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UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Power System Operation and Control
The term - power system operation and control – basically involves the operation and
control of large scale power system. The main objectives of power system operation are
safety, reliability, and efficiency. System operation has always been regarded as a critical
function in utilities around the world because it can significantly change the utility’s bottom
line. System operation affects system reliability, and influences operational costs associated
with the deployment of transmission and generation resources.
The electricity deregulation in the last decade created a new landscape for the energy
industry. This change coupled with the potential for increasing penetration of large amounts
of integrated and variable generation and the move toward smart grid, including advancing
generation, transmission, and distribution technologies as well as customer enablement
technologies continue to increase the complexity of power system operation.
In simple terms, power system operation involves establishing a picture of the prevailing
system operating conditions by measuring different system signals such as flows of power,
and voltages.
The operational objectives of a power system are:
a. Continual matching of load demand (plug and play): Electrical energy cannot be
conveniently stored in sufficient quantities. Therefore a readily available reserve of
generation should be available and controlled. However in many developing countries,
there are shortages of generation resulting in load curtailment.
b. The power system should provide for a certain level of reliability and quality (frequency
and magnitude of voltages should lie in a narrow, pre-defined range).
c. The electrical energy should be at low cost and have a low environmental impact.
In order to ensure satisfactory system operation, proper controls have to be provided in a
power system. The various elements of power system operation and control are shown in
Table 1 along with the time-scale of operation.
Table 1

Operation and Control Action Time Period

1 Relaying execution control, system voltage control Multi seconds
2 System frequency control , tie-line power control Few seconds to few minutes
3 Economic dispatch Few minutes to few hours
4 System security analysis Few minutes to few hours
5 Unit commitment Few hours to few weeks
 6 Maintenance scheduling One month to one year
7 System planning One year to 10 years

A properly designed and operated power system must meet the following requirements:
a. The system must have adequate capability to meet the continuously varying active and
reactive power demand of system load. This requires maintaining and approximately
controlling adequate spinning reserve of active and reactive power at all time instants.
b. The system should be designed and operated so as to supply electrical energy at
minimum cost and with minimum adverse ecological impact.
c. The electrical power supplied to the consumers must meet certain minimum quality
standards with respect to the following:
i. The network frequency should be maintained within a range of ±3 percent of its
‘nominal’ value.
ii. The voltage magnitudes should be maintained within a range of ±10 percent of the
corresponding ‘nominal’ value at each network bus bar.
iii. The supply should meet a desired level of reliability to ensure supply continuity as
far as possible.
d. It should maintain scheduled tie-line flow and contractual power exchange.
1.2 System Load Variation
Electricity, unlike water and gas, cannot be stored economically (except in very small quantities-
in batteries), and the electric utility can exercise little control over the load (power demand) at
any time. The power system must, therefore, be capable of matching the output from generators
to the demand at any time at a specified voltage and frequency. The difficulty encountered in this
task can be imagined from the fact that load variations over a day (due to uncertainty in the
demands of consumers) comprise three components:
a. A steady component known as base load – the unvarying load which occurs almost the
whole day on the power station is known as base load;
b. A varying component whose daily pattern depends upon the time of day; weather, season,
a popular festival, etc.; and
c. A purely randomly varying component of relatively small amplitude.
Figure 1 shows a typical daily load curve. The characteristics of a daily load curve on a gross
basis are indicated by peak load (the various peak demands of load over and above the base
load of the station is known as peak load) and the time of its occurrence and load factor
defined as
average load
 less than unity
max imum ( peak ) load
 The average load determines the energy consumption over the day, while the peak load along
with considerations of standby capacity determines plant capacity for meeting the load.

