]
R = 89.47 mt Say 90m
3. EXTRA WIDENING OF PAVEMENTS:
We = Wm + Wps
=[ (nl2)/(2R)] + [v / (9.5√R)]
Number of lane = n = 2, l=6mt, R=90mt, v=50kmph
We= [(2*62)/(2*90)] + [50/(9.5√90)]
= 0.955M
Extra widening of pavement at first curve = 7 + 0.955
B = 7.96mt
4. TRANSITION CURVE:
(A) Centrifugal Acceleration (C):
C = (80) / (75+V)
C = (80) / (75+50) = 0.64
Ls1 = (0.0215V3) / CR
Ls1 = (0.0215 * 503) / (0.64*90) = 46.66mt
B) [E/2] = Be Provided, N=130
= (0.07*7.96) e = 0.07

55
[E/2] = 0.56
Ls2 = [E/2]*N
= 0.56*130 = 72.80mt
C) Ls3 = (2.7V2) / R
= (2.7*502) / 90 = 75mt
Hence Length of Transition Curve is 75mt
Chainage,x Offset,Y=x3/6RLs
10 0.025
20 0.197
30 0.667
40 1.580
50 3.086
60 5.333
70 8.469
75 10.420

56
8. Earthwork Calculation:
CHA REDUC FORMA DEPT DEPT AVG AVG AREA AREA LE VOLUME VOLUME
INA ED TION H OF H OF DEPT DEPT OF OF NG OF OF
GE LEVEL LEVEL CUTT FILLI H OF H OF CUTTIN FILLIN TH CUTTING FILLING
ING NG CUTT FILLI G G
ING NG
0 992.090 984.600 7.490 - - - - - - -
10 991.520 984.412 7.108 7.299 126.265 10 1262.654
20 990.735 984.364 6.371 6.739 112.816 10 1128.159
30 990.325 984.246 6.079 6.225 101.001 10 1010.006
40 989.775 984.128 5.647 5.863 93.005 10 930.048
50 984.230 984.010 5.220 5.433 83.858 10 838.579
60 989.900 984.892 5.008 5.114 77.293 10 772.930
70 989.775 984.774 5.001 5.004 75.090 10 750.900
80 987.115 983.656 3.499 4.250 60.653 10 605.625
90 986.425 983.538 2.887 3.193 42.125 10 421.252
100 985.875 983.420 2.455 2.671 33.844 10 338.442
110 985.420 983.302 2.118 2.286 28.093 10 280.931
120 984.870 983.184 1.686 1.902 22.638 10 226.376
130 984.645 983.066 1.579 1.632 18.990 10 189.901
140 984.840 983.950 0.890 1.234 13.869 10 138.690
150 983.735 983.830 0.095 0.445 0.048 4.648 0.477 10 46.480 4.773
160 983.095 982.712 0.383 0.192 0.048 1.952 0.477 10 19.517 4.773
170 982.470 982.594 0.124 0.130 0.062 1312 0.624 10 13.118 6.238
180 982.965 982.540 0.425 0.151 0.062 1.528 0.624 10 15.277 6.238
190 982.630 982.440 0.190 0.308 3.170 10 31.696
200 982.090 982.362 0.272 0.095 0.136 0.959 1.378 10 13.785
210 981.730 982.286 0.556 0.414 4.311 10 43.114
220 981.330 982.209 0.879 0.717 7.690 10 76.898
230 980.750 982.132 1.382 1.130 12.583 10 125.830
240 979.730 982.055 2.325 1.853 21.970 10 219.705
250 979.470 981.978 2.508 2.416 30.004 10 300.045
260 979.080 981.901 2.821 2.664 33.745 10 337.446
270 978.805 981.824 3.019 2.920 37.726 10 377.264
280 978.180 981.747 3.567 3.293 43.774 10 437.738

