TPMS-02 Introduction To Power Management - RevA3

Introduction to Power Management
Chapter 2 Introduction to Power Management
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 2 Introduction to Power Management .............................................................................................................................. 1

2.1 General Information ............................................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Legend .......................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.3 Reference Documentation ............................................................................................................................................. 2
2.2 Fuels available for electric power generation ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Prime movers ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.1 Diesel engines ............................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.2 Gas turbines .................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.3 Steam turbines .............................................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.4 Water turbine .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3.5 Wind turbine ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.6 Speed control of prime movers - Speed Governors .................................................................................................... 15
2.3.7 Protection of prime movers – engine control (and protection) system ....................................................................... 18
2.4 Primary electrical components ........................................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Generators ................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.2 Automatic Voltage Regulator – AVR ......................................................................................................................... 22
2.4.3 Capability Diagram ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.4.4 Transformers ............................................................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.5 Tap Changer................................................................................................................................................................ 27
2.4.6 Circuit breaking devices ............................................................................................................................................. 29
2.4.7 Switchgear and distribution panels ............................................................................................................................. 36
2.4.8 Synchronizer ............................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.5 Electrical Distribution Systems – The Power Grid ............................................................................................................ 41
2.5.1 Substations .................................................................................................................................................................. 41
2.5.2 Power Plants ............................................................................................................................................................... 42
2.5.3 Parallel operation ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Chapter 2 - 1
TPMS-02 Introduction to Power Management - RevA3.doc
2.1 General Information

Figures and illustrations found in this chapter are mostly collected from the internet,
following links from e.g. Wikipedia or simply searching for various pictures using
Google, Yahoo etc. Sources are thus not mentioned since they are to a large extent
unknown. Numbers and ranges given in this document are also gathered from the
internet and from the authors own recollection of earlier statements in other literature.
They are only provided to illustrate relationships between various items and must not
be taken as precise factual numbers.
2.1.1 Objectives
On completion of this chapter you will get an overview of:
• Engines (Prime Movers)
• Generators
• Speed Governors
• Voltage Regulators
• Synchronizing devices
• Power Management Systems
• Various types of Power Plants
2.1.2 Legend
> Indicates when you go from one menu to a sub-menu
Italic Indicates object and file names
“ “ Indicates dialog box buttons, tabs, menus etc.
Bold Indicates important topics
Indicates start/explanation of student activity
2.1.3 Reference Documentation
Chapter 2 - 2
2.2 Fuels available for electric power generation

There is basically two ways to generate electrical power.
1. By converting kinetic energy (mass in motion) into electricity using a
generator
2. Through chemical processes as in fuel cells and solar panels
In the following we shall concentrate on power generated from kinetic energy.
Various power plants use different sources of energy to create that all important
motion which will rotate the electrical generator to generate power.
A number of various engines or prime movers can convert the energy from these
sources into a rotating motion. Some of these are:
• Reciprocating internal combustion engines, e.g. diesel engine, gasoline engine
• Rotating internal combustion engines, e.g. gas turbine, wankel engine
• Reciprocating engines, e.g. steam engine
• Rotating engines, e.g. steam turbine, water turbine, wind turbine
Today the most commonly applied prime movers are:
• Diesel engines
• Gas turbines
• Steam turbines
• Water turbines
• Wind turbines
The electrical power produced is distributed through a network of substations and
transmission lines which all together form an electrical grid.
The object of this course is to provide an introduction to the main components
comprising a power station. An detailed description of ABB’s SW building blocks
(control modules) for the same components are then offered together with guidelines
on how to use these control modules to create a Power Management System.
Chapter 2 - 3
2.3 Prime movers
2.3.1 Diesel engines

The diesel engine sucks air into a cylinder by a downward movement of a piston.
When the cylinder is filled, the piston is raised to compress the air which is heated.
Fuel, (diesel oil, crude oil, fuel gas) is injected into the hot and dense atmosphere
where it ignites causing a rapid pressure increase which pushes the piston down again.
The piston is attached to the crankshaft by a rod and the up-down movement of the
piston is converted into a rotating motion of the crankshaft. Power control is managed
by regulating the amount of fuel injected into the cylinders.
There is two basic types of diesel engines:
• Four stroke engine
• Two stroke engine
In a four stroke engine every second downward stroke is a power stroke and every
other downward stroke is a suction stroke. An advantage of the four stroke engine is
that as the RPM is increased the extra stroke allows for a better air exchange thus
increasing the efficiency.
Chapter 2 - 4
The two cycle engine principle is illustrated below. The two stroke cycle differs from
the four stroke cycle in that the air is renewed in the cylinder for every stroke cycle.
Thus every downward stroke is a power stroke. An advantage of a two-stroke engine
is simpler design and thus less weight when compared to its four-stroke sibling.
However the exchange of air is not as good as for the four-stroke engine as the RPMs
increase and the efficiency is somewhat lower. But, if operated at low speeds, say
around 100 RPMs then sufficient time is given to properly flush the cylinder and
charge it with fresh air to mitigate the disadvantage. Most large ship and power station
diesels, approaching 100MW, are two stroke engines.
The engine RPM also have an impact on the efficiency; a slow turning engine will
have more time to burn all the fuel in each stroke and suffer less pumping losses when
exchanging combustion air.
• Slow speed engines (<300 RPM) – usually large 2-stroke (> 10 MW)
• Medium speed engines (300 – 1000 RPM) – usually 4-stroke (1 – 10 MW)
• High speed engines (> 1000 RPM) – usually smaller 4 –stroke (< 1 MW)
Chapter 2 - 5
One or several rows of cylinder attached to the same crankshaft will provide a near
continuous torque rotating the drive shaft to which a generator may be connected. The
relationship between torque and power is:
Where 60,000 comes from 60 seconds per minute times 1000 watts per
kilowatt.
A typical diesel engine is represented below by a MAN Diesel 48/60, it
produces 1,200kW pr. cylinder and has 18 cylinders.
.
Chapter 2 - 6
2.3.2 Gas turbines

