Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53

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Advances in Engineering Software

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An improved dynamic model for the study of a flexible pavement

A. El Ayadi a, B. Picoux a,⇑, G. Lefeuve-Mesgouez b, A. Mesgouez b, C. Petit a
a
GEMH Laboratory, Université de Limoges, ENSCI Boulevard Jacques Derche, 19300 Egletons Cedex, France
b
UMR A 1114 EMMAH, Université d’Avignon, Faculté des Sciences, 33 rue Louis Pasteur, F-84000 Avignon, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper introduces the semi-analytical and finite element models implemented to study a Falling
Available online 29 July 2011 Weight Deflectometer test conducted on a flexible pavement. These dynamic models take into account
the effects of both Rayleigh damping in soil and viscous damping in bituminous materials, with respect
Keywords: to temperature, on structural deflection. Moreover, numerical results have been compared with in situ
Dynamic measurements recorded on an instrumented pavement. Results from numerical models showed the
Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) importance of taking into account the effect of damping (hysteretic or viscoelastic) of all layers of the
Flexible pavement
pavement against temperature, loading and mechanical parameters. The parametric analysis introduced
Rayleigh damping
Viscosity
as a basis for future development of a dynamic backcalculation program.
Semi-analytical method  2011 Civil-Comp Ltd and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Finite element model

1. Introduction increasingly popular, for allowing pavement overlay designs to be

Road pavement maintenance represents one of the largest budget
items in most countries. Pavements carrying light traffic make up a
significant share of the road network and must, as a result, undergo
relatively basic and inexpensive diagnostic assessments. Spending
restrictions imposed throughout most of the world have placed
greater emphasis on optimising the maintenance and repairs of flex-
ible pavements. As a paradox for some countries yet completely log-
ical for others, this period of budget tightening has been reflected by
increasingly sophisticated diagnostic techniques, as well as a more
durable and efficient maintenance strategy. There exists a lot of diag-
nosis methods in the field of pavement [1]. Some are specific to the
measurement of the bearing capacity (FWD, Belkenman’s beam,
Deflectograph, curviameter, etc.), others are more specific to the
identification of localised defects of structures such cracks or delam-
inations (Radar, Colibri, Impact echo, SASW, etc.). Rare are the meth-
ods which make it possible to carry out the two approaches by using
the dynamic behaviour of the pavement. Against this backdrop, the
present article proposes improvements to diagnostic methods based
on FWD data, which are widely used at the international level.
The combined effects of traffic and the environment on pave-
ments has inexorably led to their deterioration. Damage and its con-
sequences can only be reversed by adding or replacing materials, in a
way that substantially extends their life cycle. In pursuing this goal,
the use of empirical methods may often lead to errors since the val-
ues input are not necessarily representative of actual field condi-
tions. As a result, non-destructive tests (NDT) have become
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: benoit.picoux@unilim.fr (B. Picoux).
based on the in situ conditions of a pavement structure. Among
the array of NDT tests, standard methods are limited to the estima-
tion of stresses and deflections produced by static loads; moreover,
these methods use pavement surface deflection measurements to
determine static layer stiffness. Methods have been significantly im-
proved in order to reflect actual field conditions for flexible pave-
ments [2]. Among the new devices implemented, the Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is the most popular for the NDT testing
of flexible pavements. The FWD (seeFig. 1) is able to exert an impulse
load similar in magnitude and duration to the moving wheel on a
truck. Pavement deflections are measured using a series of velocity
sensors placed along the pavement surface. According to current
practice, the deflection basin (i.e. the maximum recorded deflection)
is introduced to evaluate pavement structural properties and can
serve to determine the required quantity of additional pavement
structure [3]. Furthermore, most existing models apply a linear elas-
tic approach to predict pavement response by means of theoretical
or numerical methods, although the supporting data for tests have
revealed that this approach remains insufficient in describing the ac-
tual complex behaviour of a pavement structure [4].
The strategy adopted in the laboratory has consisted of utilising
the abundance of dynamic temporal information. Until now, only
static approaches have undergone widespread development and
been employed in operational contexts for evaluating pavements.
The initial research conducted [5–7,3] has demonstrated the possi-
bility of successfully detecting defects (such as cracks and delamina-
tion). In the present work, the objective lies in incorporating, in
particular, the viscoelastic characteristic of bituminous materials.
The processing of dynamic signals then allows extending this
analysis to other parameters like material viscosity and soil
nonlinearity.

0965-9978/$ - see front matter  2011 Civil-Comp Ltd and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.advengsoft.2011.05.038
 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53 45

Fig. 1. FWD test and flexible pavement structure.

This paper focuses on developing a dynamic method to take into
account the dynamic FWD loading and deflection-time history of
FWD data. Semi-analytical and finite element models will be pre-
sented and shown to offer a better level of agreement with field
pavement data.
2. Semi-analytical model for axisymmetric configurations
the cylindrical coordinate system (r, h, z) is set on the surface with
an upward z-axis, assumed to be the axis of symmetry for the med-
ium; this configuration leads to parameter independence with re-
spect to the h variable.
rzz ðr; h; z ¼ 0Þ ¼ rzz0 sinðx0 tÞ for 0 < t < t0 =2 and r < r0
¼ 0 elsewhere ð1Þ