100

Maximum Demand, MW
80

60

40

20

0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Time , hrs

Figure 1 Typical daily load curve

A high load factor helps in drawing more energy from a given installation. As individual load
centers have their own characteristics, their peaks in general have a time diversity, which when
utilized through transmission interconnection, greatly aids in jacking up load factors at an
individual plant – excess power of a plant during light load periods is evacuated through long
distance high voltage transmission lines, while a heavily loaded plant receives power.
1.2.1 Effects of Load Variation
In an electric power system it is difficult to predict the load variation accurately. The variable
load on a power station introduces many perplexities in its operation. Some of the important
effects of variable load on a power station are:
a. Need of additional equipment: The variable load on a power station necessitates to have
additional equipment. By way of illustration, consider a steam power station. Air, coal
and water are the raw materials for this plant. In order to produce variable power, the
supply of these materials will be required to be varied correspondingly. For instance, if
the power demand on the plant increases, it must be followed by the increased flow of
coal, air and water to the boiler in order to meet the increased demand. Therefore,
additional equipment has to be installed to accomplish this job. As a matter of fact, in a
modern power plant, there is much equipment devoted entirely to adjust the rates of
supply of raw materials in accordance with the power demand made on the plant.
 b. Increase in production cost: The variable load on the plant increases the cost of the
production of electrical energy. An alternator operates at maximum efficiency near its
rated capacity. If a single alternator is used, it will have poor efficiency during periods of
light loads on the plant. Therefore, in actual practice, a number of alternators of different
capacities are installed so that most of the alternators can be operated at nearly full load
capacity. However, the use of a number of generating units increases the initial cost per
kW of the plant capacity as well as floor area required. This leads to the increase in
production cost of energy.
1.2.2 Types of Load and Load Characteristics
In the power system terminology, the term ‘load’ can have different meanings, such as:
i. A device connected to the power system that consumes active and / or reactive power;
ii. The total active and / or reactive power consumed by all devices connected to the
power system;
iii. A part of the power system, which is not explicitly defined, but it is assigned as a
device connected to the power system
Total load demand of an area depends upon its population and the living standards of people. In
general, the types of load can be divided into the following categories:
1. Domestic Load: Domestic load mainly consists of lights, fans refrigerators, air-
conditioners, mixer, grinders, heaters, ovens small pumping motors etc. Most of the
residential load occurs only for some hours during the day e.g., lighting load occurs
during night time and domestic appliance load occurs for only a few hours. For this
reason, the load factor is low (10% to 20%)
2. Commercial Load: Commercial load mainly consists of lighting for shops, offices,
advertisements etc., fans, heating, air-conditioning and many other electrical appliances
used in commercial establishments such as market places, restaurants etc. The
commercial load has seasonal variations due to the extensive use of air-conditioners and
space heaters.
3. Industrial Load: Industrial load consist of small-scale industries, medium-scale
industries, large-scale industries heavy industries and cottage industries. Industrial load
are generally not weather dependent.
4. Agriculture Load: This type of load is mainly motor pump sets load for irrigation
purposes. Load factor for this load is very small, e.g., 0.15-0.20.
5. Municipal Load: Municipal load consists of street lighting, power required for water
supply and drainage purpose. Street lighting load is practically constant throughout the
hours of the night. For water supply, water is pumped to overhead tanks by pumps driven
by electric motors. Pumping is carried out during the off-peak period, usually occurring
during the night. This helps to improve the power factor of the system.
 6. Traction Load: This type of load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways etc. This
class of load has wide variation.
From an electrical point of view the multitude of devices are characterized by vast differences in
regard to:
a. Size
b. Symmetry (single or three phase)
c. Load constancy (in respect to time, frequency, and voltage)
d. Use Cycle (regular or random use)
The following rules characterizing typical system loads:
1. Although individually of random type, the lumped, or composite, loads, as we encounter
them at subtransmission or transmission levels, are of highly predictable manner.
2. These lumped loads vary in a predictable fashion with time.
3. Although the loads are time – variant, the variations are relatively slow. From minute to
minute we have an almost constant load. A minute is a long time period compared with
the electrical time constants of the power system, and this permits us to consider the
system operating in steady state.
4. The typical load always consumer reactive power. The reason for this is that motor load
is an important (actually the most important) ingredient in most cases.
5. The typical load is always symmetric. In case of large motors (greater than a few
horsepowers), this symmetry is automatic, since they are always designed for balanced
three – phase operation.
Voltage and Frequency Load Dependency
We know that
2 2 1 2 R  jX
P  jQ  V Y *  V V
R  jX R2  X 2
2 R
 PV
R  X2
2

2 X
and Q V
R2  X 2
So, the real and reactive loads both are proportional to the square of voltage V . For a
small voltage perturbation  V we have, for the real power,
P P R 2
  2V  P
V V 2
R X 2 V

The latter expression can be approximated or written as

P V
2
P V
 The reactance X depends upon frequency f in accordance with the relation
X  2fL

Thus,
P P 2 4 RXL 2 2 RX 2
  V  V
f f
R 2  X 2 2 
f R2  X 2 2
2X 2
 P

f R2  X 2 
1.3 Load Curve
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to (w.r.t) time is
known as load curve.
The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time. These load variations
during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are plotted against
time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is known as daily load curve as it shows the
variations of load w.r.t. time during the day.
The monthly load curve can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. For this
purpose, average values of power over a month at different times of the day are calculated and
then plotted on the graph. The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of energy.
The yearly load curve is obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that particular year.
The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the annual load factor.
The daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation as they supply the following
information readily:
a. The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during different
hours of the day.
b. The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
c. The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the station
on that day.
d. The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the
average load on the station in the day.
Area (in kWh) under daily load curve
Average Load 
24 hours
e. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which it is
contained gives the load factor.
Average Load
Load Factor 
Maximum Demand
f. The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
g. The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station.
1.4 Load Duration Curve
Load duration curve is a rearrangement of all the load elements of load curve in descending order
with the greatest load on the left hand.
The load duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but the ordinates are
arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. In other words, the maximum load is
represented to the left and decreasing loads are represented to the right in the descending order.
Hence the area under the load duration curve and the area under the load curve are equal. As an
example, figure 2a shows the daily load curve. The daily load duration curve can be readily
obtained from load curve and is shown in figure 2b.

20 20
Load in MW

15 15

10 10

5 5

0
12 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

(Mid Night)
Hours Duration
Time of Day

Figure 2a Load Curve Figure 2b Load Duration Curve

The following points may be noted about load duration curve:
a. The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form. In other words, it
readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has prevailed.
b. The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve.
Obviously, area under daily load duration curve (in kWh) will give the units generated on
that day.
c. The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time. By laying out the
abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours, the variation and distribution of demand for an entire
year can be summarized in one curve. The curve thus obtained is called the annual load
duration curve.
1.5Energy Load Curve or Integrated Load - Duration Curve
For hydro plants it is necessary to know the amount of energy between different demand levels.
This is obtained by plotting energy load curve which can be derived from chronological curve or
load duration curve. The energy load curve plots the cumulative integration of area under load
curve starting at zero load to the particular load. If energy and demand are plotted in terms of
percentage, it is called peak percentage curve.
From the energy load curve, the kilowatts of load that can be carried on the base or peak, for a
given number of kilowatt – hours per day available from a source like river flow, can be easily
determined.
1.6 Load Factor
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as load factor
i.e.
Average Load
Load Factor 
Maximum Demand