The two main differences between a diesel engine and a gas turbine are:
1. There is only rotational motion, no up-down motion
2. The combustion of fuel is continuous, not in explosive bursts
The gas turbine sucks in air by means of a compressor which is mixed with fuel (gas,
kerosene, diesel oil) and ignited in a combustion chamber. The combustion causes the
hot gasses to expand and this drives the turbine which is located after the combustion
chamber. For ground based applications there are two turbines in series. The turbine
stage closest to the combustion chamber is the high pressure turbine, it drives the
compressor. The next turbine stage is the low pressure turbine, it rotates the drive
shaft. Power is controlled in a way similar to diesel engines, i.e. by regulating the
amount of fuel entering the combustion area.
An example of a widely used gas turbine is the GE LM2500 illustrated below.
Chapter 2 - 7
2.3.3 Steam turbines

Steam turbines are simpler than gas turbines since there is no compressor stages and
no internal combustion areas. However, they do require additional boilers and burners
and or heat exchangers converting heat into steam externally.
Steam is fed to the turbine and powers the drive shaft as it expands and cools across
the turbine stages. The power output is controlled by regulating the amount of steam
passing across the turbine stages. The figure below shows a typical steam turbine with
two turbine stages, which increases the efficiency by allowing the steam to expand
two times.
Chapter 2 - 8
2.3.3.1 Boilers
Steam is a flexible way of converting energy from various kinds of fuels, wood, coal,
oil, nuclear, etc. into electrical energy via steam turbines. Steam and water also lends
itself conveniently to capture waste heat from other combustion and industrial
processes thus increasing the overall efficiency of a power plant. However, waste heat
cannot is not always available in the required amount, an industrial process is may be
governed by other parameters than the steam demand from a steam turbine. So, in
most cases coal or oil fired boilers are also used, either as primary or as secondary
steam producers.
A boiler in its simplest form is just a kettle subjected to heat from a continuous
combustion provided by the burner. Usable steam forms on top of the water below.
More complex forms of boilers are
• Fire-tube boilers
• Water-tube boilers
The fire-tube boilers is a water filled drum through which tubes filled with hot
combustion gasses run from the combustion chamber, usually located at one end of the
drum. The steam forms and is taken out in the top of the drum. These boilers are
common for steam locomotives and can easily handle large changes in the steam
demand because of the large water/steam volume.
A water-tube boiler however, Is more efficient because leading water through small
pipes which runs through the combustion chamber and through the exhaust gas
ducting allows for more heat to be transferred to the water. This is the most common
boiler found in industrial applications.
An economizer allows additional heat from the exhaust to be used to heat feed-water
prior before it enters the steam drum. Modern boilers are automatically controlled in
such a way that fuel is regulated to maintain a certain pressure in the steam drum. An
increase in electrical demand will cause an increase in steam consumption thereby
lowering the steam pressure which in turn will demand more fuel. Feed-water is added
as needed to keep a certain water level in the drum.
Chapter 2 - 9
2.3.3.2 Waste Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

The steam turbines really come into their own as prime movers when there is a lot of
excessive heat from e.g. gas turbines exhaust gas or process waist heat from industrial
process available to generate steam. They are thus often found on board ships and in
power plants where the main prime movers are e.g. gas turbines or diesel engines
since they can generate electrical power from steam generated by recovering heat from
exhaust gasses and cooling water.
A boiler is usually also added to ensure that sufficient amounts of steam is generated
in periods where the waist heat alone is not sufficient.
To generate electrical energy from such a Combined Cycle Power Plant can be quite a
challenge:
The more power the gas turbines produce, the more waist heat becomes available for
steam generation. More power produced from the stema turbines means a reduced
power demand on the gas turbines, which subsequently will reduce the amount of
waste heat… Now, do you cover gap with the steam turbines using a boiler to cover
the steam demand, or do you increase the output from the gas turbines? A lot of
factors come into play such as fuel economy, generating capacity redundancy,
pollution, etc.
Chapter 2 - 10
2.3.4 Water turbine

The water turbine is one of the oldest energy converters in history. It is basically a
refined water-wheel converting the energy in the flowing mass of water into a torque
on a shaft, which may be connected to a generator. Power output is controlled by
regulating the amount of water passing through the turbine. There are three types of
water turbines:
1. Pelton turbine (water supply: high velocity, small magnitude)
2. Kaplan turbine (water supply: low velocity, large magnitude)
3. Francis turbine (water supply: medium velocity medium amount)
The Pelton turbine is a large wheel with scoops. It is the turbine most closely
resembling the water wheel, in that only a few scoops are filled with water at the same
time. One, or more nozzles spray water into the scoops at high velocity. It is mostly
used where the water fall is high but the quantity of water is low. The illustration
below shows a typical Pelton wheel
Chapter 2 - 11
The Kaplan turbine is best described as a propeller. It is totally submerged in

the water which flows axially along the propeller shaft. It is mostly used
where there is a lot of slow flowing water. A lot of energy can be harvested
from slow flowing water by making the turbine large. Note the size of the man
illustrated next to the turbine below.
Chapter 2 - 12
Then there is the middle way, the compromise if you like; a little less water
perhaps but available at higher velocities. In that case a Francis turbine would
be the best choice.
It can be seen as a combination between a pelton wheel and a kaplan propeller

in that the water enters the wheel radially (from the side) and leaves the wheel
axially (along the shaft).
Chapter 2 - 13
2.3.5 Wind turbine