The heterogeneities encountered in soil mechanics can be mod- where rzz0 is the stress amplitude and x0 = 2p/t0 the radial fre-
elled by a multilayered description of the medium, in assuming a quency of the loading. The governing equations of motion without
horizontal distribution of the various layers. A full range of analyt- body forces are written in the cylindrical coordinate system as
ical or semi-analytical techniques is available, including the trans- follows:
fer matrix, stiffness matrix, and transmission and reflection matrix
methods. The main drawbacks of the transfer matrix method relate @ rrr @ rrz rrr  rhh @ 2 ur
þ þ ¼q 2 ð2Þ
to the construction of asymmetric matrices that involve mis- @r @z r @t
matched exponential terms and systems, since these can only rep- @ rrz @ rzz rrz @ 2 uz
þ þ ¼q 2 ð3Þ
resent layers on a rigid foundation. The stiffness matrix method @r @z r @t
yields symmetric matrices, albeit with some numerical instability
where rrr, rrz and rzz represent the stress tensor components and ur
for large thicknesses and/or high frequencies, which are capable
and uz the displacement components. The constitutive relation for
of occurring in the presence of decreasing and increasing exponen-
axisymmetric materials can now be written as:
tial terms within the formulation. Nevertheless, by introducing an
elimination technique for these mismatched terms, the exact stiff- 8 9 2 3 8 9
> rrr > 1m m m 0 > rr >
ness matrix formulation can provide an efficient tool for studying >
> >
> >
> >
< r = E 6m 1m m 0 7 < > =
multilayered grounds [8]. Mesgouez et al. previously developed a hh 6 7 hh
¼ 6 7
ð1 þ mÞð1  2mÞ 4 m m 1  m 0 5>
rzz > > zz >
number of semi-analytical tools for studying ground vibrations >
> > > >
>
: >
; >
12m : ;
due to transient loads, Mesgouez and Lefeuve-Mesgouez [9,10], rrz 0 0 0 2 2rz
or moving loads [11] on a multilayered poroviscoelastic medium
and for Cartesian coordinates. The authors here are proposing where rr ¼ @u
@r
r
; hh ¼ urr ; zz ¼ @u
@z
z
and 2rz ¼ @u
@z
r
þ @u
@r
z
are the strain
adapting this approach to an axisymmetric multilayered geometry components in the cylindrical coordinate system, and E and m are
through the use of cylindrical coordinates and associated functions, the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, respectively. With visco-
such as Bessel functions, in the context of viscoelastic materials. A elastic materials, E and m assume complex values. Various damping
Fourier transform with respect to the time variable and a Hankel models allow accounting for the introduction of complex values for
transform with respect to the radial variable constitute the key Young’s modulus E. Two types of damping have been adopted in the
steps in this approach. Results can then be compared to experi- present study: viscous damping and Rayleigh damping. Both of
mental data. The theoretical development of this method will these will be discussed in detail in Section 3.3.
now be presented for an axisymmetric geometry with viscoelastic
materials for the purpose of comparison with experimental data. 2.2. Complex integral presentation of the transformed displacement
field
2.1. Set of governing equations
For homogeneous layers, the physical parameters do not de-
The ground is considered herein as a semi-infinite heteroge- pend on spatial variables. Consequently, the spatial derivation of
neous soil modelled with a horizontal distribution of the various constitutive relations and the introduction of these relations into
layers Fig. 1. As part of this set-up, all layers are composed of iso- the motion equations yield the following partial differential
tropic viscoelastic materials. A vertical impulse load is applied over equation:
the free surface of the ground, while restricted to a circular area
and considered as a half-sine in time (see Eq. (1)). The origin O of ðk þ lÞrðr:uÞ þ lDu ¼ qu
€ ð4Þ
46 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53

When projecting on the cylindrical coordinate system, the following ~  ðn; zÞ ¼ /

/ ~ I ðn; xÞeikP ðzzn1 Þ þ /
~ R ðn; xÞeikP ðzzn Þ ð17Þ
0
equations are obtained:
! ~  ðn; zÞ ¼ w
w ~ I ðn; xÞeikS ðzzn1 Þ þ w
~ R ðn; xÞeikS ðzzn Þ ð18Þ
@ 2 ur @ 2 ur 1 @ur ur @ 2 uz 1
q 2
¼ ðk þ 2lÞ þ  þ
@t @r2 r @r r2 @r@z At this point, by introducing (17) and (18) into the transformed ver-
! sion of Eq. (9), the transformed radial and vertical displacements are
@ 2 ur @ 2 uz given by:
þl  ð5Þ
@z2 @z@r
~  ðn; z; xÞ  d w
ur 1 ðn; z; xÞ ¼ n/
f ~  ðn; z; xÞ ð19Þ
0
uh ðr; zÞ ¼ 0 ð6Þ dz 1
d ~ ~  ðn; z; xÞ
! uz 0 ðn; z; xÞ ¼ /
f ðn; z; xÞ þ nw ð20Þ
  dz 0 1
@2u @ 2 ur 1 @ur @ 2 uz l @uz @ur
q 2z ¼ ðk þ 2lÞ þ þ 2 þ  Using matrix notation, it can be deduced that:
@t @r@z r @z @ z r @r @z
! ( ) " #( ) ( )
2 2 ~ jz¼z
u MatI MatR Z e I
U e I
U
@ uz @ ur n1
¼ ¼ ½Q  ð21Þ
þl  ð7Þ ~ jz¼z
u MatI Z MatR e R
U e R
U
@r 2 @z@r n

The Helmholtz decomposition u = r/ + r ^ w is introduced next. where ~ jz ¼ hf

u ur 1 ðn; z; xÞ; f e I=R ¼ h/
uz 0 ðn; z; xÞit ; U ~ I=R ðn; xÞ; w
~ I=R
 
Note that for axisymmetric configurations, only the h coordinate ex- n ikS
ðn; xÞit ; Z ¼ Diag½eikP hn ; eikS hn ; MatI ¼ and
ists for the vector potential, w = weh, thus resulting in: ikP n
 
@/ 1 @ðrwÞ n ikS
@/ @w MatR ¼ .
ur ðr; zÞ ¼  and uz ðr; zÞ ¼ þ ð8Þ ikP n
@r @z @z r @r
Incorporating the Helmholtz potentials in Eq. (4) now leads to: In contrast, the two relevant stress–displacement relations can
be written in the transformed domain so as to determine the po-
€
r½ðk þ lÞrðr  /Þ þ lrðr  /Þ  q/ tential unknown vectors U e I=R . The relations between stress com-
 
r^ lr ^ ðr ^ wÞ þ qw€ ¼ 0 ð9Þ ponents and transformed displacements are given by:

