Module Details

Principal Investigator Prof. Dr. Sanjukkta Bhaduri

Professor, Urban Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, New
Delhi
Paper Coordinator Prof. Dr. Sanjukkta Bhaduri
Content Writer Prof. Dr. Sanjukkta Bhaduri
Content Reviewer Prof. Kavas Kapadia
Former Dean, Urban Planning, School of Planning and Architecture,
New Delhi
Subject Name City & Metropolitan Planning
Module Title Implications of Urbanization
Objectives • Introduction to urbanization
• Causes of urbanization
• Global trends
• Global implications of urbanization
• Variations in developed vs developing countries
• Urbanization trends in India
• Causes of Urbanization in India
• Implications of Urbanization in India
• Issues in Mega cities in India
Unit structure

1 Introduction 4
1.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................ 4
2 Learning outcome 4
3 Urbanisation – concept and definitions 4
3.1 Urbanisation - concept............................................................................................................ 4
3.2 Defining urbanisation.............................................................................................................. 4
3.3 Spatial dimensions of urbanisation......................................................................................... 5
3.3.1 Urban hierarchy .............................................................................................................. 5
3.3.2 Urban primacy................................................................................................................. 5
3.3.3 Urban Sprawl................................................................................................................... 5
3.3.4 Over urbanisation and under urbanisation..................................................................... 6
4 Determinants of Urbanisation 6
4.1 What prompted urbanisation? ............................................................................................... 6
4.1.1 Industrialization and resultant economic growth........................................................... 6
4.1.2 Economic growth due to resource – exports .................................................................. 6
4.2 Causes of increasing urbanisation rates ................................................................................. 6
4.2.1 Natural increase .............................................................................................................. 6
4.2.2 Rural – urban migration .................................................................................................. 7
4.2.3 Reclassification of urban boundaries .............................................................................. 7
4.2.4 Circular migration ........................................................................................................... 7
5 Global level trends 7
5.1 Increasing urban population ................................................................................................... 7
5.2 Uneven urbanisation............................................................................................................... 8
5.3 Unplanned urban growth, energy consumption and carbon emissions................................. 9
6 Global level implications of urbanisation 10
6.1 Generalized implications....................................................................................................... 10
7 Urbanisation Trends in India 11
7.1 Urbanization trend in different states .................................................................................. 12
7.2 Urban settlements by class-sizes .......................................................................................... 14
8 Distinction of urbanisation 17
9 Urbanization pattern in Indian cities 17
9.1 Urban Sprawl......................................................................................................................... 17
 9.2 Conurbations......................................................................................................................... 18
9.3 Multicity agglomerations ...................................................................................................... 19
10 Implications of urbanization 19
10.1 Housing shortage .................................................................................................................. 19
10.2 Increasing urban poverty ...................................................................................................... 21
10.3 Increasing pollution............................................................................................................... 21
10.4 Overcrowding and Congestion.............................................................................................. 22
10.5 Lack of Infrastructure ............................................................................................................ 22
10.6 Increase in crime ................................................................................................................... 23
10.7 Haphazard Growth of Real Estate Sector.............................................................................. 24
10.8 Unsuccessful urban governance ........................................................................................... 24
11 Aspect wise implications of Urbanisation in India 25
11.1 Physical implications of urbanisation ................................................................................... 25
11.1.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 25
11.1.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 26
11.2 Social implications of urbanisation ....................................................................................... 28
11.2.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 28
11.2.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 31
11.3 Economic implications of urbanisation ................................................................................. 31
11.3.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 31
11.3.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 32
11.4 Environmental Implications of Urbanization ........................................................................ 33
11.4.1 Positive Implications ..................................................................................................... 33
11.4.2 Negative Implications.................................................................................................... 33
11.5 Governance implications of urbanisation ............................................................................. 33
11.5.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 33
11.5.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 34
12 Issues in Mega Cities 34
13 Summary 35
13.1 References ............................................................................................................................ 35
13.2 Related links .......................................................................................................................... 36
1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
Urbanisation is a global phenomenon involving an increase in the proportion of the population that is
urban against the non-urban population, the trends of which has positive as well as negative implications
on the entire world. The objective of this module includes explaining the concept of urbanisation, its
determinants, dimensions and the global level trends and implications.

2 Learning outcome
After studying this module, you should be able to –
• Understand the concept of urbanisation, its determinants and dimensions
• Understand the global level trends and the broad implications
• Understand in detail the varied implications of urbanisation in developed and developing
countries
• Issues in Mega Cities

3 Urbanisation – concept and definitions

3.1 Urbanisation - concept
Any definition of ‘urban’ needs to differentiate between it and the rural part. This is made possible by one
or more of the three elements used to distinguish between the urban and rural areas (Frey.W.H, et.al, 1998)
–
a) Ecological element (Eg. Population size and density)
b) Economic element (Eg. Non agricultural labour force)
c) Social element (Eg. Better access to infrastructure/ services, or negative aspects like
crowding/congestion, pollution, crime, etc)

3.2 Defining urbani sation

Urbanisation is a process of concentration of non-agricultural occupations and land uses around a single
nucleus or multiple nuclei, which is primarily the result of rural to urban shift of population (Prakasa
Rao.V.L.S & Tewari.V.K., 1978). It is also defined as the process by which rural areas become urbanized
as a result of industrialization and/or economic development (Peng,et.al.,2010). Urbanisation level is best
measured by the urban population share, and urbanisation rate is the annual growth rate of this share (UN
Population Division, 2014). The global phenomenon of urbanisation can be explained by two types of
interrelated transitions, overlapping yet distinct – the urban transition and the demographic transition. Urban
transition involves a shift from a predominantly agricultural population living in relatively small, dispersed,
rural settlements towards a predominantly urban-based population engaged mostly in industrial and service
activities (Montgomery.M.R.et.al, 2003). Demographic transition suggests that when socio-economic
development leads to falling mortality rates in a low income settlement, the population will grow until
eventually fertility decreases to the point where population stabilizes and income levels are higher
(Rowland .D.T., 2003).

Before 1850, no society could be described as being fundamentally urban in nature (Davis, 1969). However,
by 2008, half of the world’s population resided in urban areas. With the steadily increasing rate of
urbanisation (see figure 1), the global urban population in 2015 has reached 53.85% according to the United
Nations Population Divisions (World Bank Open Data, accessed 2017).