The wind turbine is a development of the Dutch windmill. Four canvas covered wings,
or panels, angled slightly so as function as a gigantic sails which would turn a shaft
driving the mill when the wind was blowing. Their primary job was to replace human
power churning the millstones grinding the crop into flour.
Modern windmills have two or three bladed propeller on a shaft driving a generator.
The unit is mounted in a gondola top of a tower. The gondola may be directed into
the wing for increased efficiency. Power output is controlled by changing the propeller
pitch.
Groups of wind turbines are usually located together in sparse populated areas where
wind is usually present and often blowing in the same general direction - wind turbine
parks. The wind turbines are sometimes also located in shallow water where there are
no obstructions from hills and where they are not competing for space with humans.
Chapter 2 - 14
2.3.6 Speed control of prime movers - Speed Governors

A governor is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine. A typical
example is the centrifugal governor, or fly-ball governor, which uses weights mounted
on spring-loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft is spinning. The shaft speed is
controlled proportionally by linking collar, pushed up or down by the balls, to the
steam valve. The higher the shaft speed, the larger the outward ball movement which
in turn will gradually close the steam valve, thus reducing the shaft speed.
Governors can be mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic or electronic or a combination

several systems. The inverse proportional relationship between shaft speed and fuel
valve position can be expressed by mathematics and run in a logical device within the
modern speed governor.
Chapter 2 - 15
A modern speed governor often consists of an electronic control unit and a

governor/actuator located on the engine. The electronic unit is often panel mounted
away from the engine. A Viking control unit is shown below together with a Viking
governor.
A cutaway of such a governor/actuator reveals the mechanical features. Note the fly
weights, indicating that the centrifugal force principle of the fly-ball governor is still
in use albeit in a more compact and sophisticated way.
To adjust the speed, or load, on a generator the operator can climb the generator skid
or adjust the characteristics on the actuator by turning a button which will tighten the
Chapter 2 - 16
spring working against the flyweight. This is usually only done during commissioning
and in dire situations where remote means of control have failed.
A more common control method however, is to send raise and lower signals to the
electronic unit from a remote location, e.g. pushbuttons in front of a control panel or
automatically from a control system. The electronic control unit will in turn activate
servo motors in the governor/actuator which will make the necessary adjustments to
the spring.
Mathematically illustrated raise and lower signals will move the droop line upe end
down prallelly. This will yield either a larger or a lower power demand signal to the
fuel actuator at the same measured RPM/frequency. It’s a bit like controlling the speed
of a car by stepping the cruise control up or down instead of using your root on the
accellerator.
The control unit is configured to interact with the governor/actuator in various control
modes.
• Droop Control – simple proportional (P) control according to the droopline
shown above. Manual raise lower commands must be given to change the
engine speed/load in at constant measured speed/freequency.
• Isochronous Control – Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) control
will keep the RPM/frequency at the nominal set point throughout the
operational envelope. It can be seen as a horizontal droop line, i.e. the droop is
0%. The operator cannot control the power output, it will do “whatever it
takes” to keep the frequency set point.
• Fixed load (MW) control – The governor will keep the generator at the same
power output regardless of the measured RPM/frequency. It can be illustrated
by a vertical droop line, i.e. the droop is 100%. A change of the MW set-point
is required to change to power output.
Chapter 2 - 17
Several other control features may also be available but they are all variations of the
same three principles mentioned above. E.g. a control mode might offer means to run
the generator as fuel efficient as possible. It is facilitated by evoking the MW mode at
typically 80 – 90 % load. Another common feature is Peak Load which is either MW
load at 100 – 110 %, or more sophisticated a control mode that ads fuel in orther to
keep the combustion temperature at it’s acceptable maximum – often called
Temperature Control Override.
2.3.7 Protection of prime movers – engine control (and protection) system

Large diesel engines and turbines are often equipped with dedicated protection
systems which will act if the primary speed governing device fails. A diesel engine for
example, may have a flap valve in the air intake channel. If the engine over speeds the
excessive airflow will cause the valve to slam shut and thus starve the engine of
induction air.
A more modern overprotection device is a proximity switch located close to the
flywheel or shaft on which there a number of small magnets are located. The
proximity switch is connected to an intelligent digital devise. Electrical pulses induced
in the proximity switch are picked up by the monitoring. The number of pulses pr time
period is proportional to the RPM and if the pulse count is too high a shut-down signal
is issued to a cut-off valve blocking the fuel or gas flow to the engine or turbine.
Chapter 2 - 18
Programmable digital devises offer a variety of additional protection features for

important parameters such as:
• Temperature
• Speed
• Vibration
• Fire
• Lube oil pressure
• Compressor operating limit
• Flame / Combustion
A typical turbine control system comprises several programmable units and hardwired
circuits for various control and protection features such as:
• Startup Control
• Acceleration Control
• Speed Control
• Load Control (Speed Governor)
• Exhaust Temperature Control
• Inlet Guide Vane Control
• Shutdown Control
• Fuel Control System
• Combustion Monitor
• Gas Turbine Protection
Chapter 2 - 19
2.4 Primary electrical components
2.4.1 Generators
A generator converts mechanical energy (motion) into electrical power. The reverse
conversion is done by a motor. The difference between a generator and a dynamo is
that the dynamo delivers a pulsing direct current (DC) where as the generator delivers
an alternating current (AC), eliminating the need for the commutator and increasing
the efficiency. An AC generator is thus often called an alternator, but we shall use the
term generator.
A generator converts mechanical motion into electrical energy by rotating a coil in a
magnetic field, or actually rotating a magnetic field through coils. When a coil is
moved through a magnetic field, or vice versa, a current is induced in the coil, the
stronger the field, the larger the current.
A typical generator contains of a static part, the stator, and a rotating part, the rotor.
For a three phase generator the stator contains three sets of windings/coils representing
the three phases, B, R, and Y. The rotor features pairs of windings/coils. A direct
current is injected into these windings to create a magnetic north and south pole – the
excitation current. This magnetic field is then rotated so that the static windings are
subjected to a varying magnetic flux. This induces a current in the static windings. The
voltage of that current is adjusted by adjusting the excitation current.
Chapter 2 - 20
The simplified generator illustrated above has one north and one south pole in the
rotor. It has three static windings, B, R, and Y, one for each phase. It is thus called a
three-phase, two-pole generator. The static windings are distributed at 120deg from
each other. When the rotor is excited with a current and rotated, varying (sinusoidal)
voltages will be created in the stator windings, each voltage peak spaced 120deg. The
frequency, with which the voltage changes, is directly related to the rotational speed of
the rotor shaft.
The relationship between number of poles, RPM and frequency is
N = 120f / P
where f is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). P is the number of poles (2,4,6...)
and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).
Chapter 2 - 21
2.4.2 Automatic Voltage Regulator – AVR