57
290 976.780 981.670 4.890 4.229 60.165 10 601.652
300 976.680 981.593 4.913 4.902 73.040 10 730.397
310 977.540 981.516 3.976 4.445 64.199 10 641.986
320 977.885 981.439 3.554 3.765 51.825 10 518.252
330 977.990 981.362 3.372 3.463 46.622 10 466.224
340 978.260 981.285 3.025 3.198 42.215 10 422.154
350 978.340 981.208 2.868 2.946 38.147 10 381.469
360 978.360 981.131 2.771 2.819 36.145 10 361.446
370 978.400 981.054 2.654 2.712 34.483 10 344.827
380 978.520 980.970 2.450 2.552 32.033 10 320.327
390 978.580 980.900 2.320 2.385 29.538 10 295.382
400 978.730 980.230 1.500 1.910 22.748 10 227.481
410 978.680 980.740 2.060 1.780 20.968 10 209.684
420 978.470 980.669 2.199 2.130 25.830 10 258.298
430 978.530 980.597 2.067 2.133 25.880 10 258.797
440 978.770 980.515 1.745 1.906 22.693 10 226.928
450 978.850 980.438 1.588 1.666 19.442 10 194.422
460 978.005 980.361 2.356 1.972 23.609 10 236.088
470 978.950 980.284 1.334 1.845 21.854 10 218.540
480 978.995 980.207 1.212 1.273 14.351 10 143.505
490 978.670 980.130 1.460 1.336 15.145 10 151.449
500 978.400 980.053 1.653 1.557 17.988 10 179.877
510 978.200 979.975 1.775 1.714 20.078 10 200.788
520 978.050 979.599 1.549 1.662 19.382 10 193.822
530 978.050 979.522 1.472 1.511 17.387 10 173.866
540 978.150 979.745 1.595 1.534 17.687 10 176.866
550 978.680 979.668 0.988 1.292 14.583 10 145.830
560 978.100 979.591 1.491 1.240 13.931 10 139.314
570 978.690 979.514 0.824 1.157 12.915 10 129.148
580 978.970 979.437 0.467 0.645 6.872 10 68.717
590 979.100 979.397 0.297 0.382 3.966 10 39.659
600 979.690 979.387 0.303 0.152 0.149 1.507 10 15.380 15.071
610 979.970 979.317 0.653 0.478 10 50.085
620 980.380 979.277 1.103 0.878 10 95.509
630 980.590 979.237 1.353 1.228 10 137.880

58
640 981.050 979.192 1.858 1.606 10 186.326
650 981.350 979.157 2.193 2.025 10 243.577
660 981.630 979.117 2.513 2.353 10 290.666
670 981.870 979.277 2.593 2.553 10 320.478
680 981.690 979.237 2.453 2.523 10 315.955
690 981.650 978.977 2.473 2.463 10 306.964
700 981.140 978.957 2.183 2.328 10 386.996
710 980.890 978.917 1.973 2.078 10 350.981
720 980.450 978.877 1.573 1.773 10 208.735
730 980.030 978.837 1.193 1.383 10 157.427
740 979.480 978.797 0.683 0.938 10 102.598
750 978.810 978.757 0.053 0.368 10 38.154
760 978.140 978.717 0.577 0.026 0.288 2.968 10 2.657 29.682
770 978.380 978.677 0.297 0.437 4.561 10 45.610
780 978.435 978.637 0.202 0.250 2.557 10 25.573
790 978.770 978.397 0.373 0.186 0.101 1.020 10 18.998 10.202
800 978.490 978.557 0.067 0.186 0.034 0.336 10 18.998 3.361
810 978.610 978.517 0.093 0.046 0.034 0.336 10 4.672 3.361
820 978.180 978.477 0.297 0.046 0.149 1.507 10 4.672 15.071
830 978.210 978.437 0.227 0.262 2.689 10 26.886
840 978.660 978.397 0.263 0.131 0.113 1.148 10 13.323 11.479
Total Volume :- 12,091.61 / 10,797.33
Total volume of cutting = 12,091.61M3
Total volume of filling = 10,797.33M3

59
CONCLUSION:
The transportation is increased day by day and for a good transportation it is required for
economical and safety purpose, as the project site was near the village. To arrive at the road
system and the different category of roads, this could provide maximum utility to connect the
villages nearby and also is therefore needed to serve as the feeder system for the nearby markets
and municipalities and to provide independent facility for road travel by well planned network of
roads throughout country. Thus keeping this into consideration, the highway project was done by
selecting the route to construct the highway as it was economical both in safety and cost.