Figure 1 - Urban Population (% of total)

3.3 Spatial dimensions of urbanisation

3.3.1 Urban hierarchy
Urban hierarchy can be defined as the idea of different ‘tiers’ of interconnected cities, represented as the
distribution of the population by size class of urban settlement or by ranking each city by the size of the
urban population. In countries with better distribution of population across the urban hierarchies,
urbanisation becomes a nationwide phenomenon, unlike countries in which the urban centres are weakly
interconnected and the extent of diffusion limited (Clark. D, 1996).

3.3.2 Urban primacy

Urban primacy, an indicator of the nature of urban development, is the ratio of population of the largest
city to the next largest in a country. The primate city is the central place in a city network that has acquired
or obtained a great level of urban dominance. A high or increasing level of urban primacy reflects a
centralised pattern of urban development while a low or declining level of primacy reflects a decentralised
pattern of urban development (Sharma.P, 2010). A primate city has dominance in terms of population,
financial and political aspects in the country and is not rivalled by any other city in the country.
Examples of primate city globally are New York, London, Mexico, Rio De Janeiro, Budapest, Paris,
Bangkok and Hong Kong. In India, primate cities do not exist at the national level. However, there are
many primate cities at the state and regional level like Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and
Hyderabad.

3.3.3 Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl denotes displacement of urban population to the periphery and Spread of urban areas
and built up. The causes of urban sprawl can be due to new land subdivisions, enhanced ease of
mobility due to improved commuting technologies, poor land management and lack of control and
individual preferences.

3.3.4 Over urbanisation and under urbanisation

Over urbanisation in cities imply that the rate of urbanisation is exceeding economic development. In
measuring over-urbanization, two indices are related to one another, the percentage of population living in
urban areas, and the distribution of the total labor force in the country as between agricultural and non-
agricultural occupations (Sovani.N.V.,1964). This happens when the economic pressure or ‘push’ of
residents of rural areas increases and prompts rural-urban migration but the demand for labour in the urban
areas or ‘pull’ is not sufficient. Spatially, this results in an overcrowded city core lacking a strong economic
base and urban infrastructure.

In certain countries, inorder to minimize the costs of urbanisation, there are restrictions on rural-urban
migration, the use of capital-intensive production technologies in manufacturing and labour-intensive
modes of production in agriculture which lead to under urbanisation (Pacione.M., 2001). Under
urbanisation is defined as the extent to which the actual rate of urbanisation falls short of the rate that would
have occurred if there had been perfect and instantaneous adjustments of the population to productivity
advantages (Maoxing Ran & Brian J. L. Berry, 2013).

4 Determinants of Urbanisation
4.1 What prompted urbanisation?
4.1.1 Industrialization and resultant economic growth
• ‘Production cities’
• Developed countries mostly
• London city, Singapore city

4.1.2 Economic growth due to resource – exports

• ‘Consumption cities’
• Developing countries mostly
• Cities of Marrakesh (Morocco)
• Some change from ‘consumption cities’ to ‘production cities’
• Cities of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia

4.2 Causes of increasing urbanisation rates

4.2.1 Natural increase
Natural increase/ growth, the excess of births over deaths in population of urban areas, subsequently
resulting in increased urbanisation rates, is one of the major causes of increasing urbanisation rates.
In India, 60% of the urban growth is attributed to natural increase and only 40% is attributed by the other
determinants (Kundu, 2011).
4.2.2 Rural – urban migration
a. Push factors
• Fragmentation of farm land
• Limited employment opportunities
• Poor services inclusive of access to educational and health facilities

b. Pull factors
• High urban wages
• Better employment opportunities
• Better access to infrastructure and services

4.2.3 Reclassification of urban boundaries

Urban boundaries are often reclassified to encompass formerly rural areas, causing urbanisation.

4.2.4 Circular migration

In certain countries, rural – urban migration become constrained by higher costs of living in the
urban centres and lack of formal-sector jobs (Revi, 2008). Hence people become temporary migrants who
move back and forth between urban and rural areas to take advantage of the income-earning opportunities
of cities, the phenomenon being called circular migration.
Eg. Some cities of South East Asia

5 Global level trends

5.1 Increasing urban population
According to the UN Population Division, 2014 statistics, the urban population exceeded the rural in 2007
and world population has remained predominantly urban thereafter. Population growth and urbanization
are projected to add 2.5 billion people to the world’s urban population by 2050, making the urbanisation
rate 66%. 90% of the expected increase in world’s urban population will take place in the urban areas of
Asia and Africa. The projected urban growth is mostly concentrated in the medium sized and small cities
of the developing world and just three countries -India, China and Nigeria, together is expected to account
for 37 per cent of the projected growth of the world’s urban population between 2014 and 2050. (UN
Population Division, 2014).
5.2 Uneven urbanisation
According to the UN Population Division, 2014 statistics, levels of urbanisation vary greatly across regions.
The rate even has a fluctuating nature in some Asian countries which could be a result of under urbanization
in China in the 1960s –‘70s.
Northern America, Latin American and the Caribbean, Europe and Oceania generally had higher levels of
urbanisation till now. Africa and Asia, remained mostly rural, with less than 50% of their population
residing in urban areas. However, over the coming decades, it is expected that though all the aforesaid
regions would have a rise in level of urbanization, Africa and Asia would be urbanizing faster than the rest.
However even in 2050, they will be still less urbanized than the others.

5.3 Unplanned urban growth, energy consumption and carbon emissions

A study on urban settlements with populations over 1 lakh showed that in the period 1990- 2000, the average
built up area densities declined by about 2%. Urban densities are declining and city areas grow faster than
the city population, resulting in urban sprawl (Angel.S , 2011). The urban land cover grows at a higher rate
than urban population, leading to an unsustainable form of urban development.
A study on urban settlements with populations over 1 lakh showed that though the urban land cover is
rising, the share of open spaces in it has been declining since 1990s (Angel.S , 2011).

Urban centres occupy less than 5% of the world’s land mass but account for 70% of both global energy
consumption and carbon emissions (Sustainable Urbanization Policy Brief, year)

Write about same population cities with difference in carbon emissions - Atlanta and Barcelona
Figure 2 - Population ages 65 and above of global urban population (% of total)

6 Global level implications of urbanisation

Aspect wise global implications of urbanization at global level are discussed in this section. Both positive
and negative implications of urbanization at global level are studied in terms of physical, social, economic,
environmental and governance aspects.