If the plant is in operation for T hours,

Average Load  T
Load Factor 
Maximum Demand  T

Units Generated in T hours

Load Factor 
Maximum Demand  T

The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if the time
period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less than 1 because average
load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load factor plays key role in determining the
overall cost per unit generated. Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost
per unit generated.
1.7 Maximum Demand
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
The load on the power station varies from time to time. The maximum of all the
demands that have occurred during a given period (say a day) is the maximum demand.
Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load because all the consumers do not
switch on their connected load to the system at a time. The knowledge of maximum demand is
very important as it helps in determining the installed capacity of the station. The station must be
capable of meeting the maximum demand
1.8 Demand Factor
It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load i.e.,
Maximum Demand
Demand Factor 
Connected Load
 The value of demand factor is usually less than 1. It is expected because
maximum demand on the power station is generally less than the connected load. The knowledge
of demand factor is vital in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.
1.9 Average Load
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year) is
known as average load or average demand.
Number of units ( kWh) generated in a day
Daily Average Load 
24 hours

Number of units (kWh ) generated in a month

Monthly Average Load 
Number of hours in a month

Number of units (kWh) generated in a year

Yearly Average Load 
8760 hours

1.10 Connected Load

Connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply
system.
A power station supplies load to thousands of consumers. Each consumer has certain
equipment installed in his premises. The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipments in
the consumer’s premises is the “connected load” of the consumer. For instance, if a consumer
has connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then connected load of
the consumer is 5 × 100 + 500 = 1000 watts. The sum of the connected loads of all the
consumers is the connected load to the power station.

1.11 Plant Capacity Factor or Capacity Factor

The plant capacity factor (also known as plant factor) is the ratio of the average annual load to
the power plant capacity.
Average Annual Load
Capacity Factor 
Rated Plant Capacity

It can also be defined as the ratio of the energy produced by the plant in a year to the maximum

energy that the plant could have produced. If the plant is always run at its rated capacity, the

capacity factor is 100%.

The capacity factor depicts the extent of the use of the generating station. It is different from
load factor because of the reason that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater than
the expected maximum load.
1.12 Plant Use Factor
The ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for which
the plant remains in operation.
Station Ouput in kWh
Plant Use Factor 
Plant Capacity  Hours of use

1.13 Utilization Factor

It is defined as the ratio of the maximum demand to the rated capacity of plant.
Maximum Load
Utilisation Factor 
Rated Plant Capacity

The utilization factor for a plant depends on the use to which the plant is put. A low utilization
factor means that the plant is either a standby plant or has been installed to take into account the
future increase in the load. For a power plant, in an integrated system, a high utilization factor
implies that the plant is probably the most efficient in the system.
Also, Capacity Factor  ( Load Factor)  (Utilization Factor )

1.14Diversity Factor
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power station
is known as diversity factor i.e.,
Sum of Individual Maximum Demands
Diversity Factor 
Maximum Demand on Power Station

A power station supplies load to various types of consumers whose maximum demands generally
do not occur at the same time. Therefore, the maximum demand on the power station is always
less than the sum of individual maximum demands of the consumers. Obviously, diversity factor
will always be greater than 1.
A large diversity factor has the effect of reducing the maximum demand. Consequently, lesser
plant capacity is required. Thus, the capital investment on the plant is reduced and the cost of
generation is also reduced.
A high diversity factor may be obtained by giving incentives to industries and farmers to use
electrical energy at night or light - load periods.
1.15 Hot, Cold and Spinning Reserve Capacity
a. Hot reverse is the reserve generating capacity that is in operation but not in service.
 b. Cold reserve is the reserve generating capacity that is available for service but not in
operation.
c. Spinning reserve is the reserve generating capacity that is connected to the bus and
ready to take load.

1.16 Load Forecasting and its Need

Load forecasting is about estimating future consumptions based on various data and
information available and as per consumer behavior.
Load forecasting is of great importance for the management of power systems. Load forecasting
involves the accurate prediction of both the magnitudes and geographical locations of electric load over
the different periods of the planning horizon. Load forecasting helps an electric utility to make important
decisions including decisions on purchasing and generating electric power, load switching, and
infrastructure development; and further to operate a power network reliably and economically. Load
forecasts are extremely important for energy suppliers, independent system operators (ISOs), financial
institutions, and other participants in electric energy generation, transmission, distribution, and
markets. Planning and operational applications of load forecasting requires a certain ‘lead time’ also
called forecasting intervals.