Eq. (9) is satisfied "r, z and t; the two following equations, relative df
uz 0 ðn; z; xÞ
to compression and shear waves respectively, can then be rf0 zz ¼ ðk þ 2lÞ ur 1 ðn; z; xÞ
þ knf ð22Þ
 dz 
expressed: d 
rf1 rz ¼ l f uz 0 ðn; z; xÞ
ur ðn; z; xÞ  nf ð23Þ
@ 2 / 1 @/ @ 2 / 1 € dz 1
D/ ¼ 2 þ þ ¼ / ð10Þ
@r r @r @z2 v 2P From this formulation, stresses can be expressed in terms of poten-
w @ 2 w 1 @w @ 2 w w 1 € tials. Using the previous notation and for a layer ‘‘n’’, this expression
Dw  2 ¼ 2 þ þ  ¼ w ð11Þ yields:
r @r r @r @z2 r 2 v 2S
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffi
with v P ¼ kþ2 l l " #( ) ( )
q being the compression wave speed and v S ¼ e I e
q
SI SR Z U R jz¼zn1
the shear wave speed. ¼ ð24Þ
SI Z SR e R
U e
R
For an axisymmetric configuration, it is relevant to introduce jz¼zn
the nth-order Hankel (or Fourier–Bessel) transform, along with " # " #
2 2
the Fourier transform of an integrable function f, defined as I 2inkP kS  n2 R 2inkP kS  n2
with ½S  ¼ l 2 ; ½S  ¼ l 2
follows: ðkS  n2 Þ 2inkP ðkS  n2 Þ 2inkP
Z 1 Z þ1 e  ¼ hr
and R ~ zz0 ðn; z; xÞit . Analytical expressions for
~ rz1 ðn; z; xÞ; r
jz
~f n ðnÞ ¼ rf ðrÞJ n ðnrÞdr and f  ðxÞ ¼ f ðtÞeixt dt ð12Þ transformed displacement vectors are now given by the solution to:
0 1
" #" #1 ( ) ( )
where n is the Hankel transform parameter (i.e. radial wave num- SI SR Z MatI MatR Z  jz¼z
u Rjz¼zn1
n1
¼ ð25Þ
ber), x the radial frequency and Jn the nth-order Bessel function SI Z SR MatI Z MatR  jz¼z
u Rjz¼zn
n
of the first kind. Eqs. (10) and (11) can then be written in the trans-
formed domain in the following form:
or in condensed form, as:
2  2  ( ) ( )
d ~ x 2 ~
   jz¼z
u Rjz¼zn1
/ ðn; z; xÞ þ  n /0 ðn; z; xÞ ¼ 0 ð13Þ
dz
2 0
v 2P T layern 44  jz¼z
u
n1
¼ ð26Þ
2   n Rjz¼zn
d ~ x2 2 ~ 
w ðn; z; xÞ þ  n w1 ðn; z; xÞ ¼ 0 ð14Þ
dz
2 1
v 2S It should be noted that the layer stiffness matrix defined in Eq. (25)
2 2
contains no increasing exponential terms since all such terms were
where K 2P
¼ þ n ¼ v 2 and kP 2 x2 K 2s 2
¼ þ n ¼ v 2 are the global wave
ks x2
P s excluded from the formulation at the time Equations (17) and (18)
numbers, and kp and ks the vertical and horizontal wave numbers. were modified. This step is a critical one in that it improves condi-
The general solution to Eqs. (13) and (14) may be expressed as: tioning of the resulting system.
~  ðn; zÞ ¼ Aðn; xÞeikP z þ Bðn; xÞeikP z
/ ð15Þ A conventional layer assembly technique is then employed. For
0
the case of a half-space underneath the layers, only the incident
~  ðn; zÞ ¼ A0ðn; xÞeikS z þ B0 ðn; xÞeikS z terms are retained, and the matrix formulation is reduced to a sca-
w 1 ð16Þ
lar and added to the right-hand bottom term of the global matrix.
In order to improve the conditioning of resulting matrices (see [9]), The resulting matrix system is symmetric and of dimension
through introducing zn1 and zn as the upper and lower depth coor- 2(N + 1)  2(N + 1) (with N being the number of distinct layers).
dinates of a specific layer ‘‘n’’, and hn = (zn  zn1) < 0, it is now pos- Moreover, this preconditioning technique yields good computa-
sible to write: tional results.
 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53 47

2 3
    Table 1
6    7 Mechanical properties of layers for the two structures.
6 78 9
6 7> fur 1jz¼0 > 8 9
6      7>> >
> > rfrz 1jz¼0 > Layer Simple structure Classical structure m q
6 7>>f > > >
uz 0jz¼0 > > >
6 7> > > > (kg m3)
6      7>>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> rfzz 0jz¼0 >
>
> E Thickness E Thickness
6 7>> >
> >
> >
>
6     7>> f
u  >
> >
> >
> (MPa) (m) (MPa) (m)
6 7< 1jz¼h = < 0
r =
6 7 AC 6500 0.05 6500 0.04 0.35 2500
6     7 f u 
z 0jz¼h ¼ 0
6 7>> > >
> > >
> GB – – 10500 0.07 0.35 2600
6 ... 7>>... > >
> >... >
>
6 7>> >
> >
> >
> UGM 200 0.25 130 0.25 0.35 2200
6 7>> >
> >
> >
>
6     7>>fu  >
> >
> 0 >
> Soil 90 3 90 3 0.35 1600
6 7>>
r 1jz¼zhs >
> >
: >
; Stiff 3000 Semi- 3000 Semi- 0.3 2000
6 7 >
    7: f >
;
6 
uz 0jz¼zhs 0 layer infinite infinite
6 7
4    5
   