6.1 Generalized implications

Aspect wise implications of urbanisation at the global level
 Physical Social Economic Environmental Governance
Planned urban Better quality of Better Better technology Better
spaces and life employment for alternate energy governance
built opportunities mechanism-
environment Better administrative
Better services Cities have environmental structure, laws,
and access to economic awareness policies and
infrastructure generating programmes for
+ve activities and Better expertise for development
contribute to mitigation measures
GDP of country

Better wages

Helps eradicate
rural poverty
Challenges in Exclusion and Unemployment Pollution More pressure
providing rising inequality among youth on improvement
urban services Consumption of of existing
towards the Rising mental Low wage resources and governance
city periphery health issues and employment in energy mechanisms
as the city crimes/ fear of informal sector
sprawls crime Climate change

Overcrowding Changing sex Increase in carbon

-ve
& congestion ratios emissions and
costs Increased number pollution
of people living in
slums
Lack of coping
Rising insecurity/ mechanisms for
vulnerability to dealing with hazards
urban risk

7 Urbanisation Trends in India

Urbanization is a dynamic process of population concentration in an urban area i.e., increase in the
proportion of the population that is urban. Urbanisation is a process of concentration of non-agricultural
occupations and land uses around a single nucleus or multiple nuclei, which is primarily the result of rural
to urban shift of population ((Tewari.V.K 1978). Currently, the urbanization level is 55% worldwide and
India is among the countries of low level of urbanization. However the projected urbanization level is 66%
and most of the population increase is expected to be in Asian and African countries. The percentage of
land mass (land resource) globally is 2.4% which is very less however, the share of urban population of
India in the world is 16.6%.
Table 1 Urbanization trend in India
Census Population Decadal Pop. Urban Pop. % to total Decadal Urban Pop.
Year in Million Growth Rate (%) in million population Growth Rate (%)

1901 238.3 - 25.8 10.83

 1911 252.1 5.79% 25.9 10.27 0.39%
1921 251.3 -0.32% 28.01 11.18 8.15%
1931 278.9 10.98% 33.5 12.01 19.60%
1941 318.6 14.23% 44.2 13.87 31.94%
1951 361.0 13.31% 62.4 17.29 41.18%
1961 439.2 21.66% 78.9 17.96 26.44%
1971 548.1 24.80% 109.1 19.91 38.28%
1981 683.3 24.67% 159.4 23.33 46.10%
1991 846.3 23.85% 217.6 25.71 36.51%
2001 1027.1 21.36% 285.4 27.78 31.16%
2011 1210.85 17.89% 377.11 31.2 32.13%

India’s urban population has increased from 25.8 million (10.83%) in 1901 to 377.11 million (31.2%) in
2011. There is more than fourteen times increase in the country’s urban population since 1901. The fast
pace of urbanization can be attributed to many factors such as rural to urban migration, re-classification of
cities, and natural growth rate of urban population. For example, in 1991- 2001, 21% rural farmers migrated
to urban sector for livelihood because of the expectation of higher employment opportunities, higher wages
better lifestyle, etc. in urban areas. Second reason is rural- urban reclassification of cities. However, the
natural growth in population accounted for about 59.4% rise in urban population in 1991-2001 which
decreased to 44% in 2001-11. Higher productivity in urban area, more employment opportunities, and better
lifestyle, etc. attract more firms and also people towards urban areas. Large scale migration from rural to
urban areas increases the urban GDP and economic growth rate, which in turn helps to reduce dependency
on agriculture and poverty in rural areas. (Chetana Rani, 2016)

Figure 3 % of Urbanization in India

7.1 Urbanization trend in different states

In 1901, Delhi had the highest levels of urban to total population at 40-50%. Among the states, Gujarat and
Manipur had 20- 30% urban population. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, TamilNadu and West Bengal had 10- 20% urban population. Jammu & Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala had urban population below 10%. In 1921, the share of urban population in
Jammu & Kashmir and Andhra Pradesh increased from below 10% to 10-20% whereas it decreased in
Madhya Pradesh from 10-20% to below 10%. In 1951, post-independence, the share of urban population
in Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Kerala increased from below 10% to 10-20%. In Punjab, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, TamilNadu & West Bengal, it increased from 10-20% to 20-30%. Delhi was declared as the
National Capital Territory of Delhi and the levels of urban population increased from 40-50% to Above
50%.

*Data for Arunachal Pradesh (1901, 1921 & 1951), Sikkim, Mizoram and Goa (1901 & 1921) is not available.

In 1971, the share of urban population in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and
Manipur increased from below 10% to 10-20%. In Goa, it increased from 10-20% to 20-30%. The level of
urban population increased from 20-30% to 30-40% in Maharashtra and TamilNadu.In 1991, the share of
urban population in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland, Assam, Bihar and Orissa increased from below
10% to 10-20%. In Jammu & Kashmir, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand and Manipur, share of urban population increased from 10-20% to 20-30%. It increased
from 20-30% to 30-40% in Gujarat and Karnataka. Goa and Mizoram had a rapid increase in urban
population from 20-30% to 40-50%.

In 2011, the share of urban population in Himachal Pradesh increased from below 10% to 10-20%. In Uttar
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Meghalaya, Tripura and Nagaland, share of urban population increased from 10-
20% to 20-30%. It increased from 20-30% to 30-40% in Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, West Bengal,
Manipur, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. In Gujarat, Maharashtra and TamilNadu, levels of urban population
increased from 30-40% to 40-50%. Urban Population in Kerala saw a rapid increase from 20-30% to 40-
50%. Goa and Mizoram had urban population above 50%.
Figure 4 Percentage of urban population from 1901-2011

7.2 Urban settlements by class-sizes

Table 2 Number of urban settlements by class size

Total Urban

Number of urban settlements by Class- sizes

Settlements

Settlements
(in Lakhs)
Million
Rural

Mega Plus
Year Cities Cities I II III IV V VI
23 43 130 391 744 479
1901 0 1 (1.27%) (2.38%) (7.18%) (21.60%) (41.10%) (26.46%) 1810 7.28
21 40 135 364 707 485
1911 0 2 (1.20%) (2.38%) (7.71%) (20.78%) (40.35%) (27.68%) 1752 7.20
27 45 145 370 734 571
1921 0 2 (1.43%) (2.38%) (7.66%) (19.56%) (38.79%) (30.18%) 1892 6.86
33 56 183 434 800 509
1931 0 2 (1.64%) (2.78%) (9.08%) (21.54%) (39.70%) (25.26%) 2015 6.97
 47 74 242 498 920 407
1941 0 2 (2.15%) (3.38%) (11.06%) (22.76%) (42.05%) (18.60%) 2188 6.56
71 91 327 608 1124 569
1951 0 5 (2.54%) (3.26%) (11.72%) (21.79%) (40.29%) (20.39%) 2790 6.11
95 129 437 719 711 172
1961 0 7 (4.20%) (5.70%) (19.31%) (31.77%) (31.42%) (7.60%) 2263 6.16
139 173 558 827 623 147
1971 0 9 (5.63%) (7.01%) (22.62%) (33.52%) (25.25%) (5.96%) 2467 6.25
206 270 743 1059 758 253
1981 0 12 (6.26%) (8.21%) (22.59%) (32.20%) (23.05%) (7.69%) 3289 6.27
277 345 947 1167 740 197
1991 0 23 (7.54%) (9.39%) (25.78%) (31.77%) (20.15%) (5.36%) 3673 6.34
358 401 1151 1344 888 191
2001 3 35 (8.26%) (9.25%) (26.56%) (31.02%) (20.49%) (4.41%) 4333 6.38
452 605 1905 2233 2187 498
2011 3 53 (5.74%) (7.68%) (24.18%) (28.34%) (27.75%) (6.32%) 7880 6.41