Nature of Lead Time Application

forecast
Very short term A few seconds to several Generation, distribution schedules,
minutes contingency analysis for system security.
Short term Half an hour to a few hours Allocation of spinning reserve; operational
planning and unit commitment.
Medium term A few days to a few weeks Planning for seasonal peak-winter, summer
Long term A few months to a few years Planning generation growth

The accuracy to a forecast is crucial to any electric utility, since it determines the timimg and
characteristics of major system additions. A forecast that is too low can result in low revenue
from sales to neighbouring utilities or even in load curtailment. Forecasts that are too high can
result in severe financial problems due to excessive investment in a plant that is not fully utilized
or operated at low capacity factors.
1.16.1 Types of Load Forecasting
Load forecasts can be divided into three categories:
a. Short - term load forecasting (STLF) over an interval ranging from an hour to a
week is important for different functions as unit commitment, economic dispatch,
energy transfer scheduling, and real - time control.
 b. The midterm load forecast (MTLF), ranging from 1 month to 5 years and
sometimes 10 or more years, is used by the utilities to purchase enough fuel and for
the calculation of various electricity tariffs.
c. Long – term load forecast (LTLF) covering from 5 to 20 years or more is used by
planning engineers and economists to plan for the future expansion of the system, for
example, type and size of generating plants and transmission lines, that minimize both
fixed and variable costs.
The forecasts for different time horizons are important for different
operations within a utility company. The natures of these forecasts are different as well.
1.16.2 Load Forecasting Methodologies / Techniques
Let y(k) represent the total load demand(either for the whole or a part of the system) at the
discrete time k = 1,2,3,…….It is generally possible to decompose y(k) into two parts of the form
y ( k )  y d ( k )  y s (k )

where the subscript d indicates the deterministic part and the subscript s indicates the stochastic
part of the demand.
Load forecasting is a systematic process dependent on the time period for which it is going to be
used. Forecasting methodologies can be classified on the method used. In a more definitive way,
they can be categorized as deterministic or probabilistic. A third approach is a combination of
both deterministic and probabilistic methods. Accordingly, the categories are mathematically
based on extrapolation, correlation, or a combination of both.
Over the last few decades a number of forecasting methods have been developed and
applied to the problem of load forecast. Two of the methods so - called end - use and
econometric approaches, are broadly used for medium - and long - term forecasting. A variety
of methods used for short - term forecasting fall in the realm of statistical techniques such as
time series and regression method, or artificial intelligence algorithms.
There is no single forecasting method that could be considered effective for all situations. The
selection of a method of load forecast depends on the nature of the data available, and the desired
nature and level of detail of the forecasts.
 Extrapolation Technique
This is simply a “fitting a trend” approach that depends on an extrapolation technique. The mode
of load variation can be obtained from the pattern of historical data and hence the curve fitting
function is chosen. Such a technique is called a deterministic extrapolation since random errors
in the data or in analytical models are not accounted for.
Standard analytical functions used in trend curve fitting are
a. Straight line y  a  bx
b. Parabola or Quadratic y  a  bx  cx 2
 c. S-Curve y  a  bx  cx 2  dx 3

d. Exponential y  ce dx

e. Gempertz y  ln 1 ( a  ce dx )

The exponential form has a special application and that is when the abscissa is
obtained from a logarithmic scale as ln Y. To explain, it is assumed that a simple straight line fits.
Then,
ln Y  a  dx

From which Y  e a  dx

 e a e dx

Thus, Y  ce dx is the exponential form, where, c  e a .

Clearly, this does not exclude the use of exponential form with linear abscissa if the data fit the
assumption.
The most common curve fitting technique to evaluate the coefficients a and d is the well –
know “least squares method”. If the uncertainty of extrapolated results is to be quantified using
statistical entities such as mean and variance, the basis technique becomes probabilistic
extrapolation.
 Correlation Technique
Correlation techniques of forecasting relate system loads to various demographic and economic
factors. This technique is based on the calculation of correlation coefficient, which necessitates
the calculation of what is known as variance and covariance as below. This approach is
advantageous in forcing the forecaster to understand clearly the interrelationship between load
growth patterns and other measurable factors. The disadvantage is the need to forecast
demographic and economic factors, which can be more difficult than forecasting system load.
1.16.3 Short Term Load Forecasting Techniques
Stochastic time series approach is the most popular prediction technique. It is still used today by
many power companies because of the ease of understanding and implementation and the
accuracy of its results. The idea was originally proposed for handling a special class of non-
stationary processes. These algorithms are primarily based on applying autoregressive moving
average (ARMA) or autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models to the historical
data. Statistical analyses are then employed to estimate model parameters. However, a drawback
of this technique is that it requires a large computational time for the parameter identification.
In the multiple regression method, the load is found in terms of explanatory variables such as
weather and nonweather variables, which influence the electric load. The explanatory variables
are identified on the basis of correlation analysis between each of these (independent) variables
with the load (dependent) variable. The estimation of the regression coefficients is usually found
using the least square estimation technique. The problem encountered in this technique is that the
relationship between the load and weather variables is nonlinear and hence leads to a large
prediction error. Also, finding functional relationship between weather variables and current load
demand is difficult.
1.16.3.1 Stochastic Time Series Approach
This forecasting procedure was developed almost three decades ago and is still very popular
among forecasters. The methodology proposed assumes three general classes of a model that can
describe any type or pattern of stationary time series data. A time series is said to be stationary if
there is no systematic change in the mean value and its variance. Examples of such models are
1. Auto-regressive (AR) model,
2. Moving average (MA) model, and
3. Auto – Regressive Moving – Average (ARMA) model, which is obtained by combining
together components of the first two types mentioned.
In the autoregression process, the current value of the time series y (t ) is expresses linearly in
terms of its previous values ( y (t  1), y (t  2),....) and a random noise a (t ) . The order of
this process depends on the oldest previous value at which y (t ) is regressed on. For an AR
model of order p (i.e., AR ( p )) , time series can be written as
y (t )  a (t )  1 y (t  1)   2 y (t  2)  ..............   p y (t  p ),