ð27Þ response is generated through use of a discrete Fast Fourier Trans-
form algorithm. Given the properties listed in this article, an inverse
with surface stresses in the transformed domain given by: evaluation has been conducted with 2048 (in time)  200 (in space)
points, a range of n < 40 m1 and x < 2000 rad s1. Note that a grid
rfrz 1jz¼0 ¼ 0
 change would exert no impact on results.
rtr sinððx þ x0 Þt 0 =4Þ
rfzz 0jz¼0 ¼ 0 0 0 J1 ðnr0 Þejxt0 =4 ð28Þ
4n ðx þ x0 Þt0 =4 2.4. Theoretical results

sinððx  x0 Þt 0 =4
þ
ðx  x0 Þt 0 =4 An analysis of theoretical results helps understand the wave
propagating phenomena at work. The mechanical characteristics
From the system displayed in (27), the numerical values of displace-
are shown in Table 1. Initial results have been proposed for the fol-
ments can now be deduced within the transformed domain.
lowing configurations:

2.3. Numerical calculations  configuration 0: A half-space whose characteristics are denoted

as ‘‘soil’’ in Table 1
Once the solution has been found in the transformed domain  configuration 1: A ‘‘soil’’ layer overlaying a stiff layer
(i.e. wave number and frequency domain), the next step consists  configuration 2: Two layers overlaying a stiff half-space, with
of carrying out the inverse transforms, as represented by the fol- the first layer being composed of ‘‘UGM’’ (unbound granular
lowing equation: material) and the second composed of ‘‘soil’’
Z 1 Z 1  configuration 3: Three layers (asphalt concrete + UGM + soil)
1
uz ðr; z; tÞ ¼ uz 0 ðn; z; xÞJ 0 ðnrÞeixt dx dn
nf ð29Þ overlaying a stiff half-space.
2p 0 1

In order to take viscoelasticity of the solid material into account, a
hysteretic, viscous or Rayleigh damping is introduced. Within the
frequency domain, this step leads to complex Lamé coefficients, de-
fined as k⁄ = k(1 + ig) where g is the damping ratio. Rayleigh poles
and branch points are thus assigned complex values, as this step
avoids integrand singularities. The integration procedure can then
be performed by means of a numerical quadrature scheme. Never-
theless, when the integrand is close to becoming singular in the
vicinity of the poles, special attention needs to be paid to the
numerical integral evaluation technique due to sharp variations in
the integrand, coupled with intrinsic oscillatory characteristics.
Moreover, the wave-number integrals are of the form:
Z 1
uz ðr; z; xÞ ¼ uz 0 ðn; z; xÞJ 0 ðnrÞ dn
nf
0
Fig. 2 compares the vertical displacements obtained for a spe-
cific point located over the ground surface at a distance of 0.6 m
from the centre of the load for the configurations described above.
For the half-space (i.e. configuration 0), arrival of the Rayleigh
wave can be observed, followed by the vertical displacement tend-
ing to 0. In contrast, when the model includes a stiff layer, the con-
tribution of reflected waves is noticeable after arrival of the
Rayleigh wave. Given that this observation is focused on vertical
displacement over the ground surface, the response is dominated
by both the Rayleigh wave and shear wave. Attention should also
ð30Þ

These wave-number integrals are evaluated numerically for a given

frequency x and given radial distance r between the point of actual
load application and the observation point. Rapid oscillatory behav-
iour of the integrand can occur for high values of either radial dis-
tance r or radial wave numbers n. We selected Filon’s method for
the numerical quadrature scheme, whereby the oscillatory kernel
of the integrands is specifically taken into account (see [12,13] or
[14]). According to Filon quadrature philosophy, the integrand is
separated into the product of a slowly-varying component (here
f
uz 0 ðn; z; xÞ) and a rapidly-oscillating one (here J0(nr)n). The Filon
type quadrature consists of approximating the complex function
f
uz 0 ðn; z; xÞ using a quadratic over the basic subinterval (i.e. Simp-
son’s rule) instead of approximating the entire integrand. Moreover,
integrand decay allows replacing the infinite integration limit by a Fig. 2. Vertical displacement for a point on the surface 0.6 m from the load centre
finite value. The wave number limit values have been set higher and for different configurations, i.e.: a half-space model, one layer over a stiff half-
than in the areas of sharp integrand variation. The time domain space model, a two-layer model, and a three-layer model.
48 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53

be drawn to the influence of the particular layering configuration, system) and Newton’s second law of motion, the motion equation
which shifts the response in time and magnifies or attenuates the governing the linear dynamic response of the pavement system
amplitudes. This influence is correlated with an average wave subjected to an FWD Impact Load Pulse can be expressed as:
speed value resulting from the presence of layers above the soil
€ðtÞ þ C uðtÞ
Mu _ þ KuðtÞ ¼ FðtÞ ð31Þ
layer. With ‘‘Configuration 1’’, the reflected shear wave propagates
in the soil layer and then returns to the surface at a speed of _
with u(0) = 0 and uð0Þ ¼ 0. M, C and K represent the mass, damping
vs = 144 m s1. In ‘‘Configuration 2’’, the same wave propagates in _
and stiffness matrices, respectively; u(t), uðtÞ; € ðtÞ are the displace-
u
the UGM layer at speed vs = 188 m s1. Consequently, the reflected ment, velocity and acceleration vectors; and F(t) an impulsive load-
wave arrives with a delay. When adding in the asphalt concrete ing. The computational procedures for solving Eq. (31) in the time
(AC) layer (which is stiff and thin), this delay only slightly gets af- domain are based on Newmark’s Central Finite Difference (CFD)
fected. The primary difference between responses therefore lies in method [16]. The CFD algorithm is one of the most widely used in
the amplitude values. structural dynamics, owing to the explicit nature of the resolution
scheme in addition to the fact that resolution requires just a single
time step, which results in reduced computing time. Newmark ex-
3. A 2D axisymmetric model using the finite element method
pressed a Taylor series function of displacement u(t) and velocity
_
uðtÞ at time t + Dt as follows:
3.1. Description
Mt 2
utþMt ¼ ut þ Mtu_ t þ € t þ bMt 3 uð3Þ
u t ð32Þ
The two-dimensional axisymmetric Finite Element (FE) model 2
consists of modelling the FWD test on two types of flexible pave- u_ tþMt 2
€t þ cMt ut
¼ u_ t þ Mtu
ð3Þ
ð33Þ
ment structures, as follows:
The assumption of acceleration linearity between two time steps
ð3Þ € €
 a simple structure, comprising a prepared and compacted soil to utþMt ¼ utþMtMtut leads to the standard form of Newmark’s equations,
support the pavement system (subgrade) plus a layer of i.e.:
unbound granular material (UGM) and a layer of asphalt con-  
1
crete (AC), utþMt ¼ ut þ Mtu_ t þ  b Mt 2 u€ t þ bMt2 u
€ tþMt ð34Þ
2
 a conventional structure, consisting of a prepared and com-
pacted soil (subgrade), a layer of unbound granular material u_ tþMt ¼ u_ t þ ð1  cÞMtu
€ t þ cMt utþMt
€ ð35Þ
(UGM), a layer of gravel stabilised with bitumen (GB) and lastly The equilibrium Eq. (31) then becomes:
a layer of asphalt concrete (AC).  
b
M þ cMtC þ Mt 2 K utþMt ¼ F tþMt  C ½u_ t þ ð1  cÞMtu€t 
According to the FE method, the desired level of accuracy de- 2
   