60

61
1.1. INTRODUCTION
AIM OF THE PROJECT

 To increase the capacity of the tank. which was reduced due to silting.
 To strengthen the existing bund.
 To increase the effectiveness of the sluice and the waste weir.
The storage irrigation that utilizes the water stored on upstream side of smaller earthen dam
called bund. Earthen bund which retains water is called tank. A large sized tank will be termed as
the reservoir. This may be formed by the materials such as masonry dams, concrete dams and
earthen dams where as the tank is formed by means of earthen bunds only.
The tanks are meant for storing water in it during the raining season due to the surface runoff of a
large amount of silt will be deposited in to the tanks hence it reduce the capacity of tank. This
reduce capacity of tank may be improved by removing the deposited silt from the tank
(restoration) or sometimes due to the bad maintenance the existing slope of the bund may get
deteriorated: for this the increasing the bund height should be done. So that the slope may
detained and hence increase in the storage capacity of reservoir.
The tank which is to be restored is situated 7 km from NH7 and 45 km from Brindavan college of
Engineering. The one end of the tank is touching the Hegdehalli village and other end to Nandicross
village. Due to the inadequate maintenance the top portion of the bund as eroded at several places
this requires a repair or increase in the existing height.
1.2. EARTHEN BUNDS:

Earthen bun is the Main barrier across the valley and stream bed. To store water in the tank. For
small tanks the height of the bund may be around 3 to 5 meters.
1.3. NECESSITY OF THE RESTORATION TANK:

Bunds would have been constructed across minor streams in order to facilitate collection and
storage of water to be used for irrigation at a later stage, these tank would have been silted or
sluice would have become leaky or blocked due to silting or waste weir would have damaged or
even worse. The above mentioned effects will have to be rectified and come under the restoration
work of the tank. Restoring of these tanks involves bringing the tank to its original capacity either
by taking measures to reduce silting or by raising the height of the embankment without disturbing
the upstream slope.

62
The original capacity of tank can be increased by two ways they are as follows
1.4. RAISING FULL TANK LEVEL(FTL):

Raising up to the full tank level of reservoir after making suitable modification in the profile of the
existing tank bund and surplus weir.
1.5. DESILTING THE RESERVIOR:

This would require the employment of sophisticated equipment such hydraulic dredges. Before
taking up the project it is necessary to study whether the proposal would yield minimum cost to
the original capacity of the reservoir and also to known the soil type in run-off zone.
1.5.1. PROCEDURE:
The field work includes
• Reconnaissance survey of the site,
• Fly leveling,
• Bund tracing,
• Longitudinal and cross section along line of the existing bund.
• Capacity contours at the existing and proposed full tank levels,
• Block leveling at the waste weir
• Detailing of the tank sluices
• Sill level and its location.
1.5.2. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY OF THE SITE:

This includes
• Studying the existing condition of the bund.
• Location of the tank sluices.
• Location of waste weir
1.5.3. ESTABLISHING TEMPORARY BENCH MARKS AT THE SITE (FLY LEVLING):

The fly leveling was done in order to establish a temporary bench mark (TBM) at the
site. This was carried out from Nandicross railway station. Instruments required for this process

63
are: dumpy level with stand, leveling staff.
1.6. LONGITUDINAAL CROSS SECTON OF BUND:

The main objective of carrying out the longitudinal and cross section at the bund is determining
the length of the bund, the area of the bund, the area of the bund, and in turn to calculate the
earth work quantities.
PROCEDURE:
• Initially on the center line of the bund arrows are fixed at regular interval.
• By taking the TBM (temporary bench mark) located on the bore well the leveling is done to
find the RL of top of the bund.
• A point is fixed on the existing bund by the fly leveling.
• This point is considered as the 0 chain age of the bund
• Longitudinal levels along the center line of the bund are taken at every 5m interval and
cross section is taken at the place of change the direction of the bund.
• Imported features such as location of any tree, stone, and sluices weir are noted.
• The cross section is taken on both side of the center line of the bund.
• Continue the procedure till the other end of the bund is reached.
• Last point should be located at the some convenient distance from the existing bund.
• The plotting of the existing build is also done parallel to fly leveling with the help of plane
table and alidade.
1.7. CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTHEN DAMS:

The general causes for failure of earthen bunds are
• Percolation
• Slipping of side slopes
• Overflow or toppling of the bund
• Erosion by waves