(1)

where 1 ,........,  p are the autoregression parameters. By introducing the backshift operator B
that defines y (t  1)  By (t ) and, consequently, y (t  m)  B m y (t ) , equation (1) can now be
written in the alternative form
 ( B ) y (t )  a (t ) (2)

where  ( B )  1  1 B   2 B 2  ......   p B p

Moving Average (MA) process assumes that the current value of the time series y(t) can be
expressed linearly in terms of the current and previous values of a white noise series a(t), a(t
−1), … . The noise series is constructed from the forecast errors or residuals when signal
observations become available. The order of the process depends on the oldest noise value at
which y (t ) is regressed on. For an MA of order q, MA(q), the model can be expressed as:
y (t )  a (t )  1a (t  1)   2 a (t  2)  ..............   q a (t  q ),

(3)

where 1 ,........,  q are the MA parameters. Similar application of the back shift operator on the
white noise would allow equation (3) to be written as
 y (t )   ( B ) a (t )
(4)
where  ( B )  1  1 B   2 B 2  ......   q B q

The third model considered by the Box – Jenkins approach is a mixed model. It includes both the
autoregression and MA terms in the model. This leads to a model described as

y (t )  1 y(t  1)  ..............   p y(t  p)  a(t )  1a(t  1)   2 a(t  2)  ..............   q a(t  q) (5)

The process defined by equation 3 is called autoregression MA of order (p, q), ARMA (p, q). The
model can also be represented as
 (t ) y (t )   ( B )a (t )

The basic theory behind AR, MA, and ARMA models applies to stationary data only. As
mentioned before, this implies that the mean, the variance, and the autocovariance of the process
are invariant under time translations. If the observed time series is non-stationary and does not
vary about the fixed mean, then the series has to be differenced until a stationary situation is
achieved. This model is called an “integrated” model because the stationary model, which is
fitted to the differenced data, has to be summed, or integrated, to provide a model for the non-
stationary data. The Box – Jenkins models for non-stationary time series are
i. Autoregression integrated (ARI) process,
ii. Moving average integrated (MAI) process, and
iii. ARIMA process.
The general form of the ARIMA process of order (p, d , q) is
 ( B ) d y (t )   ( B ) a (t )
(6)
where  is the difference operator and d is the degree of differencing involved to reach a
stationary stage.
As a result of daily, weekly, yearly, or other periodicities, many time series exhibit periodic
behavior in response to one or more of these periodicities. Therefore, different classes of models,
which have this property, are designated as seasonal processes. Seasonal time series could be
modeled as an AR, MA, ARMA or an ARI, MAI, and ARIMA seasonal process similar to the
non-seasonal time series discussed before. The general multiplicative model (p, d, q) × (P, D, Q)s
for a time series model can be written as:

 ( B ) ( B s ) d  sD y (t )   ( B)( B s ) a (t )
(7)
where ,
  sD  ( y (t )  y (t  s )) D  (1  Bs ) D y (t ),

 ( B s )  1  1 B s   2 B 2 s  .......... .   p B Ps ,

( B s )  1  1 B s   2 B 2 s  ...........   Q B Qs ,

The procedure used the trend component to forecast the growth in the system load, the weather
parameters to forecast the weather sensitive load component, and the ARIMA model to produce
the non-weather cyclic component of the weekly peak load.
1.16.4 Medium -Term and Long – Term Load Forecasting Techniques
The end-use modeling, econometric modeling, and their combinations are the most often used
methods for medium- and long-term load forecasting. Descriptions of appliances used by
customers, the sizes of the houses, the age of equipment, technology changes, customer behavior,
and population dynamics are usually included in the statistical and simulation models based on
the so-called end-use approach. In addition, economic factors such as per capita incomes,
employment levels, and electricity prices are included in econometric models. These models are
often used in combination with the end-use approach. Long-term forecasts include the forecasts
on the population changes, economic development, industrial construction, and technology
development.
a. End-use models: The end-use approach directly estimates energy consumption by using
extensive information on end use and end users, such as appliances, the customer use, their
age, sizes of houses, and so on. Statistical information about customers along with dynamics
of change is the basis for the forecast.
End-use models focus on the various uses of electricity in the residential, commercial,
and industrial sector. These models are based on the principle that electricity demand is derived
from customer’s demand for light, cooling, heating, refrigeration, etc. Thus end-use models
explain energy demand as a function of the number of appliances in the market
The following relation defines the end use methodology for a sector:
E=SxNxPxH
where:
E = energy consumption of an appliance in kWh;
S = penetration level in terms of number of such appliances per customer;
N = number of customers;
P = power required by the appliance in kW;
H = hours of appliance use.
b. Econometric models: The econometric approach combines economic theory and statistical
techniques for forecasting electricity demand. The approach estimates the relationships
between energy consumption (dependent variables) and factors influencing consumption.
The relationships are estimated by the least-squares method or time series methods.
One of the options in this framework is to aggregate the econometric approach, when
consumption in different sectors (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.) is calculated as a
function of weather, economic and other variables, and then estimates are assembled using
recent historical data.