pends on: the degree of mesh refinement, the order and type of 1
elements, the appropriate selection of boundary conditions, and  K ut þ Mt u_ t þ  b Mt2 u€t
2
the load discretisation process. Improving model accuracy thus re-
ð36Þ
quires that:
In Eq. (34) through (36), b and c represent the numerical dissipation
 the mesh used in the analysis is finest within the loading zone, and stability parameters, respectively. The Central Finite Difference
where large stress and strain gradients would be expected, and (CFD) method relates to the particular case where b = 0 and c = 0.5;
increasingly coarse in moving towards the boundaries; hence, displacement and velocity are both calculated at each time
 absorbing boundaries are used at the model edges to limit the step according to the following terms:
pavement structure mesh size to reasonable dimensions while
complying with the semi-infinite soil [15]. These boundaries
Mt2
utþMt ¼ ut þ Mt u_ t þ €t
u ð37Þ
are composed of a viscous damping and avoid wave reflection 2
Mt Mt
on the mesh edge; u_ tþMt ¼ u_ t þ u €t þ u € tþDt ð38Þ
 the experimental load-time response produced by the FWD 2 2
     2 
allows for a better adapted simulation of the traffic-induced Mt Mt Mt
Mþ C u € tþMt ¼ F tþMt  C u_ t þ u€t  K ut þ Mt u_ t þ €t ð39Þ
u
loading. This condition has therefore been considered prefera- 2 2 2
ble to the theoretical loads often encountered in numerical Matrix M þ Mt C is symmetric and positive due to the properties of M
2
modelling, such as a half-sine load, triangle, and square impulse and C. Its inversion proves to be a simple task and yields displace-
load. ment and velocity at each time step. With a standard computer
and a time step set equal to 0.5 ms, the calculation time for a
A mesh size of 20  15 m (35,192 nodes) was chosen. This mod- three-layer model is approx. 5 min.
el assumes that the material in each layer is isotropic, elastic and
homogenous. A linear elastic behaviour is first adopted for all pave-
3.3. Damping parameters
ment materials; then, damping (viscous damping for bituminous
materials and Rayleigh damping for the soil) is added to the model
A pavement system can be considered as a filter that serves to
in order to study the contribution of this parameter to the dynamic
attenuate energy away from the load application site. This attenu-
response behaviour of the pavement structure.
ation is the consequence of structural damping, which corresponds
The mechanical properties of the various layers are listed in Ta-
to the energy dissipation caused by various mechanisms of internal
ble 1.
friction acting in materials [17]. To simulate more realistic behav-
iour of the pavement structure, the damping coefficient becomes
3.2. Dynamic problem analysis one of the most critical parameters to consider. It is difficult to
model the damping properties of actual structures. Nonetheless,
Based on the Kelvin mass-spring-dashpot model (which offers existing damping models enable approximating real damping phe-
the simplest representative mathematical model of the pavement nomena, such as viscous damping or Rayleigh damping:
 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53 49

 Viscous damping for asphalt-bound materials: the presence of 100

bitumen contributes viscoelastic properties to the asphalt-
bound materials of the given pavement structure. To predict
0
the response of a viscoelastic material under various loading