The voltage regulator controls the voltage at the connection terminals of the 3 phases
on the static part of the generator. A simplified principle is illustrated below.
A dynamo is rotated by the generator shaft and provides a DC current which creates a
magnetic field around the two red coils. This magnetic field induces a current in
opposing blue coils which are connected to the rotating coils in the rotor. This current
is the excitation current.
It may be controlled by rotating the red coils away from the opposing blue coils thus
changing the magnetic flux to which the opposing blue coils are subjected. This will
vary the amount of excitation current in the excitation coils.
A change in the excitation current will cause a variation in the voltage between phase
and ground. This voltage is picked up by a voltage transformer which is connected to
the green coil surrounding a magnet on a shaft to which the red coils are attached. The
magnetic force creates a momentum which is working against a spring, K.
Thus, reduced excitation will reduce the phase voltage causing the momentum
working on the shaft to decrease. The red coils will move back closer to the blue coils
increasing the excitation current. This will cause the phase voltage to increase, and
vice versa. This inverse proportional relationship is rather similar to the inverse
Chapter 2 - 22
proportional droop control principle described above, except now the measured
parameter is no longer RPM or frequency, but voltage.
Modern AVR’s are more sophisticated providing additional protection and control
features but the basic control principle remains the same. The configurable control
unit of a modern AVR will often be mounted in the generator control panels, which
usually are to be found in an electrical equipment room adjacent to the generators. The
electromechanical devices (e.g. servos) are built into the generator itself.
These panels will usually contain all the specialized control units which come with a
generator, such as the electronic speed governor, the AVR and the synchronizer.
Pushbuttons and instruments together with local touch screen displays provide the
means necessary to operate the generator from this local point of control.
Chapter 2 - 23
2.4.3 Capability Diagram

A capability diagram is a geometrical expression of the electrical capacity of a
generator, including its prime mover.
Name Description Remark

PMAX Max. Pushing Power Turbine limit
PN Nominal Active Power Effective power
PMIN Minimum Operating Power Usually set to zero
PFLagMIN Minimum Power factor Lagging Minimum Inductive Powerfactor
PFLeadMIN Minimum Power factor Leading Minimum Capacitive Powerfactor
QMIN Minimum Reactive Power Leading
QMAX Maximum Reactive Power Lagging Stator heating limit
QPN Minimum Reactive Power at PN Stability limit
QP0 Fictive Reactive Power at 0 MW Stability limit
Q0 Fictive Center for Excitation Radius
Q1 Minimum Excitation at 0 MW
Q2 Maximum Excitation at 0 MW Rotor heating limit
These parameters are important input when engineering a PMS system. The ABB
PMS library provides an real-time plotting of the capability diagram, the requested
set-point and the actual generator working point. The PMS system seeks to keep a
generator within the capability envelope. If several generators are runnig it will also
try to keep machines in automatic mode of operation at equal outputs as a percentage
of its capability.
Chapter 2 - 24
2.4.4 Transformers
A transformer is basically sets of coiled windings influenced by each other’s magnetic
fields. When a current at a certain voltage is flowing through primary windings it
generates a magnetic flux in the ferro-magnetic core that induces another current at
another voltage in the secondary windings.
The ratio between the primary and secondary voltage in an ideal transformer is equal
to the ration between number of winding turns in the primary and secondary coils.
Some transformers have facilities that enable a secondary terminal to be connected at

different winding turns (taps). This will change the voltage ratio without needing a
rewinding of the transformer. This device is called a tap changer. If it facilitates tap
changing during loaded (charged) conditions ir is called an On Load Tap Changer
(OLTC) as opposed to a De-Energized Tap Changer (DETC). A tap changer can be
either mechanical or electronic invoking thyristors.
The transformer windings and tap changing circuits dissipate energy – heat.
Transformers are thus often oil cooled as oil also prevents arcs from forming when
changing taps or they can exchange heat with the surrounding air.
Chapter 2 - 25
Chapter 2 - 26
2.4.5 Tap Changer

The ratio between the primary and secondary voltage in an ideal transformer is equal
to the ration between number of winding turns in the primary and secondary coils.
Thus if we connect on side of the transformer at a different point, i.e. at a point where
the number of turns between the terminals are different we will change the voltage
(and current) ration between the primary and secondary side. A bit like changing gears
in a car.
Changing gears in a car is done while driving, it would be inconvenient having to stop
the car prior to each gear change. When it comes to transformers the come in three
versions:
1. Transformers with a fixed ratio
2. Transformers with a de-energized tap changer (DETC)
3. Transformers with an on load tap changer (OLTC)
The OLTC can be mechanical, electronically assisted or fully electronic.
A mechanical tap changer physically makes the new connection before releasing the
old using multiple tap selector switches. To avoid high circulating currents a diverter
switch temporarily places a large impedance in series with the short-circuited turns.
To move to tap 3 the following takes place:

1. Switch 3 closes, an off-load operation.
2. Rotary switch turns, breaking one connection and supplying load current
through diverter resistor A.
Chapter 2 - 27
3. Rotary switch continues to turn, connecting between contacts A and B. Load

now supplied via diverter resistors A and B, winding turns bridged via A and
B.
4. Rotary switch continues to turn, breaking contact with diverter A. Load now
supplied via diverter B alone, winding turns no longer bridged.
5. Rotary switch continues to turn, shorting diverter B. Load now supplied

directly via left hand connection. Diverter A is unused.
6. Switch 2 opens, an off-load operation
Thyristor-assisted tap changers use thyristors to take the on-load current while the
main contacts change over from one tap to the next.
More recently solid state thyristor tap-changers have emerged. They uses thyristors
both to switch the load current and to pass the load current in the steady state.
Their disadvantage is that all of the non-conducting thyristors connected to the
unselected taps still dissipate power due to their leakage current and they have smaller
short circuit withstand capacity. This power can add up to a few kilowatts which has
to be removed as heat and leads to a reduction in the overall efficiency of the
transformer, in exchange for a compact design that reduces the size and weight of the
tap changer device. Solid state tap changers are thus typically employed only on
smaller power transformers.
Chapter 2 - 28
2.4.6 Circuit breaking devices

An electrical switch is a device capable of connecting and disconnecting two
conductors, i.e. copper rails, cables, etc. For power management applications we will
concentrate on circuit breaking devices.
Apart from facilitating changes in the electrical distribution network’s configuration,
the primary function of a circuit breaking device is to protect the electrical consumers
against electrical faults which may lead to excessive currents and subsequent
destruction of the equipment and surrounding facilities.
2.4.6.1 Fuse
A very simple form of protection against excessive
currents is a fuse, designed to melt and thus break the
electrical circuit.
The characteristic of the fuse is depending on the type and

magnitude of the material used. Some fuses break quickly and others
are able to sustain some overload for a certain time, thus avoiding
the need to replace the fuse after a smaller (tolerable) power surge.
Fuses are simple and relatively cheap but they need to be replaced every time an
overload has taken place.
An electrically operated switching device tailored for starting and stopping electrical
motors is often referred to as a Motor Control Center (MCC).
Chapter 2 - 29
2.4.6.2 Circuit Breaker

A key feature of circuit breakers designed to protect high voltage circuits is the ability
to quickly separate the conducting parts to avoid arcs which heats up the immediate air
causing a rapid expansion of it – an explosion.
The switching component is often spring-loaded to facilitate a rapid separation of the

conducting parts. Sometimes the switching components are kept in vacuum or in
gaseous mixtures, e.g. Sulphur Hexa Flouride (SF6), which inhibit arcs.
Chapter 2 - 30
Below is an example of and ABB circuit breaker where the contact area is kept in a
vacuum to inhibit arcs. A rapid cycling is facilitated by powerful spring coils.
The fault detecting device is usually an Intelligent Electrical Device (IED) utilizing
solid state technology to cater for super fast execution cycles and avoid problems
related to spinning hard drives. It is generally referred to as a protection relay. A
protection relay can be seen as the brain and the circuit breaker as the muscle.
In electrical power distribution facilities circuit breakers act as switching devisees
both protecting and interconnect various the power distribution units. Depending on
their location in an electrical network a circuit breaker may be called:
• Incomer – providing power to a bus-bar
• Feeder – providing power from a bus-bar
• Bus-Tie – connecting two segments of a bus-bar
• Bus-Coupler – connecting two different bus-bars
• Motor control Center (MCC) – dedicated to provide power to an electrical motor
Chapter 2 - 31
2.4.6.3 Protective Relays

Intelligent Electronic Devises (IED’s) connected to various voltage and current
transformers built into generators, feeders, or transformers monitor an array of
electrical parameters such as current, voltage, frequency, etc. Various protection
features are configured in the IED’s based upon these measurements.
Protection relays collect and stores a lot of operational data and is often also connected
to maneuvering circuits (open/close). Typical protection features are:
• Impedance
• Under Voltage
• Over voltage
• Instantaneous over current
• Inverse Time over current
• Auto-re-closure
• Under frequency
• Over Frequency
• Current Differential
• Trip Circuit Supervision
Protection relays may be connected to other similar devices on various networks, e.g.
IEC 61850, thus facilitating protection features involving several IEDs such as
comparing currents in and out of a transmission line. IED’s can provide safety
interlocks and autonomous control features involving several circuit breakers. Small
HMI panels provide the electrical personnel to manually operate circuit breakers at a
Chapter 2 - 32
safe distance from the switchgear. IED’s are commonly connected to a overall control
system which facilitate automated power generation and distribution control.
Chapter 2 - 33
2.4.6.3.1 Inverse Definite Minimum Time relay

Earlier overload protection was created by arranging fuses, or miniature circuit
breakers in secondary circuits in which currents are induced from the transmission line
or transformer coil. Excessive primary circuit currents will cause the fuse in the
secondary circuit to break after some time.
Another method is to apply contacts on a spring-loaded magnetic disc which will be

rotated by a magnetic field induced by a coil connected to a current transformer. An
excessive current for a period of time will cause the disc to rotate sufficiently to allow
the contacts to close a trip circuit. The time delay will be approximately inverse
proportional to the magnitude of the current.
Chapter 2 - 34
Differential Protection
Differential protection of a generator can be obtained by placing current transformers
on either side of the stator phases. The secondary windings of these current
transformers connected in a three-point stare together with an relay. The ends are
connected together to form closed circuits. As long as currents induced in the three
stator windings are equal the currents in the current transformers will cancel each
other out. Any imbalance will cause a current to flow through the relay and activate
the trip circuit.
A variety of protection functions are available through an array of various

electromechanical protection relays.
IED’s often facilitate a combination of protection functions in one unit.
Chapter 2 - 35
2.4.7 Switchgear and distribution panels