1.17 Plant Level and System Level Controls

The term power system control is used to define the application of control theory and
technology, optimization methodologies and expert and intelligent systems to improve the
performance and functions of power systems during normal and abnormal operations.
The role of power system controls (using automatic processing and human operating)
is to preserve system integrity and restore the normal operation subjected to a physical (small or
large) disturbance. In other words, power system control means maintaining the desired
performance and stabilizing of the system following a disturbance, such as a short circuit and
loss of generation or load. A properly designed and operated power system must meet the
following fundamental requirements:
1. The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and
reactive power. Unlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be conveniently stored in
sufficient quantities. Therefore, adequate “spinning” reserve of active and reactive power
should be maintained and appropriately controlled at all times.
2. The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with minimum ecological impact.
3. The “quality” of power supply must meet certain minimum standards with regard to the
following factors:
a. Constancy of frequency;
b. Constancy of voltage; and
c. Level of reliability.
Several levels of controls involving a complex array of devices are used to meet the above
requirements. Power system controls are of many types including generation excitation controls,
prime mover controls, generator/load tripping, fast fault clearing, high speed re-closing, dynamic
braking, reactive power compensation, load–frequency control, current injection, fast phase
angle control and HVDC special controls. From the point of view of operations, all controls can
be classified into continuous and discontinuous controls. These are depicted in figure 3 which
identifies the various subsystems of a power system and the associated controls. In this overall
structure, there are controllers operating directly on individual system elements. In a generating
unit these consist of prime mover controls and excitation controls.
 The prime mover controls are concerned with speed regulation and control of energy
supply system variables such as boiler pressures, temperatures, and flows. The function of the
excitation control is to regulate generator voltage and reactive power output. The desired MW
outputs of the individual generating units are determined by the system - generation control.
The primary purpose of the system – generation control is to balance the total system
generation against system load and losses so that the desired frequency and power interchange
with neighbouring system (tie flows) is maintained.
The transmission controls include power and voltage control devices, such as static VAR
compensators, synchronous condensers, switched capacitors and reactors, tap – changing
transformers, phase – shifting transformers, and HVDC transmission controls.
The discontinuous controls generally stabilize the system after severe disturbances and
are usually applicable for highly stressed operating conditions. They perform actions such as
generator/load tripping, capacitor/reactor switching and other protection plans. These power
system controls may be local at power plants and substations, or over a wide area. These kinds of
controls usually ensure a post-disturbance equilibrium with sufficient region of attraction
Furthermore, there are many controls and protections systems on transmission and
distribution sides, such as switching capacitor/reactors, tap-changing/phase shifting transformers,
HVDC controls, synchronous condensers and static VAR compensators.
Despite numerous existing nested control loops that control different quantities in the
system, working in a secure attraction region with a desired performance is the objective of an
overall power system control strategy. It means generating and delivering power in an
interconnected system is as economical and reliable manner as possible while maintaining the
frequency and the voltage within permissible limits.
 Generator
Frequency Tie Flows Power

System Generation Control

Schedule Load Frequency Control with
Economic Allocation

Other generating units and

Generating Unit

associated controls
Prime
Controls Mover &
Control

Field
Current
Excitation System
Generator
and Control

Voltage
Speed
Speed / Power

Electrical
Power

Transmission Controls
Reactive Power and Voltage Control
HVDC Transmission and Associated Controls

Frequency Tie Flows Generator

Power

Figure 3 Power System Controls

 Solved Numericals and Practice Questions
Ques 1: Consider an inductive load having impedance Z  R  jX
a. By how many percent will the real load drop if the voltage is reduced by 1
percent?
b. How would a 1 percent drop in frequency affect the real load? The load is
assumed to have a power factor of cos ø = 0.8
(May 2016)
Solution 1:
a. We know that
2 2 1 2 R  jX
P  jQ  V Y *  V V
R  jX R2  X 2
2 R
 PV
R  X2
2

2 X
and Q V
R2  X 2

So, the real and reactive loads both are proportional to the square of voltage V . For a
small voltage perturbation  V we have, for the real power,
P P R 2
  2V  P
V V 2
R X 2 V

The latter expression can be approximated or written as

P V
2
P V

This equation indicates that a small relative change in voltage results in twice the relative
change in megawatts. Thus, a 1 percent drop in voltage causes a 2 percent drop in load.
b. The reactance X depends upon frequency f in accordance with the relation
X  2fL

Thus,
P P 2 4 RXL 2 2 RX 2
  V  V
f f
R 2  X 2 2 
f R2  X 2 2
2X 2
 P

f R2  X 2 
 P X2 f
 2
P
R 2  X 2  f

For cos ø = 0.8, we have

X2
 sin 2   0.36
R 2
X 2

P f
  0.72
P f

So, a one percent frequency drop thus results in a 0.72 percent load increase.

Practice Problem:
A 480 – volt three – phase induction motor powers a compressor, whose torque is assumed
speed – independent. The motor runs at an initial speed corresponding to a per unit slip of s =
0.03. How will the motor load change if the voltage drops by one percent?