conditions, the Kelvin-Voigt model, which consists of a Newto-
nian damper and Hookean elastic spring connected in parallel,
offers a feasible approach. The constitutive relation between
stress and strain can be expressed as a first-order linear differ-
ential equation, i.e.:
@e
r ¼ E þ g
@t
where E is Young’s modulus and g the dynamic viscosity of the
material. Dynamic viscosity provides a measure of how well a mate-
rial is able to resist flow and is described by the ratio between shear
stress and shear rate. In the FE model, the damping matrix of the
equilibrium Eq. (31) is proportional to the stiffness matrix:
g The variation in damping ratio between 2% and 15% is evaluated
C¼ K ð41Þ
E in Fig. 4. Results indicate that the higher the damping ratio, the
 Rayleigh damping for the subgrade layer: Among the various
damping models, the Rayleigh model is the most frequently
adopted; it offers a conventional method for easily constructing
the damping matrix C of the equilibrium Eq. (31) used in
numerical modelling. This model, which combines viscous
damping proportional to the stiffness with damping propor-
tional to the mass, is typically applied when both viscosity
and material density are constants. This damping matrix can
be expressed by:
C ¼ aM þ bK
where a and b depend on soil properties.
Introducing the nth modal damping ratio nn and the nth circular
frequency of the structure without damping xn alters the expres-
sion of Eq. (31) as follows:
FðtÞ
€ ðtÞ þ 2nn xn uðtÞ
u _ þ x2n uðtÞ ¼
M
The series of modal coordinates 2nn xn ¼ a þ x2n b then yields:
2x1 x2 ðn2 x1  n1 x2 Þ 2ðn1 x1  n2 x2 Þ
a¼ and b ¼
x21  x22 x21  x22
where x1 and x2 are the first and second circular natural frequen-
cies of the structure without damping, respectively; and n1 and n2
are damping ratios over the first and second natural frequencies,
respectively.
Deflection (µm)
-100
G8 (with stiff layer)
-200
G4 (with stiff layer)
G8 (without stiff layer)
-300 G4 (without stiff layer)
ð40Þ
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (ms)
Fig. 3. Dynamic response of the simple structure with or without a stiff layer.
3.4.1. Rayleigh damping effect on the soil and multilayered structure
lower the deflection amplitude. In the case of semi-infinite soil, en-
ergy dissipation is highly critical, which explains the significant de-
crease in deflection amplitude even for low damping coefficient
values (see Fig. 5, left). In the presence of a stiff layer (which is usu-
ally the case in practice), the amplitude of vertical pavement dis-
placements is slightly attenuated compared to the previous
configuration; this outcome is due to soil shallowness, resulting
in less energy dissipation. Further from the loading area however,
the level of attenuation remains very high (Fig. 5, right). As regards
the delayed response of the structure, the same results are found.
ð42Þ The dephasing of maximum deflection values is more pronounced
in the semi-infinite soil (i.e. without a stiff layer) and simulta-
neously further from the loading area in the absence of dephasing
(see Table 2).
Within a multilayered structure, the influence of soil damping
on pavement response decreases due to the presence of other lay-
ers, which reduce and diffuse soil pressure. Attenuation of the
maximum deflection amplitude therefore is half that identified in
ð43Þ the case of a homogeneous structure, and dephasing of the maxi-
mum deflection values from the delayed structural response is
small. Unlike the homogeneous structure, dephasing increases fur-
ther from the loading area (Table 3).
ð44Þ
3.4.2. Viscous damping effect on a multilayered structure
When the bituminous layer thickness on a multilayered struc-
ture is small, the behaviour of this layer can be considered as linear
0

-100 Damping 15%

3.4. Study of the damping effect
Damping 10%
-200 Damping 5%
Deflection (µm)

Generally speaking, the damping effect (either viscous damping Damping 2%

-300
or Rayleigh damping) occurs at the amplitude of pavement deflec- Without damping
tion and wave propagation found in the structure. The extent of -400
this influence depends on both the type of structure and materials
0
used.
The mechanical properties of layers involved in this part are gi- -40
ven in Table 1. Two configurations are tested: a pavement struc-
-80
ture positioned only on a semi-infinite soil, and the presence of a
rigid substratum. The difference between these two configurations -120
is that in the presence of a stiff layer, the pavement continues to
oscillate (in pseudo-harmonic oscillation) even after the loading 0 20 40 60 80 100
has been cancelled (see Fig. 3). This phenomenon is caused by com-
Time (ms)
pression wave reflection on the stiff layer, which then rises to the
structure’s surface. Fig. 4. Dynamic response of the semi-infinite soil with different damping ratios.
50 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53

70 70
Damping 2%

Attenuation of deflection amplitude (%)

60 60 Damping 5%

Damping 10%
50 50
Damping 15%
40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 0,5 1 1,5 0 0,5 1 1,5
Distance from the load centre (m)

Fig. 5. Effect of the damping ratio on the maximum deflection amplitude in the case of a semi-infinite soil (left) and a soil with a stiff layer (right).

Table 4
Table 2
Viscous effect on the dephasing (in ms) of the maximum deflection values, in the case
Rayleigh damping effect on the dephasing (in ms) of the maximum deflection values,
of a multilayered structure (AC-UGM-soil).
in the case of a semi-infinite soil.
Viscous damping (MPa s) Distance from the
Without stiff layer With stiff layer
load centre (m)
Rayleigh damping (%) ? 5 10 15 5 10 15
0 0.45 1.8
0 m From the load 2.4 3.7 4.8 0.9 1.5 2.1
0.45 m From the load 2 3.9 3.7 0.8 1.4 1.8 15 0.7 0.4 0.4
0.9 m From the load 1.8 2.3 2.7 0.7 1 1.2 Without stiff layer 30 1.3 0.8 0.7
1.8 m From the load 1.5 1.7 1.9 0.4 0.5 0.6 45 1.8 1.1 0.9
60 2.2 1.4 1.2
15 0.6 0.4 0.3
With stiff layer 30 1.2 0.8 0.6
Table 3
45 1.7 1.1 0.8
Rayleigh damping effect on the dephasing (in ms) of the maximum deflection values,
60 2.1 1.4 1
in the case of a multilayered structure (AC-UGM-soil).