Arrays of circuit breakers arranged in panels providing connections to bus-bars are in
general referred to as switchgear. Most of us
are familiar with the small devices that
protect individual household appliances
such as miniature circuit breakers.
A typical household will have a panel in
which a selection of these miniature circuit
breakers facilitates protection and
distribution of electricity around the house,
often called a distribution panel. Below is a
typical distribution panel from ABB (the
larger unit on the left is measuring the
amount of energy consumed, in kWh).
Switchgear is divided into three categories:
1. High voltage switchgeear (> 72,5 kV) – represented below by ABB GIS (Gas
Insulated Switchgear
Chapter 2 - 36
2. Medium voltage switchgear – represented below by ABB air insulated

switchgear
3. Low voltage switchgear (< 1 kV) represented below
Chapter 2 - 37
2.4.8 Synchronizer
If a generator shall be connected to a network, or if two different power systems shall
be connected the following must apply:
• Their Frequency must be the same
• Their voltage must be the same
• The phase angel between the systems must be zero.
Synchronization of frequency and phase angle can compared to synchronizing the
speed of cogwheels in a gearbox when shifting. The synchronization rings in the gear
box will adjust the speed of the one cogwheel to match the other prior to engaging the
new gear. The analogy here is that the sinus curves of the varying voltage in the three
phases can be seen as tooth on a cogwheel.
Vintage cars often do not have synchronized gear boxes. Shifting, especially down,
required clutching, disengaging, then releasing the clutch and a quick engine rev’
before reengaging the clutch and finally engaging the next gear – so called double-
clutching. It took some skill to avoid “grinding [cogwheel] teeth”.
The voltage and frequency can be manually adjusted by adjusting the speed and
voltage of the generator until they match the bus (more or less) while reading standard
analogue or digital instruments. These instruments cannot tell us about the phase
angle. For that a synchroscope is required.
The synchroscope consists of a two-phase stator connected to the voltage transformer

on the reference network. The two windings are at right angles to one another, and by
means of a phase-splitting network, the current in one phase leads the current of the
other phase by 90°, thereby generating a rotating magnetic field.
A polarizing coil is connected to the voltage transformer on the generator side. It’s
magnetic field influences a rotating element consisting s of two iron vanes mounted on
opposite sides of a shaft. The element can rotate freely through 360 degrees.
The differences in the rotating magnetic fields induced by the phases from the net and
from the generator will cause the element to rotate one way or another. Usually the
synchroscope is built in such a way that if the generator is to fast the element rotates
clockwise and vice versa. The rotation speed of the element is proportional to the
frequency difference. The 12 o’clock position indicates zero degrees angle between
the corresponding phases.
Chapter 2 - 38
The normal practice is to let the generator run little faster and close the circuit breaker
when the needle is at approx. 3 – 5min to noon, thus allowing for the delay of the
actual closing mechanism and to make sure the generator is connected as a source of
power. Utilizing a relay in a circuit between the phases a short signal can be obtained
at the precise moment when the phase angle is zero degrees – the synchro-check pulse.
It can be used to light a lamp and/or to inhibit an incorrect close signal.
A modern synchronizer facilitates automatic synchronization. It will automatically
adjust the frequency and voltage of a generator, or a group of generators, in order to
align them with the existing frequency and voltage on a reference network. A close
signal is issued to a circuit breaker at the precise correct moment connecting the two
network entities at the moment when their phases are aligned.
Chapter 2 - 39
A dedicated unit which monitors the frequency and phase angels on both sides of the
circuit breaker closes it’s auxiliary contacts only when the frequency, phase and phase
angle are within acceptable ranges. This prevents erroneous closing of the circuit
breaker. should a manual synchronization be attempted or should the synch unit
malfunction. When the synchro-check feature is included in the synchronizing device
it is called a dual channel synchronizer.
One synchronizing device can be interfaced to several circuit breakers and voltage
transformers throughout a power plant by means of selection relays which connects
the appropriate measurements and command signal according to the position of a
selector switch or a selection signal from a computer system.
The raise and lower command signals can be routed to individual or several generators
in a similar way – either through selection relays or through a computer system.
Chapter 2 - 40
2.5 Electrical Distribution Systems – The Power Grid

In high populated areas the electrical grid may be a huge interconnected system of
power stations, power-lines and various kinds of substations. At sea however,
electrical shorelines are only now becoming attractive due to increased cost of
operating local on-board power stations. On semi-submersible or floating rigs and
ships however, there is no surrounding grid to interface. Power generation and
distribution entities which are isolated from other electrical distribution networks are
referred to as an Island.
2.5.1 Substations
A substation is a building or a dedicated facility containing switchgear distributing the
incoming power to numerous consumers, or other substations. Voltages may be
transformed from high to low or the reverse using transformers. Electric power may
Chapter 2 - 41
flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be
changed in voltage in several steps.
Typical substation roles are:
• Transmission substation
• Distribution substation
• Collector substation
• Switching substation
400 kV
Transmission
substation
Transformer
130 kV
40-70 kV
Main substation
400 V
Secondary
substation
Distribution
11/22 kV substation
The ABB PMS library facilitates the creation of a control system usually implemented
in power stations and main substations which may or may not have local power
generating capacity. Note that the nomination of substations may appear confusing
since there is no definite terminology used worldwide. For instance, a power station is
a facility where the main substation may be the buildings containing the generators
and the main, (usually high or medium voltage) switchgear. Several substations
distributing power locally is also normally found within the same facility.
2.5.2 Power Plants