Ques 2: A generating plant has a maximum demand of 20 MW, a load factor of 60%, a
plant capacity factor of 50%, and a plant use factor of 70%. Find
(a) The daily energy produced,
(b) The reserve capacity of the plant, and
(c) The maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant, while running as
per schedule, were fully loaded and
(d) Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were running all the
time.
Solution 2:
Average Demand
Load factor 
Maximum Demand

Average Demand
0.60 
20
So, Average Demand = 12 MW
Average Demand
Plant Capacity Factor 
Installed Capacity

12
0.50 
Installed Capacity

12
So, Installed Capacity   24 MW
0.5
Thus, Reserve Capacity of the plant = Installed Capacity – Maximum Demand
= 24 – 20 = 4 MW Answer
Daily Energy Produced = Average Demand x 24
= 12 x 24
= 288 MWh Answer
Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant is fully loaded
Actual energy produced in a day
= Plant use factor

288
=  411 .4 MWh / day Answer
0.70
Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were running all the time
= 24  24  576 MWh Answer
Ques 3: From a load duration curve, the following data are obtained
Maximum demand on the system is 20 MW. The load supplied by the two
units is 14 MW and 10 MW. Unit No. 1 (base unit) works for 100% of the time, and Unit
No. 2 (peak load unit) only for 45% of the time. The energy generated by Unit 1 is 1x 10 8
units, and that by Unit 2 is7.5 x 10 6 units. Find the load factor, plant capacity factor and
plant use factor of each unit, and the load factor of the total plant.
Solution 3:
8
Annual load factor for Unit 1 = 1  10  100  81.54%
14000  8760

The maximum demand on Unit 2 is 6 MW.

6
Annual load factor for Unit 2 = 7.5  10  100  14.27%
6000  8760

Load factor of Unit 2 for the time it takes the load

7.5  10 6  100
=  31.71% Answer
6000  8760  0.45

Since no reserve is available at Unit No. 1, its capacity factor is the same as the load factor, i .e.
81.54%. Also since Unit I has been running throughout the year, the plant use factor equals the
plant capacity factor i.e. 81.54%. Answer
6
Annual plant capacity factor of Unit 2 = 7.5  10  100  8.56% Answer
10  8760  100
 7.5  10 6  100
Plant use factor of Unit 2 =  19.02%
10  4.5  8760  100
Answer
8
The annual load factor of the total plant = 1.075  10  100  61.35% Answer
20000  8760

Comments: The various plant factors, the capacity of base and peak load units can thus be found
out from the load duration curve. The load factor of peak load unit is much less than that of the
base load unit, and thus the cost of power generation from the peak load unit is much higher than
that from the base load unit.
Ques 4: There are three consumers of electricity having different load requirements at
different times. Consumer 1 has a maximum demand of 5 kW at 6 p.m. and a demand of 3
kW at 7 p.m. and a daily load factor of 20%. Consumer 2 has a maximum demand of 5 kW
at 11 am, a load of 2 kW at 7 pm and an average load of 1200 W. Consumer 3 has an
average load of 1 kW and his maximum demand is 3 kW at 7 p.m. Determine: (a) the
diversity factor, (b) the load factor and average load of each consumer, and (c) the average
load and load factor of the combined load.
Solution 4:
a. Consumer 1 Maximum Demand 3 kW Load Factor
5 kW at 6 pm at 7 pm 20%
Consumer 2 Maximum Demand 2 kW Average Load
5 kW at 11 am at 7 pm 1.2 kW
Consumer 3 Maximum Demand Average Load
3 kW at 6 pm 1 kW
Maximum demand of the system is 8 kW at 7 pm
Sum of the individual maximum demand = 5 + 5 + 3 = 13 kW
13
So, Diversity Factor =  1.625 Answer
8
b. Consumer 1 Average load 0.2 x 5 = 1 kW, Load Factor = 20%
Practice Problem:
1.2
ThereConsumer 2 Averageof
are four consumers load 1.2 kW,
diversity Factor =load requirements
Loaddifferent
having 100  24% at different
5
timings. 1
Consumer 3 Average
Consumer1 load Load,
Average 1 kW,1Load =  100Demand
kW FactorMaximum  33.3%= 5 kW at 8 pm Answer
3
c. Combined
Consumer 2 Average Load
Daily = 1Factor
Load + 1.2 +=10.15
= 3.2 kW
Maximum Demand = 2 kW at 9 pm
Demand of=1.63.kW
2 at 8 pm
 100  40%
So, Combined Load Factor Answer
8
Consumer 3 Average Load = 500 W Maximum Demand = 2 kW at 12 noon
Load of 1kW at 8 pm
Consumer 4 Daily Load Factor = 0.25 Maximum Demand = 10 kW at 5 pm
Load of 5 kW at 8 pm

The maximum demand of the system occurs at 8 pm. Determine

a. Diversity Factor
b. Average load and load factor of each consumer
c. Average load and load factor of the combined load
Ques 5: A consumer has the following connected load:
10 Lamps each of 60 W
2 Heaters each of 1000 W
Maximum Demand 1500 W
On the average he utilizes 8 lamps for 5 hours per day, each heater 3 hours per day. Find
(a) average load, (b) monthly energy consumption and (c) load factor.
Solution 5:
Actual Energy Consumed 8  60  5  2  1000  3
a. Average Load  Time Duration

24
 350 W Answer
b. Monthly Energy Consumption  (8  60  5  2  1000  3)  30Wh  252 kWh
Answer
Average Load 350
c. Load Factor  Maximum Demand  1500  0.2333

Answer

Ques 6: Determine the maximum value of a load which consumes 600 kWh per day at a
load factor of 0.45. If the consumer increases the load factor to 0.65 without
increasing the maximum demand, determine the consumption of energy in kWh.