Without stiff layer With stiff layer

Rayleigh damping (%) ? 5 10 15
0 m From the load 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.45 m From the load 0.8 1.4 2 0.2
0.9 m From the load 0.9 1.5 2.1
1.8 m From the load 1 1.6 2.2
elastic. The numerical modelling approach for this type of structure
(i.e. simple structure: 5 cm of asphalt concrete) shows the limited
influence of viscous damping acting upon the structural response.
Attenuation thus varies from zero at the centre of loading to
roughly 3% outside this area. As regards dephasing, a slight delay
of about 0.3–1 ms near the centre of loading can be detected, as
viscosity varies between 15 MPas s and 60 MPas s; this delay is
found to be insignificant further from the loading area.
For a conventional multilayered structure however, the bitumi-
nous layer thickness is not negligible (5 cm of asphalt concrete,
plus 8 cm of gravel stabilised with bitumen for the conventional
structure studied here). In this case, the influence of viscous damp-
ing is seen as more significant. The amplitude of vertical displace-
ments at the pavement surface is slightly attenuated (virtually zero
at the loading centre, and reaching 10% at 2 m from this area). Yet
the greatest impact is observed in the delay of maximum deflection
values (Table 4).
5 10 15 comparison between numerical and experimental results with re-
0.15 0.2 0.3
0.3 0.4
gard to a deflection basin was satisfactory; however, the dynamic
0.25 0.4 0.55 signals revealed significant dephasing on the numerical results,
0.3 0.5 0.7 thereby underscoring the poor estimation of wave velocities. A
parametric analysis has proved essential in determining the depen-
dence of a dynamic result on both soil density and Poisson’s ratio.
3.5.1. Effect of soil density
The bulk density of soil varies strongly according to soil texture,
organic matter content, porosity and water retention [19]. Conse-
quently, soil behaviour can be modified with a change in actual soil
density. In recognising that the average values of the density of or-
ganic soils generally lie between 1400 and 2000 kg m3, a numer-
ical study was conducted to examine the effect of this parameter
on the deflection of both the homogeneous structure (soil) and
multilayered structure (simple pavement structure).
Results of this numerical modelling exercise indicate that the
actual soil density exerts weak influence on the vertical displace-
ment amplitude in the two cases (i.e. homogeneous and multilay-
ered structures). In a dynamic analysis on the other hand, results
are more instructive due to the delay introduced from one config-
uration to the next. According to Fig. 6, the higher the density, the
longer the delay.

3.5. Effect of soil density and Poisson’s ratio 3.5.2. Effect of the soil Poisson’s ratio
In most studies conducted on pavement structures, authors typ-
The traditional method adopted to analyse FWD data involves ically assign 0.35 as the Poisson’s ratio value of each pavement
the use of a deflection basin (containing the maximum deflections layer, regardless of the component material. This value however
at each measurement point) [18]. In a previous study [3], the does not reflect the actual value, which depends on material
 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53 51

5 Table 5
G8 (Multilayer) Young’s modulus [22] and viscosity [23] as a function of temperature at 10 Hz.
Dephasing (ms)

4 G8 (Soil)
G4 (Multilayer) Temperature 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40
G4 (Soil) ( C)
3
AC modulus 15.2 14 12 9.8 7.2 5.3 3.6 2.1 1.3 1
2 (GPa)
GB modulus 27.8 24.5 10.9 17.2 13.5 10.2 7.1 4.6 2.7 1
(GPa)
1
GB viscosity 21 27 34 42 50 56 57 40 39 13
(MPa s)
deflection amplitude (%)

8
Attenuation of

4 and viscosity g, respectively. These parameters are particularly

sensitive to temperature change, loading frequency and, to a lesser
0 extent, other factors such as ageing and void content [20].
Temperature is usually considered to be the most predominant
-4 environmental factor affecting the stiffness and viscosity of as-
1400 1600 1800 2000 phalt-bound materials in a pavement. These properties are basi-
cally characteristics inherited from the asphalt binder [21].
Density (kg.m3)
Above 80 C, the bitumen present in bituminous pavement materi-
Fig. 6. Attenuation of deflection amplitude and dephasing in dynamic response als is a Newtonian fluid with low viscosity; it becomes strong, elas-
against soil bulk density in the case of a semi-infinite soil and multilayered tic and brittle at low temperatures. Between these two extreme
structure. states, bitumen exhibits viscoelastic properties.
Table 5 lists the stiffness and viscosity values of asphalt-bound
materials as a function of temperature. Though the viscosity values
2
of AC and GB layers differ slightly, these two respective values have
G8 (Multilayer)
G8 (Soil) been assumed equal for purposes of this study.
1.6
Dephasing (ms)

G4 (Multilayer)
G4 (Soil)
1.2 4. Comparison between numerical results and in situ FWD
measurements
0.8

4.1. Introduction
0.4

FWD tests have been carried out on an experimental pavement

deflection amplitude (%)

0
5 specially built both to evaluate the effectiveness of an investigation
device and to locate defects included in the structure. First of all,
Attenuation of

0
-5
-10
-15
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Poisson's ratio
Fig. 7. Attenuation of deflection amplitude and dephasing in dynamic response
against Poisson’s ratio in the case of a semi-infinite soil and multilayered structure.
specifications and may even vary for the same material. Studies
have demonstrated that the Poisson’s ratio value for soil is capable
of varying between 0.2 and 0.45, given that density and soil behav-
iour can change as the actual Poisson’s ratio changes. Simulation
results Fig. 7 show that:
 in the case of a semi-infinite soil, increasing the Poisson’s ratio
value causes a decrease in maximum deflection amplitude of up
to 16%;
 in the case of a multilayered structure, an increase in Poisson’s
ratio only exerts a minor effect on the maximum deflection
amplitude (less than 3%) and instead leads to a delayed pave-
ment response, on the order of 1.6 ms.
3.6. Temperature effect on the stiffness and damping of asphalt-bound
materials
The dynamic characteristics of materials introduced to reflect
stiffness and damping properties consist of Young’s modulus E
this experimental structure was divided into two parts (3 layers
and 4 layers, see Section 3.1) and instrumented with temperature
sensors (vertical temperature profile over the entire structure),
moisture sensors, pressure sensors and strain gauges [7]. In this
part of the paper, we will compare the results of semi-analytical
and finite element models with measurements recorded on the
0.4 0.45
three-layer case, as well as the four-layer case and results obtained
for soil during construction of the experimental pavement. For
each case, we only compared the maximum deflection basin and
dynamic response of sensors G4 (0.45 m from the load centre)
and G8 (1.5 m from the load centre).
4.2. Measurements performed on soil before construction
In a multilayered structure, road bases provide the pavement
with the mechanical resistance necessary to redistribute the in-
duced vertical loads and pressures on the soil. Deformations can
therefore also be supported to within acceptable levels. In this
case, nonlinearities remain negligible. For a homogeneous struc-
ture however, the loads are directly applied to the soil, making
the corresponding behaviour strongly nonlinear. To compensate
for such pronounced nonlinearity, we decided to divide the struc-
ture (consisting of the compacted soil with a stiff layer located 3 m
from the surface) into 2 layers: a 0.5-m upper layer with a modulus
of approx. 25 MPa, and a second 2-m layer with a modulus of ap-
prox. 40 MPa. Rayleigh damping with a relatively large coefficient
(15%) was simultaneously introduced.
The numerical results of this deflection basin are quite close to
field data recordings Fig. 8. Yet the initial observation of dynamic
signals displayed considerable dephasing on the numerical results,
52 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53