64
1.7.1. PERCOLATION:
When the tank is full, water will seep through the bank forming a saturation gradient. If the
bank section is not enough to keep the saturation gradient with in the bank with sufficient
overburden of soil, then the water that seeps through the bank up to the saturation gradient will
cut the outer slope of the bank. This will slowly work upstream causing failure of the bank.The
other failure is due to seepage under the bank due to porous nature of the foundation materials
the percolating water through these porous channels under the bank will appear at the slope and
slowly start removing soil particles coming in its path, which result in the formation of pipes.
1.7.2. PARTIAL CUTOFF:

A partial cut-off is one, which extends down from the impervious section of the dam to the
underlying strata. In many cases, it would be impractical land extremely expensive to continue the
cut-off of the impervious layer and so. The use of partial cut-off is considered necessary. Owing to
the fact that the horizontal permeability may be of the order of 10 to 15 times the vertical, the
effect of a partial cut-off in reducing seepage may be much greater. Therefore, in small earthen
dam, a cut-off trench isexcavated to half the depth of the storage and is back filled and
consolidated with impervious layer.
1.7.3. FAILURE BY SLIPPING OR SLIDING:

If the soil with which the bank is formed does not possess the necessary shear strength to
withstand the super imposed height of the earth, then the earth will fail sliding. Thus failure may
occur at the foundation level if the foundation is of poor nature and at the slopes. If the bank is
formed with slopes at which they can be retained by combined friction and cohesion between
particles composing it. While forming banks higher that 10m, it is necessary to test the soils for
their various parameters and test the foundation pressure also for bearing capacity.
1.7.4. FAILURE BY OVER-TOPPING:

This generally happens if insufficient free board is provided. In high gates, the wave will be
generated high and if enough free board is not provided, the waves, while riding along surface may
clear the top. The height of the wave depends upon the water spread before the bund and the
velocity of the wind. The wave as it approaches the has a tendency to smoothly ride up along the
slope. If the slope is a flat one the height of the wave to which the wave ride along the slope will
greater than if the steep slope. The free board should be at least 1.5 times the wave height.
If the free board is not enough, a breach may occur. To prevent this from happening, sufficient
free board is provided, wave breaks which are generally vertical stones fixed in the rip rap on the
upstream slope in a zigzag pattern, are also provided. This will help in breaking the waves as they
move riding along the slope.

65
1.8. Salient features of the earth dam:
1.8.1. Top width:

This must be wide enough to carry a roadway with enough carriage ways accommodate earth-
moving machinery to go over it in case of emergency.
1.8.2. Upstream slope:

This slope depends upon the height of the dam and is decided by the stability analysis of soils
obtained at the site. Generally, it will be flatter than 2.0 horizontal to 1 vertical.
1.8.3. Bank Section:

The main bank section may be a homogeneous section or zonal, depending upon the soils available
at the site. The section of the earthen dam will be large in case it has to be in a homogeneous
section. The top of hearting zone will be taken up to maximum water level.
1.8.4. Cut-off:
In order to ensure that the dam does not fail due to percolation through its body an impervious
cut-off, completely preventing seepage from upstream of the dam reaching the toe of the dam
along the foundations, is an absolute necessity. The latest technique is to form reinforced cement
concrete diaphragm wall, with its bottom ell keyed the bed rock and top well keyed to the hearting
zone.
1.8.5. Rear slope:

The rear slope of the dam will be flatter than the upstream side slope and will be protective from
surface gullying by turfing. The water that collects on the top of the dam will be lead down the
rear slope by means of chute drains construction at intervals along the length of the dam.
1.8.6. Consolidation of Banks:

While forming t earthen dams, enough care has to be taken in consolidating the layers of the earth,
so that the bank does not shrink in rainy season and allow water through percolate through. A weak
zone in a tank is enough to endanger the entire bund, even if it is formed well enough.
It is desirable that banks are consolidated at optimum moisture content with power rollers to get
at least 98% Proctor’s density. Moisture content more than the optimum will mean low shear value
and less than optimum will increase pore pressure.
1.9. Capacity Contours:

The main object of the capacity contours is to trace the contour is to trace the contour to

66
find the capacity of the tank and to fix the maximum water levels and sill levels.
Procedure:
 Taking the sill of the waste weir as benchmark, each contour is located by determining the
position of a series of points through which the contour passes.
 The plane table is set up over a good commanding station where maximum points are
available and the place table is oriented.
 The plane table and the leveling instruments are provided as near as possible to each other
so that the distance of the contour points be measured by the principle of tacheometry and
plotted on the plane table by the method of radiation.
 The contours are plotted on the plane table and the capacity is determined by joining the
points of contours.
1.10. Block Levelling of the waste weir:

This is an indirect method of locating contours. Block leveling at the waste weir site is
carried out to know the direction of flow of surplus water through the draft channel. It is carried
out such that it covers the full length of the weir.
Procedure:
The instrument is setup at commanding position where maximum readings are available and
all the reduced level of the stations of the blocks are calculated. The contours of different
elevations are plotted by interpolation.