• Total No. of Urban settlements in India has increased from 1810 in 1901 to 7880 in 2011 whereas
the number of rural settlements has decreased from 7.28 Lakh in 1901 to 6.41 Lakh in 2011.

• There was only one Million Plus City in 1901 i.e. Kolkata. In 2011, there are 53 Million Plus Cities,
out of which 3 are Mega cities i.e. Delhi, Greater Mumbai and Kolkata.

• Share of Class- I settlements increased from 1.27% in 1901 to 5.74% in 2011. During the same
period, share of Class- II settlements increased from 2.38% to 7.68%, Class- III from 7.18% to
24.18% and Class- IV from 21.60% to 28.34%.

• There has been a decrease in the share of Class-V settlements from 41.10% in 1901 to 27.75% in
2011 and Class- VI settlements from 26.46% to 6.32%.

• The absolute number of Class- V settlements has increased by 3 times from 744 in 1901 to 2187 in
2011. There has been a very small increase in Class- VI settlements from 479 in 1901 to 498 in
2011.
Figure 5 Changing city class size
Table 3 Percentage of urban to total population
Percentage of urban to total population

Mega Metro Urban Rural

Year Cities politan I II III IV V VI Pop. (%) Pop. (%)

1901 0 0.83 25.37 11.2 15.6 20.8 20.1 6.1 10.85 89.15

1911 0 1.31 26.29 10.5 16.4 19.7 19.3 6.5 10.29 89.71

1921 0 1.65 28.35 10.3 15.9 18.2 18.6 7.0 11.18 88.82

1931 0 1.32 29.98 11.6 16.8 18.0 17.1 5.2 11.99 88.01

1941 0 1.97 36.53 11.4 16.3 15.7 15.0 3.1 13.86 86.14

1951 0 3.45 41.35 9.9 15.7 13.6 12.9 3.1 17.29 82.71

1961 0 4.44 47.26 11.2 16.9 12.7 6.8 0.7 17.97 82.03

1971 0 5.28 52.12 10.9 16.0 10.9 4.4 0.4 19.91 80.09

1981 0 6.48 54.12 11.6 14.3 9.5 3.5 0.5 23.33 76.67

1991 0 8.55 56.85 10.9 13.1 7.7 2.6 0.3 25.7 74.30

2001 4.12 11.99 52.72 9.67 12.2 6.8 2.3 0.2 27.82 72.18

2011 3.99 43 24.55 8.68 11.3 6.2 2.1 0.18 31.16 68.84
 • Proportion of Urban to total Population in the last century has increased about three times from
10.85% in 1901 to 31.16% in 2011
• Rural to total population has decreased from 89.15% in 1901 to 68.84% in 2011
• Share of urban to total population in Class- I settlements (i.e. Large Cities only, excluding the Mega
and Metro Cities) decreased very slightly from 25.37% in 1901 to 24.55% in 2011. Considering
the Mega and Metro Cities also, this share has increased from 26.2% to 71.54% overall.
• In 2011, about 4% of the total urban population lived in Mega Cities and 43% in Metro Cities/
Million Plus Cities.
• Percentage of urban to total population in Classes- II to VI has decreased over the years. It came
down from 11.2% to 8.68% in Class- II, 15.6% to 11.3% in Class- III, 20.8% to 6.2% in Class- IV,
20.1% to 2.1% in Class- V and 6.1% to 0.1% in Class- VI settlements from 1901 to 2011.

Indian urban population in 2011 was 31.2% of the total population. Over 5 decades, annual rate of
Urbanisation ranged between 2.7- 3.8%. Following were the observed changes due to the increasing
population:
• 5 times GDP by 2030
• 270 Million people net increase in working- age population
• 70% of net new employment will be generated in cities
• Rs. 81.8 Lakh Crore capital investment needed for urban demands
• 68 Metro cities, up from 53
• 91 million MIG households, up from 22 million today

8 Distinction of urbanisation
The Census of India has defined Urbanization on description of 2001 census as ‘statutory towns’ and
‘census towns’. The distinction facilitates to understand or discriminate between rural and urban concepts.
• The statutory towns comprise of all places with Municipality, Corporation and Cantonment Board
or Notified Town Area Committee or the area specified under state law.
• The census town includes the places which satisfy following criteria
(a) A minimum population of 5000 people
(b) At least 75 percent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and
(c) a density of population of at least 400 persons per square kilometer.

9 Urbanization pattern in Indian cities

The urbanization trend as explained above has been different for different cities. This variation has led to
different patterns of development in Indian cities.

9.1 Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl is the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns. For major cities like Delhi,
Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Kolkata, population growth has been fastest on their peripheries in areas beyond
their official administrative boundaries. India’s largest cities have a significant portion of both population
and built-up areas outside ULB boundaries. In most cases, the proportion of built- up area outside ULB
boundaries is greater than the proportion of population outside the administrative boundaries, implying
relatively low-density sprawl. Built-up area is growing faster than population in nearly all of the largest
cities, especially between 2000-2011.(IIHS 2011). The share of India’s population living in areas with
urban-like features in 2010 as recorded by UN was 55.3%.
Figure 6 Urban sprawl in Mumbai

Figure 7 Urban sprawl in Kolkata

9.2 Conurbations
Due to rapid increase in population and industrial and technological
development, the city boundary expands and one urban center
combines with another in a slow but continuous process of urbanisation.
 Figure 8 Conurbations
9.3 Multicity agglomerations

India added seven multicity agglomerations from 1999 to 2010 when it had 30 of the 45 agglomerations.
Multicity agglomerations are defined as a continuously lit belt of urbanization containing two or more cities,
each of which had a population of at least 100,000 living within its administrative boundaries in 2010. An
example of two or more agglomerations merging is that of the Delhi and Lahore agglomerations, which
now form a continuously lit belt.