0 0
-200 -100
-400
-200
-600
Deflection (µm)

Deflection (µm)
-800 -300
-1000 -400
-1200
-500
-1400 FWD measurement
-1600 -600 FWD measurement
-1800 Finite Element model
-700 Finite Element Model
-2000 Semi Analytical model -800 Semi analytical Model
-2200
-2400 -900
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8

Distance (m) Distance (m)

Fig. 8. Deflection basin for soil before pavement construction. Fig. 10. Deflection basin for the 3-layer pavement.

100
200
0
0
-100
FWD measurement
-200 FWD measurement -200
Finite Element model

Deflection (µm)
Deflection (µm)

Finite Element model

-300 Semi Analytical model
-400 Semi Analytical model
100
100
50
50
0
0
-50
-50
-100
-100
-150
-150
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
Fig. 11. Dynamic response for the 3-layer pavement (from sensors G4 and G8).
Fig. 9. Dynamic response for soil before construction (from sensors G4 and G8).

thus highlighting poor wave velocity estimation. The parametric -50

analysis has served to identify the dependence of the structure’s
dynamic response on damping, density and Poisson’s ratio. Better -150
Deflection (µm)

results were found by using values of 2000 kg m3 and 0.4 for FWD measurement 10°C
the soil density and Poisson’s ratio, respectively Fig. 9. Precise -250 FWD measurement 5°C
knowledge of these parameters would apparently yield, along with FWD measurement 0°C
the deflection basin amplitudes, an optimisation criterion for layer -350
Finite Element model 10°C
modulus estimation.
Finite Element model 5°C
-450
Finite Element model 0°C
4.3. Measurements conducted on the three-layer pavement -550
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8

Using the parameters listed in Table 1, the finite element and
semi-analytical models provide similar results, regardless of either
the deflection basin or deflection histories: Fig. 10 shows rather
weak variations (between 2.9% and 5.7%). Regarding in situ mea-
surements, the deflection basins of the two models (finite element
and semi-analytical) follow exactly the experimental results, and
the modulus values introduced are quite close to actual values (Ta-
ble 1 and Figs. 11 and 12). The dynamic analysis Fig. 11 reveals a
short dephasing between the finite element/semi-analytical and
experimental results. This dephasing is related to several factors,
including: nonlinear soil behaviour, viscoelasticity of the Asphalt
Concrete, and the reliance on inappropriate parameters of various
materials. The use of Rayleigh damping for the soil, viscous damp-
ing for the AC layer and the change in soil density and Poisson’s ra-
tio to 2000 kg m3 and 0.4, respectively, have however allowed us
to minimise this dephasing and approximate the experimental
measurements.
Distance (m)
Fig. 12. Deflection basin vs. temperature.
4.4. Measurements conducted on the four-layer pavement and the
temperature effect
In this part, the finite element model results and in situ mea-
surements have been compared. For the static analysis, Fig. 12
shows a good fit between the numerical and experimental deflec-
tion basins. As was the case for the three-layer structure, the use
of Rayleigh damping for the soil, viscous damping for the AC and
GB layers, and the change in soil density and Poisson’s ratio to
2000 kg m3 and 0.4, respectively, allowed obtaining deflection his-
tories comparable to those measured by FWD sensors, in terms of
amplitude and delay Fig. 13. Figs. 12 and 13 also introduce a study
of the temperature effect on pavement response. Deflection
 A. El Ayadi et al. / Advances in Engineering Software 44 (2012) 44–53
50
-50
FWD Test 10°C
-150
Deflection (µm)
FWD Test 0°C
-250 FE model 10°C
FE model 0°C
-350
SA model 10°C
50
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (ms)
Fig. 13. Dynamic response vs. temperature (from sensors G4 and G8).
amplitude increases with temperature measured at the AC/GB
interface. This relationship corresponds to a reduction in bitumi-
nous layer stiffness since the effect of temperature on unbound
materials is negligible.
5. Conclusion and outlook
Two models have been developed herein for the study of flexi-
ble pavements subjected to an FWD impact load. The semi-analyt-
ical method, based on Fourier and Hankel transforms, allows for a
precise and efficient study of wave propagation in the structure,
along with the possibility to incorporate both a layer’s poroelastic-
ity and viscoelasticity [9]. The finite element method, based on
Newmark’s algorithm, allows simulating the FWD impulse load
plus several types of damping, so as to take into account the soil
energy dissipation and bituminous material viscoelasticity. The
dependence of dynamic pavement response on damping, density
and Poisson’s ratio value has been underscored through the para-
metric analysis, which moreover yields a better understanding of
the behaviour of these various materials by means of adopting
parameters appropriately associated with the materials. It has thus
been found that the results of these improvements are more con-
clusive than the output of a simple linear elastic model, especially
as regards the dynamic analysis of a pavement response.
The main objective of subsequent work will be to implement an
inverse analysis method that leads to a more accurate diagnosis of
the pavement condition. This method will also take into account, to
the greatest extent possible, parameters like time, temperature and
moisture. In addition, structural defects such as interface flows and
cracks [5] will be easily included into the model in order to enable
studying damaged pavements.
53
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