67
DESIGN AND CALCULATION:

 EARTHWORK CALCULATION :
REDUCED FORMATION DEPTH AVERAGE AREA LENGTH VOLUME

CHAINAGE
LEVEL IN LEVEL IN OF DEPTH (b+nd)d IN OF FILL
IN m 2
m m FILLING IN m IN m m [m3]
0 977.660 978.870 1.210 - - - -
10 977.870 978.870 1.000 1.105 5.757 10 57.57
20 977.370 978.870 1.500 1.250 6.875 10 68.75
30 977.260 978.870 1.610 1.555 9.501 10 95.01
40 977.120 978.870 1.750 1.680 10.685 10 106.85
50 977.160 978.870 1.720 1.735 11.225 10 112.25
60 977.120 978.870 1.750 1.735 11.225 10 112.25
70 977.040 978.870 1.830 1.790 11.778 10 117.78
80 977.160 978.870 1.710 1.770 11.576 10 115.76
90 977.055 978.870 1.815 1.762 11.500 10 115.00
100 977.250 978.870 1.620 1.718 11.057 10 110.57
110 976.950 978.870 1.920 1.770 11.576 10 115.76
120 976.855 978.870 2.015 1.968 13.650 10 136.50
130 976.940 978.870 1.930 1.973 13.704 10 137.04
140 977.000 978.870 1.870 1.900 12.920 10 129.20
150 977.030 978.870 1.840 1.855 12.447 10 124.47
160 976.995 978.870 1.875 1.858 12.478 10 124.78
170 977.005 978.870 1.865 1.870 12.604 10 126.04
180 976.815 978.870 1.055 1.460 8.643 10 86.43
190 976.760 978.870 2.110 1.583 9.761 10 97.61
200 976.825 978.870 2.045 2.078 14.870 10 148.70
210 976.865 978.870 2.005 2.025 14.276 10 142.76
220 977.030 978.870 1.840 1.923 13.165 10 131.65
230 977.191 978.870 1.675 1.758 11.455 10 114.55
240 977.365 978.870 1.505 1.590 9.826 10 98.26
250 977.370 978.870 1.500 1.503 9.027 10 90.27
260 977.360 978.870 1.510 1.505 9.045 10 90.45
270 977.115 978.870 1.755 1.633 10.232 10 102.32
280 977.080 978.870 1.790 1.773 11.606 10 116.06
290 976.970 978.870 1.900 1.845 12.243 10 122.43
300 976.875 978.870 1.995 1.948 13.433 10 134.33
310 977.050 978.870 1.820 1.908 13.000 10 130.00

68
320 977.220 978.870 1.650 1.735 11.225 10 112.25
330 977.340 978.870 1.530 1.590 9.826 10 98.26
340 977.595 978.870 1.275 1.401 8.129 10 81.29
350 977.445 978.870 1.425 1.350 7.695 10 76.95
360 977.201 978.870 1.669 1.547 9.427 10 94.27
370 977.460 978.870 1.480 1.575 9.686 10 96.86
380 977.640 978.870 1.230 1.355 7.737 10 77.37
390 977.540 978.870 1.330 1.280 7.117 10 71.17
400 977.565 978.870 1.305 1.318 7.428 10 74.28
410 977.615 978.870 1.255 1.280 7.117 10 71.17
420 977.641 978.870 1.255 1.240 6.795 10 67.95
430 977.485 978.870 1.385 1.305 7.321 10 73.21
440 977.565 978.870 1.305 1.345 7.653 10 76.53
450 977.490 978.870 1.350 1.323 7.470 10 74.70
Volume = 4688.66m3
TOTAL VOLUME-4688.66m3

69
CONCLUSION:
The capacity of the existing tank bund had been reduced due to its age, also to all other features
such as change in the atmosphere condition and improper usage of the tank over a perennial
time. The projects were carried out calculation that the tank can be restored to it’s designed by
compacting soil to calculate height and making rise in the masonry work.