Figure 9 Map created from night-time lights of cities recorded by satellites, Lahore , Delhi & the
surrounding Punjab form continuous urban corridors, or agglomerations.
Source: https://makanaka.wordpress.com/tag/lahore/

10 Implications of urbanization
The increasing urbanization in India has a many implications on the various aspects of the cities. Some of
the implications are as follows:

10.1 Housing shortage

Housing market in India is not keeping pace with the urbanisation.

Figure 10 Housing shortage in India

The increasing population has given rise to more no of people living in slums and squatters. These informal
settlements do not have ac to basic infrastrcutre like the arrangement for drainage and for disposal of solid
wastes and garbage access to water supply. These inadequacies make the living conditions in slums very
unhygienic and poor. The population residing in slums in india is an follows:

Figure 11 Slum population in India

The slum population of various Indian cities is as follows:

Figure 12 Highest slum population states

 10.2 Increasing urban poverty
With the increasing population the population living under the poverty line is also increasing. In 2011,
13.7% of India’s population lived below poverty line, which makes it one in five people in India under the
category of urban poor. Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha and Chhatisgarh have the highest urban
poor population.

10.3 Increasing pollution

Rapid urbanization and urban development has increased the pollution in cities. Due to increase in the
population, the cities are now having an increase in the built up area. This increase in the built up area is
accommodated in the cities by clearing the green spaces. Also the increasing pressure of the population,
more natural resources are being consumed, thereby reducing the natural resources, and degrading the
quality of the leftover resources. Air quality, water quality and soil quality all have been decreasing due to
the increasing urbanization in the cities.

Figure 13 Status of air pollution in world cities

The comparison of concentrations of particulate matter (smaller than 10 microns PM10) shows that Delhi
is amongst the highest emissions cities. (WHO2014). Not just the air quality but the surface and ground
water quality in cities is degrading for example the lakes of Bangalore, have been degrading. The causes of
this increasing pollution in urban areas are as follows:
• Increasing built up
• Inefficient modes of transport
• Fuel and waste
burning
• Coal fired
power plants
• Industrial
activities.
10.4 Overcrowding and Congestion
Due to the increasing population in Indian cities, there is
observed more congestion in the cities. Urban dwellers today
face a challenge of increasing traffic jams on the roads.
Lack of public modes of transport and accessibility of public
transport in all parts of the cities specifically the peripheries.
According to a study done by the
BCG group, Kolkata is found to
be the most congested city
during the peak ours, followed by
Bangalore, Mumbai and Delhi.

Figure 14 Congestion during peak hours in 2018 (%)

10.5 Lack of Infrastructure
The increase in the urban population of the cities has caused a pressure on the existing infrastructure and
services. According to the world resource institute, the 54% of India faces high to extremely high water
stress. In the map below it is seen that Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Delhi are the regions with extreme
water stress.

Figure 15 Map showing water stress

 Figure 16 Map showing decreasing levels in wells.
The cities also face a lack of proper sanitation and
sewerage in the core as well as the peripheries. The graph
below shows that India, when compared to other Asian
countries, is having only 35% access to sanitation
facilities.

10.6 Increase in crime

Figure 17 Access to sanitation Facilities (%)
The increasing urbanization also have a social implication of increase in crimes observed in cities. There
has been an increase of 34% crimes
against women in urban areas.
According to a study done by
assocham SSG report of 2015 the
trend of cyber-crimes have been
increasing in India.
Other implications include:
10.7 Haphazard Growth of Real Estate Sector
The real estate sector is a critical sector of India economy. It has a huge multiplier effect on the economy
and therefore, is a big driver of economic growth. It is the second-largest employment-generating sector
after agriculture. Growing at a rate of about 20% per annum and this sector has been contributing about 5-
6% to India’s GDP. Not only does it generate a high level of direct employment, but it also stimulates the
demand 17 Notes www.iasscore.in in over 250 ancillary industries such as cement, steel, paint, brick,
building materials, consumer durables and so on. But the most important obstacle to sustainable growth of
cities is the total lack of regulation of this sector, nowadays it is laced with black money, corruption, red
tapism and land mafias and corruption.
10.8 Unsuccessful urban governance
The urban authority undergoes with multifaceted challenges to manage a city. The fast speed of
urbanization is major challenges which need every party to be more focused in undertaking each and every
responsibility in urban development. However, the involvement of several agencies and departments in
urban management made it complicated to synchronize many actions and resultant, it affects the efficiency
of those actions. Besides this, the local authority also deals with the different goals and interests of
community groups which they need to fulfil. The local authority also needs to find solution for different
social issues.

Figure 18 Consequences of migration in India

https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-Studies/notes/urbanization-their-problems-and-their-remedies.html
Among the other issues is the issue of unemployment which is the major cause of migration. It is evident
that though the urban wages are more as compared to the rural wages, they are low in context of urban areas
due to the high cost of living in the urban areas.
Indias urbanization is also considered to be very exclusionary. Muslims, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) constitute large percentages of India’s urban poor, they are at
the receiving end of an urbanization process which is deeply exclusionary and unequal. Without working
governance protections, these social groups routinely are deprived basic services such water, health,
education, sanitation, and legal protection. India’s current urbanization process is producing urban ‘winners
and losers’ and the excluded often express their frustrations and impotence through violence. (Buhaug
2013).
Increased environmental stress caused by groundwater depletion and climate variability have an immediate
impact on agriculturally-dependent rural livelihoods but can also translate into urban food insecurity
through inflating prices of basic food such as rice and staple crops. Lowered agricultural production and
food price shocks have disproportionate impacts on the poor, and may thus intensify extant social
inequalities and grievances and increase personal incentives to use violence if required to redress those
grievances. (Buhaug 2013).
Also poor land use planning, indiscriminate approvals of building plans (often in violation of environment
and municipal bye-laws), and the absence of disaster-risk assessment in urban design have resulted in what
experts term concentrated concretization, predisposing cities to disaster risks. (Saldanha 2016)
Due to high concentrations of population in the urban areas, the cities today are highly vulnerable to
disaster, natural and urban. The most vulnerable groups are the urban poor. Development is happening in
areas which are not suitable for development which makes most of the cities susceptible of increasing urban
issues such as development in wetlands and disturbing the natural drainage leads to urban flood in the cities.
Also this increasing urban development has increased the vulnerability to climate change in the Indian
cities. The cities today are facing the challenge of urban heat islands. Urban heat island are formed due to
increasing built up in the cities which cause the temperature in parts of these cities to rise more than other
parts of the cities.
11 Aspect wise implications of Urbanisation in India

11.1 Physical implications of urbanisation

The process of urbanisation, manifested as the increase in proportion of people residing in
urban areas, is associated with several consequences to the spatial structure of the area, which are
broadly referred to as physical implications of urbanisation. It includes both positive and negative
implications, which include the following.