Power plants are facilities producing power utilizing one or more of the prime mover
types as described above to generate electrical power which is distributed through a
network of cables and switchgear - generally called the grid. The national grid would
in many cases be a system of high voltage power lines throughout a region or country
interconnecting various power plants and distribution facilities. Different nations or
areas in the world utilize different sources of energy for their power plants, depending
on resource availability, geography, economy, politics, etc.
Chapter 2 - 42
2.5.2.1 Hydro Power Plants
The Hoover Dam, built during the 1930' ies is one of the world' s most famous hydro
power stations, but it is not the biggest. It was built in part to utilize a significant
portion of the American labor force which was made redundant during the recession in
the 1930'ies, but the main purpose was to provide electrical power. Note the power
lines coming up the hillside from where the generators and transformers are located.
Hydro power plants are environmentally friendly; they require little maintenance and
the water turbines can run for many years between each major overhaul. Hydro power
plants can also respond quickly to changes in the load demand. The water header is
there, it is only a question of opening, or closing the control valves.
Where the geography and climate does not provide useful amounts of water elevated
above sea level other means of energy has to be used. Various forms of hydrocarbons
are the most widely used fuel in the world today. Of those, the most common is oil.
Chapter 2 - 43
2.5.2.2 Combined Cycle Power Plants

Another commonly used source of energy is the one that "fueled" the industrial
revolution 300 years ago - coal. Coal can be used directly as fuel in boilers or it can be
converted in to liquid and gaseous fuels suitable for diesel engines and gas turbines.
Natural gas is becoming an increasingly important fuel. Since it contains lighter (i.e.
shorter) hydro-carbon molecules it produces less carbon dioxide during combustion.
Gasses also contains less impurities and causes less carbon deposits in combustion
chambers so the need for maintenance on gas burning engines and turbines is reduced.
In most turbines and diesel engines only small modifications are required to make
them dual fuel capable, i.e. run on either oil or gas, or both.
As the demand for energy grows, so does also the price. The rapid burning of fossil
fuels created over millions of years, thus releasing billions of tons of previously
contained carbon dioxide into the atmosphere over a short time span might have an
unwanted effect on our climate. Thus, in order to increase the efficiency, i.e. produce
more electrical power pr. unit of fuel consumed by the power plant, it is common to
utilize exhaust heat from e.g. gas turbines or diesel engines to generate steam which in
turn power steam turbines. Such power plants are called Combined Cycle power
plants.
Chapter 2 - 44
The combustion of hydrocarbons drives a gas turbine which turns the generator. The
waste heat in the exhaust gasses is used to generate steam to drive steam turbines.
Diesel engines, gas turbines and steam turbines are quite different with respect to their
ability to quickly respond to rapid changes in the power demand. A diesel driven
power station is more flexible then a turbine powered station. A diesel engine can take
a step load of up to 35 – 40 % of its rated power. By comparison, a gas turbine can
take a step load of up to 20 – 25% of its rated maximum power. A steam turbine has
an even more limited step-load capacity, due to the slow response of the boilers. Note
that these numbers may vary considerable depending on make of prime mover,
various power and efficiency enhancing devices such as turbo chargers with
compressed air blowers, etc.
Chapter 2 - 45
2.5.2.3 Wind Turbine Power Stations
The wind is not a constant presence, blowing at a constant speed in one direction.
Although wind turbines can be controlled by controlling the pitch and sometimes also
the heading of the turbine the available power is hugely variable. Wind turbine parks
are thus often seen as a welcome additional, environmentally friendly power source
which is utilized as much as possible keeping other quick reacting power stations on
standby, e.g. a hydro power plant.
2.5.2.4 Nuclear Power Stations

A nuclear power station utilizes steam turbines as its prime mover. Steam is generated
when water is subjected to radiation from Uranium fuel pellets arranged in tubes (fuel
rods). The hot water in the primary water is usually kept under high pressure,
sometimes it kept in liquid phase to reduce the risks of spreading contamination. Heat
is exchanged with water in a lower pressure secondary loop to minimize the risk of
spreading contamination. The lower pressure in the secondary loop allows for steam to
form and be superheated. Dry, superheated steam drives the steam turbines. The
radiation intensity (heat) is controlled by raising or lowering tubes with pellets of
neutron absorbing material – moderators. Early nuclear power stations used graphite
Chapter 2 - 46
as a neutron absorber. As with any kind of power stations involving some kind of
boiler a nuclear reactor does not respond quickly to changes in the power demand.
The classic cooling towers holds water for cooling the steam condenser and also
provides emergency cooling to avoid a core meltdown should an accident occour.
2.5.2.5 Solar Power Plant

Usually solar power is used to generate electricity directly by exposing a solar panel to
direct sunlight. Today solar panels are becoming more efficient but still this kind of
power generation is usually limited to small scale power generation, e.g. solar panels
on leisure yachts, solar panels on private houses and some commercial building. Such
systems primary aim is often to render a building self-sufficient with respect to the day
to day energy consume.
Chapter 2 - 47
Such building are, however, usually still connected to the electrical grid, as the sun is
not always present every day – at least not in Europe.
Another way of utilizing solar power on a larger involves mirrors spread out over an
area is redirecting the sunlight onto a common focal point which becomes VERY hot.
This hot focal point is used instead of a burner to generate steam.
Chapter 2 - 48
2.5.3 Parallel operation

Parallel operation means that sever generators are connected to the same network. It
may be compared to several locomotives pulling the same train.
2.5.3.1 Droop (proportional) control

Let’s simplify the picture a bit and assume the three engines controlled by speed
governors running in droop mode, maybe doing, say a 100 km/h straight and level. It
all the generators are pulling an equal load.
What will happen to the speed of the train when it reaches an incline (a hill)?
_____________________________________________________________________
The new situation could be illustrated like this.
Since the speed has _______________ the new power demand has________________
Now imagine that one engineer tries to increase the speed by pushing the ‘Raise’
button, thus raising the droop line in one speed governor.
Chapter 2 - 49
What happens to the power demand on the first engine? ________________________

What happens to the speed of the train? _____________________________________
What will then happen to the power demand on the other locomotives? ____________
2.5.3.2 Isochron (PID) control