70
ABBREVIATIONS:
NTP NEW TANK PROJECT
HAP HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT PROJECT
CCA CULTURABLE COMMAND AREA
KG KILO GRAM
M METER
CM CENTIMETRE
KM KILOMETER
SOI SURVEY OF INDIA
TBL TOP BUND LEVEL
FTL FULL TANK LEVEL
RL REDUCED LEVEL
FSL FULL SUPPLY LEVEL
BHP BREAKING HORSE POWER
HP HORSE POWER

71
REFERENCES:
SURVEYING:
1. Surveying-1&2 by B.C.Punmia
2. Advanced surveying by K.N.Dugal
3. Surveying and Levelling by SS Bhavikatti
IRRIGATION:
1. Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures by S.K.Garg
2. Irrigation water resources and water power energy by P.N.Modi
3. Irrigation structures by Krishna Murthy
WATER SUPPLY:
1. Environmental Engineering 1&2 by S.K.Garg
2. Public health engineering by K.N.Duggal
3. Environmental Engineering 1 & 2 by B.C.Punmia
HIGHWAY:
1, Roads, Railways, Bridges and Tunnels by T.D.Aheja and G.S.Dirgi
2. Highway Engineering by Khanna & C.E.G.Justo
3. Transportation Engineering by K.P.Subramanyam
4. Highway Engineering by Kadiyali.L.R

72

Extensive Survey Project: Dept of Civil Engineering, Brce Batch 2017-18

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EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

The work essential consisted of the following methods of surveying:

A brief description of the above mentioned methods of surveying is given below.

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

A suitable turning point is selected on affirm ground or on a permanent object and a

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

Plane Table Surveying:-

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

‘s’ is staff intercept,

‘K’ is stadia interval factor,

‘C’ is additive constant of the instrument.

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

NEW TANK PROJECT

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS

 Major Irrigation Projects

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.3 IRRIGATION TANKS:

2.4 EARTHEN BUND:

2.4(1) Homogeneous Embankment Type:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.4(2) Zoned Embankment Type:

2.4(3) Diaphragm Embankment Type:

2.6. WASTE WEIR:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.8.1 SURVEYS CARRIED OUT AT HEGDEHALLI:

2.8.2 SEEPAGE CONTORL IN EARTHEN DAMS:-

2.9. SEEPAGE CONTORLS THROUGH EMBANKMENTS:

2.9.1 ROCK TOE OR TOE FILTER:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.9.3 CHIMNEY DRAIN:

2.9.4 SEEPAGE CONTROL THROUGH FOUNDATION:

2.9.5 IMPERVIOUS CUTOFF:

2.9.6 RELIEF WELLS AND DRAIN TRENCHES:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.10. SLOPE PROTECTION:

2.10.1PROTECTION OF UPSTREAM SLOPE:

2.10.2 PROTECTION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.11. BASED ON THE ALIGNMENT, CANALS ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

THE SURVEY WORK CONSISTED OF THE FOLLOWING:

2.11.2 EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

2.11.4 DRAWINGS REQUIRED:

 The longitudinal section of profile drawn to a scale 1:1000.

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

To dispose of the surplus water

2.13.3 DRAWINGS REQUIRED

2.13. CANAL ALIGNMENT:

DEPT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, BRCE BATCH 2017-18

(A). Collecting data: -

Annual yield= (20/100) x 87.5 = 17.5 cm.

Annual yield from catchment = 15x106x0.175

(B). Use full storage of water in the reservoir,

Useful storage= (80/100) x 2625000 = 2100000cumecs

= (2100000/4000)= 525 hectares

(C). Design of dam:-

It is decided to have the following features:

FULL TANK LEVEL (FTL) = 988.335

MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL (MWL) = 989.335

Deepest Bed Level = 982.355

(b+2nd)/2 = √(nd) 2+d2

b + 2nd = 0.45 + 21.50.75 = 2.70m.

61 = 2/3 0.65√2x9.81 L13/2

Dam stones of 0.20.20.5m at 2m c/c are provided on the crest of weir.