11.1.1 Positive implications

Urbanisation necessitates planned development, which
most often results in an aesthetic environment (Fig 1).
Further the quality of life of residents of the area is
enhanced as there is an associated increase in housing
stock (Fig 2), higher level of facilities and services (Fig
3), as well as better connectivity and accessibility (Fig
4). In 2001-11, Urban housing stock increased and
shortage reduced. Increase in purchasing power and
easy availability of financial assistance. Housing
provided for Low Income Group (LIG)/ Economically
Weaker Section (EWS) in urban housing projects (Reservation of 5% of the total area or 10% of the
total dwelling units). More access to improved water supply and sanitation. Improved level of
transportation networks leading to better connectivity, accessibility and mobility. Integrated traffic
management systems. Innovation of new technologies in transit / high speed transit in large and metro
cities and connecting cities
 Figure 19 - Aesthetic environments

Figure 20 - Housing stock Figure 21 – Services Figure 22 – Connectivity

11.1.2 Negative implications

• Urbanisation leads to increase in population in urban areas as more and more people migrate from
rural to urban areas. This leads to concentration of population in the urban area core resulting in
increase in built up density (Fig 5), causing congestion &overcrowding. Inadequate supply of
affordable and good quality housing. Inadequate rental housing and low per capita investments in
housing. Stress on quality due to increasing demand and inadequate supply. Social and spatial
inequities in terms of distribution and accessibility to basic services.Lack of adequate services is
an issue faced by many cities. Reduction of effective road space due to encroachments and poor
quality of roads. No planned provisions for walkability and cycling. Lack of public transport,
increasing private vehicles and traffic congestion

Figure 23 - Increased built density Figure 24 - Neglect of heritage

Lack of modal integration in mega and metropolitan cities. The built traditional heritage is often neglected
(Fig 6) as more and more development efforts are streamlined for ensuring urban infrastructural facilities
and services. As to the physical infrastructure of Indian cities, most areas have inadequate/poor quality of
physical infrastructure-transportation networks (Fig 7) and a mix of modes (Fig 8), less quantum of potable
water (Fig 9), absence of proper sanitation and waste disposal mechanisms (Fig 10). Inadequacy of higher
level of social infrastructure, specifically education (Fig 11) and health (Fig 12) is also observed in Indian
cities/ urban areas.
 Figure 25 - Poor quality of infrastructure networks Figure 26 - Mix of transport modes

Figure 27 - Less quantum of potable water Figure 28 - Lack of waste disposal mechanisms

Figure 29 - Inadequacy of educational facilities Figure 30 - Inadequacy of health facilities

Amongst the undesirable physical implications of urbanization in India, the most prominent
one is urban sprawl due to haphazard physical development and related loss of farmlands. Urban
sprawl is referred to as the spreading of city/ urban area over rural land at the fringe, the impacts
of which include loss of farmland and wild life habitat, high cost of services, increased pollution
and demand on resources, long commuting time & energy consumption. There are 3 ways in which
urban sprawl happens -
i. Low density sprawl- piecemeal extensions of urban infrastructure (fig 13)
ii. Ribbon Sprawl- concentration of development along major transportation arteries,
primarily roads (fig 14)
iii. Leapfrog development sprawl- scattered form of sprawl resulting primarily from physical
limitations - disjointed urban land uses interspersed with green areas (fig15)
(Suprita, 2016)
 Figure 31 - Low density sprawl Figure 32 - Ribbon sprawl Figure 33 - Leapfrog dev. Sprawl

Urban sprawl leads to loss of farmlands, most often resulting in formation of urban villages,
commonly seen in many of the Indian cities. Being a total deviant from the foreign concept of
‘urban villages’, these areas in India, are more easily identified by narrow lanes and heaps of
garbage.

11.2 Social implications of urbanisation

Urbanisation has several desirable as well as undesirable effects on the society at large and on the
social life of residents of the area, which are broadly referred to as social implications of
urbanisation. It includes both positive and negative implications, which include the following.

11.2.1 Positive implications

Socio-demographic factors like literacy rate, life expectancy, family health status, number of
girls per boys, working population and participation of women in workforce, increase with
urbanization. In Census 2011, a person aged 7 years and above who can both read and write with
understanding in any language was taken as literate and Effective Literacy rate = (number of
literates/ population aged 7 years and above) x 100. Upon analysis of the rates in rural and urban
areas of India, literacy rates were found to be higher in urban areas when compared to rural areas
(figure 16). For both males and females, a higher literacy rate has been recorded in urban areas in
both 2001 & 2011(figures 17,18). The increase in literacy rate in urban areas is attributed to higher
level of awareness. Female literacy also, was found to be very low in rural areas and the difference
among sexes found lesser in urban areas (figure 19).

Figure 34 - Literacy rate: rural-urban comparison

 Figure 35 - Literacy rate (males) Figure 36 - Literacy rate (females)

Figure 37 - Female literacy :rural-urban comparison

As to the life expectancy, urban population - both male and female; was found to have more
life expectancy than rural population (Census 2011) and the trend is steadily increasing (Figures
20,21). Also in urban areas, females had better life expectancy than males. The trend is found to be
increasing; that is, female life expectancy is increasing at a higher rate than male life expectancy in
urban areas (Figure 22).

Figure 38 - Life expectancy: comparison (males) Figure 39 - Life expectancy comp. (females)

Figure 40 - Life expectancy in urban population: male-female comparison

As to the family health status, selected indicators corresponding to ten family health
parameters were assessed for rural and urban population, figures derived from National Family
Health Survey - 4 (International Institution of Population Studies, 2016). The ten parameters
included were: (1) good maternity & infant care; (2) good delivery care; (3) child immunizations
and Vitamin A supplementation; (4) absence of Anaemia in children; (5) treatment of childhood
diseases; (6) good child feeding practices; (7) good nutritional status of children; (8) frequent health
 check up; (9) good awareness of health issues; and (10) absence of gender based violence. Upon
comparing the family health status, the indicators showed that family health status is generally
better in urban areas than rural in terms of more awareness of health issues, better accessibility to
healthcare facilities and more frequent health checkups.
For the rural-urban comparison of number of girls per boys, the sex ratio (overall) and child
sex ratio were the indicators. Sex ratio (overall), the number of females per 1000 males, though
was found to be lesser in urban areas (Figure 23), the decadal increase is more when compared to
rural areas (Census 2011). And as to the child sex ratio, the number of girls per thousand boys in
the age group, 0 to 6 years, though it has been declining at a national level, (a major issue), the
decline was found lesser in urban areas (Figure 24).