Recall that Isochron mode could be illustrated by a horizontal line, i.e. the droop is
zero.
Note: It is not possible to make a simpler speed governor which does not have
isonron features run in isochron mode simply by putting the droop to zero. All
you do then is to make the governor unstable and the generator will trip. A full
blow PID control option must be configured in the speed governor. Remember, it
is NOT the scope of the ABB engineer to adjust the speed governors!
…but for the sake of the example, let’s illustrate it in a simplified way…
Which machine is running is isochron?______________________________________

What will happen to the speed of the train when it reaches an incline? _____________
Why? ________________________________________________________________
Considering the speed situation, what will happen to the power demand on the two
machines in droop mode? ________________________________________________
Note: Only one generator can be in isohron mode in one network, i.e. only one
power source can decide the frequency.
Note: An exception to the rule above are generators whose speed governors are
interconnected by a ‘load line’. In isochon mode these generators can effectively
be seen as one single large unit.
Can a generator be in isochron mode if the power station is connected to the grid? ___
Chapter 2 - 50
2.5.3.3 Fixed load (MW)

A machine in fixed load, or MW mode as used in the ABB PMS literature, can be
illustrated by a vertical droop line.
No matter what happens with the speed of the train the MW mode machine will keep
putting out the same power. Imagine the engineer holding the throttle steady,
bypassing the speed governor altogether or your foot on the gas pedal of a car.
If all three engines where in MS control, what would happen to the train when it
reached an incline? _____________________________________________________
Note: At least one power source in every network must be able to respond to
frequency variations – the ‘swing machine’.
Can all generators be in MW mode if the power station is connected to the grid? ____
2.5.3.4 Load profiles

Plotting the electrical power demand from in an electrical power grid over time yields
a Load Profile. Typically a 24 period is a useful cycle to evaluate as it will help plan
utilization of various available power plants in the grid.
Chapter 2 - 51
From the load profile illustrated above we can see that power plants with a poor
flexibility is utilized to cover the base loads and more flexible power plants are used to
cover peak loads. Fuel economy, and lately, environmental aspects also come into
consideration when planning the power station utilization. Bottle necks, such as
limited capacity in transmission lines and transformers may hinder free float of energy
from one area of a grid to another. This will hinder a fully efficient usage of all power
stations in an interconnecte3d grid, thus creating areas where power is cheap and
others where power is more expensive.
Power stations can be viewed as individual generators in a large scal power plant – the
grid. The same rules applies when it come to the interaction between swing machines,
i.e. peak load stations, and fixed load machines, i.e. base load power stations. The
frequency dictates the power demand and the voltage dictates the reactive power
demand.
If it is a large gap between peak load and base load in some areas extra power is used
during the nighttime to pump water into an elevated reservoir. During the day the
available water is utilized in a hydro power station to shave of the peak load power
production avoiding a to large base load power installation which would be
uneconomical with respect to fuel efficiency. In the figure above it is the hydro power
referred to as ‘pump power’. Naturally the water is not elevated for free and the power
required to raise the water during the night increases the base load demand.
Chapter 2 - 52

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Introduction to Power Management

Chapter 2 Introduction to Power Management

Chapter 2 Introduction to Power Management .............................................................................................................................. 1

2.1 General Information

2.1.3 Reference Documentation

2.2 Fuels available for electric power generation

2.3 Prime movers

2.3.1 Diesel engines

2.3.2 Gas turbines

An example of a widely used gas turbine is the GE LM2500 illustrated below.

2.3.3 Steam turbines

2.3.3.2 Waste Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

2.3.4 Water turbine

The Kaplan turbine is best described as a propeller. It is totally submerged in

It can be seen as a combination between a pelton wheel and a kaplan propeller

2.3.5 Wind turbine

2.3.6 Speed control of prime movers - Speed Governors

Governors can be mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic or electronic or a combination

A modern speed governor often consists of an electronic control unit and a

2.3.7 Protection of prime movers – engine control (and protection) system

Programmable digital devises offer a variety of additional protection features for

2.4 Primary electrical components

The relationship between number of poles, RPM and frequency is

2.4.2 Automatic Voltage Regulator – AVR

2.4.3 Capability Diagram

Name Description Remark

Some transformers have facilities that enable a secondary terminal to be connected at

2.4.5 Tap Changer

To move to tap 3 the following takes place:

3. Rotary switch continues to turn, connecting between contacts A and B. Load

5. Rotary switch continues to turn, shorting diverter B. Load now supplied

2.4.6 Circuit breaking devices

The characteristic of the fuse is depending on the type and

2.4.6.2 Circuit Breaker

The switching component is often spring-loaded to facilitate a rapid separation of the

2.4.6.3 Protective Relays

• Instantaneous over current

• Inverse Time over current

• Trip Circuit Supervision

2.4.6.3.1 Inverse Definite Minimum Time relay

Another method is to apply contacts on a spring-loaded magnetic disc which will be

A variety of protection functions are available through an array of various

2.4.7 Switchgear and distribution panels

2. Medium voltage switchgear – represented below by ABB air insulated

3. Low voltage switchgear (< 1 kV) represented below

The synchroscope consists of a two-phase stator connected to the voltage transformer

2.5 Electrical Distribution Systems – The Power Grid

2.5.2 Power Plants

2.5.2.1 Hydro Power Plants

2.5.2.2 Combined Cycle Power Plants

2.5.2.3 Wind Turbine Power Stations

2.5.2.4 Nuclear Power Stations

2.5.2.5 Solar Power Plant

2.5.3 Parallel operation

2.5.3.1 Droop (proportional) control

What happens to the power demand on the first engine? ________________________

2.5.3.2 Isochron (PID) control

Which machine is running is isochron?______________________________________

2.5.3.3 Fixed load (MW)

2.5.3.4 Load profiles

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