Figure 41 - Sex ratio: rural-urban comparison Figure 42 - Child sex ratio: comparison

As to the working population, the Work Participation Rate (WPR), calculated as the
percentage of total workers to total population is founder to be higher in urban areas for male
population and also the trend is steadily increasing (Figure 25). For females, though WPR is lesser,
the trend is increasing in urban areas when it has declined in rural areas in 2001-2011(Figure 26).
Also the percentage of workers in urban women for age cohorts 20-49 is steadily increasing (Figure
27) (Census 2011).

Figure 43 - WPR of males: comparison Figure 44 - WPR of females:comparison

Figure 45 - Percentage of workers in urban women in age cohorts 20-49

11.2.2 Negative implications
Urbanisation has several undesirable social implications as well which include increased and
uncontrolled in-migration, exclusion and lack of participation of different stakeholders (in terms of age,
gender, caste, differently abled) / marginalization of stakeholders in planning and development and an
increase in crime rate. There are 4 types of in- migration which are rural to urban, rural to rural, urban
to rural and urban to urban. Rural to urban migration is associated with pressures of population growth
leading to misuse/abuse/disuse of land, fragmentation/ subdivision of land and land grabbing and also
the expansion of employment opportunities in urban centers (S.C, 1993). The in-migration trend
indicates that more than 20 million people out of total 42.3 million in-migrants, in 2001 migrated from
rural to urban, which implies that rural to urban is the highest contributor to in-migration, and increases
with urbanization. Further, India’s urban areas have low inclusive development indicator scores (World
Economic Forum, 2015), indicating the issue of marginalization of stakeholders in urban development.
Another major negative implication of urbanisation is increase in crime rates. It has been widely
studied as an effect and proven related due to the following characteristics of urban areas – (1) urban
areas have lesser social cohesion and a lack of informal social control (Gerben, 2007); (2) urban areas
are more feasible for committing crimes (Shelly, 1981); and (3) cities offer opportunities to potential
offenders (Glaeser & Sacerdote, 1999). Besides all these, in the context of Indian urban areas,
disparities in income and/or crowded living conditions resulting in low self
esteem/addictions/abuses/mental disorders, also is a cause for increased crime rates. In 2010, a total of
67,50,748 crimes were reported in India (National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 2010). In the
absence of rural-urban crime incidence statistics, the crime rate of Indian cities was compared with the
crime rate of the respective domain state, and was generally found to be higher (Malik, 2016).

11.3 Economic implications of urbanisation

Urbanisation is associated with several consequences to the economy/economic growth of the area,
desirable or undesirable are broadly categorized as economic implications of urbanisation, and it
includes the following.

11.3.1 Positive implications

In India, the desirable economic implications of urbanisation include - increasing employment
opportunities due to growth of secondary and tertiary sectors over primary sector, increasing
productivity and economic growth and increasing investment in development. On analyzing the
contribution of each sector of the economy to the GDP (Figure 28), it can be seen that, contribution of
primary sector has declined from 51.88% to 13.94% and contribution of secondary sector has increased
from 16.19% to 26.13% and that of tertiary sector from 29.54% to 59.93%.

Figure 46 - Sector wise contribution to GDP

 With urbanisation, productivity and economic growth gets boosted as evident from the fact that
with only 31% of the population of India living in urban areas, urban areas contribute a high share of
the GDP (63%) of the country (Figure 29). Also budgetary outlays / investment for development in
urban sector is higher and increasing steadily (Figure 30).

Figure 47 - Urban share of GDP

Figure 48 - Budgetary outlays (in crores) for urban development

11.3.2 Negative implications

The undesirable economic implications of urbanisation include - growth of informal sector due to
unemployment/underemployment in formal sector. Urban areas are characterized by high competition
for jobs; hence the non-poor tend to cluster in formal employment while poor residents work in more
insecure and very low paid informal sector activities (Grant, 2012). In 2009-10, as per the NSS 67th
survey, 2009- 2010 report on informal sector, workers in informal sector accounted for 17% of the total
rural workforce and 46% of the urban workforce (Figure 31).

Figure 49 - Informal sector workers:rural-urban comparison

 The widening gap between rich and poor due to increasing cost of living is yet another undesirable
implication. The average monthly per capita consumption expenditure for all economic classes is more
in urban areas (National Sample Survey Office , 2011) and the urban expenditure per day has been
more in urban areas across time and is increasing steadily. Also there is the issue of food insecurity/
increasing imports due to decrease in agricultural land and productivity– caused by sprawl (already
explained in Section 3.1.2: last few paragraphs).

11.4 Environmental Implications of Urbanization

11.4.1 Positive Implications

Increasing awareness for environmental protection. Laws and regulations to control the environmental
impact of developmental activities. Innovation of better technology to deal with environmental hazards.
Judicious use of natural resources. Invention and improvisation of technology for the use of renewable
energy. Better preparedness for dealing with calamity.

11.4.2 Negative Implications

Indiscriminate use of natural resources leading to development on unsuitable and sensitive areas, over
exploitation of surface and ground water sources and modification and destruction of habitats. Increasing
pollution levels in terms of land, air, water and noise. Increasing vulnerability, hazards and risks. Increasing
energy consumption. Neglect of built heritage

Delhi is seeing a rapid increase in the vehicles on road on a daily basis leading to poor air quality.
Mumbai’s carbon footprint is double the national average of 1.4 tones of carbon dioxide, has poor air
quality with PM10, PM2.5 and SO2 considerably above the permissible levels. Kolkata is 3rd most polluted
city in terms of NO2 levels and 12th most polluted city in terms of PM10 levels according to the statement
given by Ministry of Environment and Forests in August 2010.

As per the 2015 livability index of ‘The Economist’ Intelligence Unit from amongst 140 cities, rank of:

New Delhi was 110 and Mumbai was 115. The average ranking for all developing country cities outside
of South Asia was 103. The livability index for Indian cities is very low suggesting poor infrastructural
facilities and many environmental problems.

11.5 Governance implications of urbanisation

Urbanisation has several desirable as well as undesirable effects on the public governance mechanisms,
reforms and resources broadly referred to as governance implications of urbanisation which includes
both positive and negative implications.

11.5.1 Positive implications

Urbanisation most often results in a better governance mechanism- administrative structure, laws,
policies and programmes for urban development. An administrative structure with well identified roles
and responsibilities and specific laws, policies and programmes targeted for urban development is a
characteristic of many urban areas in India. Also allocation of funds for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
makes development projects more financially feasible in urban areas. 74th Constitutional Amendment
Act empowered the Urban Local Bodies which comprises of municipal corporations, municipalities
and nagar panchayats, which are supported by state governments to manage the urban development.
 Administrative reforms in urban areas is yet another desirable implication, the relevance of which is
that it is needed since there is a constant increase of functions of Public Administration bodies/forces
as well as demands of society. An effort to remain relevant in the changing times, Reform of
Administration includes a complex rebuilding of existing administration/administrative procedures or
modernizing/ improvising of existing administration/administrative procedures. Giving an example for
an administrative reform in India, the Committee on Prevention of Corruption/ Santhanam Committee
was appointed by the Government of India in 1960 and it gave its report in 1962 with recommendations.
On the basis of the recommendations, the Central Vigilance Commission was set up in 1964 for looking
into the cases of corruption of central government and other employees.

11.5.2 Negative implications

Urbanisation in India also leads to governance issues like multiplicity of authorities or lack of
coordinated efforts between multiple institutions and resultant overlapping of powers, functions and
jurisdictions. Poor institutional capabilities in terms of skilled manpower, also is an undesirable
economic implication in India. It can be seen that the gap between people trained and people placed
(National Skill Development Corporation report, 2013) is large. Poor accountability and transparency
of governance mechanisms is yet another implication. Poor financial capabilities and/ or procedural
delays and/ or lack of proper implementation and monitoring mechanisms often lead to a gap between
time bound targets and actual achievements as well as between budgetary outlays and actual
expenditure.

12 Issues in Mega Cities

Mega cities are cities with more than 10 million population. The megacities face a lot of issues which
makes it vulnerable to risks of disasters. The issues faced by mega cities are as follows:

• High Rise Buildings

• High Density
• High Pollution levels
• Low proportion of open spaces
• Encroachment and extension of buildings without consideration for safety
• High proportion of low income communities
• Poor quality of Housing
• Use of highly inflammable building material usage
• Absence of efficient disaster mitigation and management system

The mega cities face a lot of disaster risks which are as follows :

• Fire
• Flood
• Earthquakes
• Accidents/Stampedes
- Industries
- Transportation
- Festivals and pilgrimage related
- Ethnic conflicts
 • Epidemics
• Occupation related
• High Mobility related risks
• Risks related to violation in setback regulations

13 Summary

The key points discussed in this module can be summarized as follows –

• Urbanisation impacts an area in terms of multiple aspects – physical, social, economic and
governance implications; as well as various sectors: shelter, infrastructure, environment and
heritage

• The desirable/positive physical implications of urbanisation in India include planned development

and better quality of life in terms of housing stock, facilities and services, connectivity and
accessibility

• The undesirable/negative physical implications of urbanisation in India include increasing built up

density, neglect of built heritage, inadequate/poor quality of both physical infrastructure and social
infrastructure, and urban sprawl

• The desirable social implications of urbanisation in India include increase in literacy rate, life
expectancy and family health status, more number of girls per boys, increase in working population,
better participation of women in workforce

• The undesirable social implications of urbanisation in India include increased in-migration,

marginalization of stakeholders in planning and development and an increase in crime rate

• The desirable economic implications of urbanisation in India include increasing employment

opportunities due to growth of secondary and tertiary sectors over primary sector, increasing
productivity and economic growth and increasing investment in development

• The undesirable economic implications of urbanisation in India include growth of informal sector,
widening gap between rich and poor due to increasing cost of living, food insecurity/ increasing
imports due to decrease in agricultural land and productivity

• The desirable governance implications of urbanisation in India include better governance

mechanism, allocation of funds for urban local bodies for development and administrative reforms
in urban areas

• The undesirable governance implications of urbanisation in India include Multiplicity of authorities

and lack of co-ordinated efforts, poor institutional capabilities in terms of skilled manpower and
poor accountability and transparency

13.1 References
Census 2011. (2014). Rural-urban distribution of popultaion in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India.
Gerben, J. (2007). Urbanization and urban crime. Geographical and Environmental Research, 453-502.
Glaeser, E., & Sacerdote, B. (1999). Why Is There More Crime in Cities? Journal of political economy,
225-258.
Grant, U. (2012). Urbanization and the Employment Opportunities of youth in developing countries .
UNESCO.
International Institution of Population Studies. (2016). National Family Health Survey 4, 2015-16.
Mumbai: Ministry of Health and Family welfare.
Malik, A. (2016). Urbanization and Crime: A Relational Analysis. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And
Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) , 68-74.
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB). (2010). Crime in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home affairs,
Government of India.
National Sample Survey Office . (2011). Employment and Unemployment Survey : NSS 66th round: July
2009 - June 2010. Kolkata: National Sample Survey Office .
S.C, B. (1993). Peasant labour and colonial capital: Rural Bengal since 1770. In C. University, New
Cambridge History of India Vol III.2 (p. 26). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shelly, L. (1981). Crime and Modernization: The Impact of Industrialization and Modernization on
Crime. Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.
Suprita, B. (2016). Planned development in peri-urban areas of Kolkata. New Delhi: School of Planning
and Architecture (SPA) Delhi.
World Economic Forum. (2015). Invclusive growth and development report. online.

13.2 Related links

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS
http://www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/mods/theme_c/popups/mod13t01s009.html
https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/AG.LND.TOTL.UR.K2
https://www.orfonline.org/research/measuring-urbanisation-india/
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-007-7088-1_21
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/urbanisation/conurbations-development-characteristics-and-
problems-associated-with-conurbations/42420
http://www.isocarp.net/data/case_studies/1203.pdf
http://indianresearchjournals.com/pdf/IJSSIR/2012/September/15.pdf
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup1999/wup99ch5.pdf
https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/74757/1/MPRA_paper_74757.PDF
http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/urban/chapter1.htm
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9bd6/b2d2d78458680a48ce7f44d9f78524cd2bbb.pdf
http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10597IIED.pdf
http://www.frey-demographer.org/reports/R-1998-11_DefiningCityLevelsUrbanization.pdf
http://www.iasscore.in/samplenotes/Urban-Indian%20Society-1.pdf