Solution 6:
 Energy Consumed in 24 h
Load Factor 
( Maximum Demand in kW )  24
600
0.45 
(max imum demand )  24
600
 Maximum Demand   55.55 kW
24  0.45

Answer
In the second case the load factor is 0.65
Energy Consumed in 24 hours  (load factor)  (max imum demand in kW )  24
 0.65  55.55  24
 866.6 kWh

Answer
Ques 7: The yearly load duration curve of a power plant is a straight line. The maximum
load is 500 MW and the minimum load is 400 MW. The capacity of the plant is 750
MW. Find (a) plant capacity factor, (b) load factor, (c) utilization factor, (d)
reserve capacity.
Solution 7:
500  400
Average annual load   450 MW
2
Average annual load 450
a. Capacity Factor    0.6
Capacity of the Plant 750

Answer
Average load 450
b. Load Factor    0.9
Maximum Demand 500

Answer
Maximum Demand 500
c. Utilizatio n Factor    0.667
Capcity of the Plant 750

Answer
d.
Re serve Capacity  Plant Capacity  Maximum Demand
 750  500  250 MW

Answer
Ques 8: A power system had the daily load curve given by the following table
Time Load in MW
12:00 night to 2 am 20
2 am to 8 am 10
8 am to 12:30 noon 50
12:30 noon to 1:00 pm 40
1:00 pm to 6 pm 50
6 pm to 12:00 mid night 70

Plot the following curves:

a. Chronological load curve
b. Load – duration curve
c. Determine daily load factor and utilization factor.
Solution 8: Maximum Demand of the system = 70 MW
Energy produced by the system in 24 hours
= area under chronological load curve
= area under load – duration curve
= 70  6  50  9.5  40  0.5  200  2  10  6
= 1015 MWh Answer
The chronological load curve and load – duration curve are shown below
 70
60

50

40

Load in MW
30

20

10

0
12 2 4 6 8 10 12 1 2 4 6 8 10 12
pmam Time

Figure Chronological Load Curve

The table for plotting load – duration curve is shown as
Load 70 50 40 20 10
Duration in hours 6 9.5 0.5 2 6

70 Q
N
60

M L K
50

H
40 G
Load in MW

30

F
20 G2
E

A D B
10

0 K1 G1 S
C
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 13 14 16 18 20 22 24

Time in hours

Figure Load – Duration Curve

Total Energy Generated 1015
Daily Load Factor    0.604 Answer
Maximum Demand  24 70  24
 Maximum Demand 70
Utilization Factor    0.7 Answer
Capcity of the Plant 100

Ques 9: Find the diversity factor of a power station which supplies the following loads:
Load A: Motor load of 150 kW between 10:00 am to 7:00 pm
Load B: Lighting load of 50 kW between 7:00 pm to 11:00 pm
Load C: Pumping load of 55 kW between 3:00 pm and 10:00 am
Solution 9:
Sum of individual maximum demand = 150 + 50 + 55 = 255 kW

The total load on the power station is as follows

Time Load in kW
10 am to 3 am 150
3 pm to 7 pm 150 + 55 = 205
7 pm to 11 pm 50 + 55 = 105
11 pm to 10 am 55

The above table shows that the coincident maximum demand of the whole system is 205
kW.
Sum of Individual Maximum Demands
Diversity Factor 
Coincident Maximum Demand of the whole system
255
  1.2439
205

Answer

Ques 10: A power station supplies the peak loads of 25 MW, 20 MW, and 30 MW to three

localities. The annual load factor is 0.60 pu and the diversity of the load at the

station is 1.65. Calculate (a) the maximum demand of the station, (b) the installed

capacity, and (c) the energy supplied in a year.

Solution 10:
 a.
Sum of Individual Maximum Demands
Diversity Factor 
Maximum Demand on the station
Sum of Individual Maximum Demands
 Maximum Demand on the station 
Diversity Factor
( 25  20  30)
  45.45 MW
1.65

Answer

b. Installed Capacity = 25 + 20 + 30 = 75 MW
75
c. Average load  load factor  max imum demand  0.6  MW
1.65
0.6  75
Energy sup plied per year   8760 238909 MWh
1.65

Answer

Ques 11: A generating station has the following daily load cycle :
Time (Hours) 0-6 6 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 16 16 - 20 20 - 24
Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40
Draw the load curve and load – duration curve and find (i) maximum demand (ii)
units generated per day (iii) average load and (iv) load factor.
(December, 2012)

Solution 11:
Daily load curve is drawn by taking the load along Y -axis and time along X-axis. For the
given load cycle, the load curve is shown in the figure 11.1 below
 80

70

60

50

Load in MW
40

30

20

10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Time in hours

Figure 11.1 Daily Load Curve

For drawing load – duration curve, the load ordinates are rearranged in descending order
i.e., greatest to the left, lesser loads towards the right and the least load at the extreme as
shown in the figure 11.2 below
(i) It is clear from the load curve that maximum demand on the power station is 70
MW and occurs during the period 16—20 hours.
∴ Maximum demand = 70 MW Answer
(ii) Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under the load curve
3
= 10 [40 × 6 + 50 × 4 + 60 × 2 + 50 × 4 + 70 × 4 + 40 × 4]
3
= 10 [240 + 200 + 120 + 200 + 280 + 160] kWh
= 12 × 105 kWh Answer
(iii) Units generated / day 12  10 5
Average Load    50,000 kW Answer
24 hours 24
Average Load 50,000
(iv) Load Factor    0.714  71.4% Answer
Max. Demand 70  10 3
 80

70 70 MW

60 60 MW

50 MW
50

Load in MW
40 40 MW

30

20
10
10 8
4 2
0

0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Time in hours

Figure 11.2 Load Duration Curve

Practice Problem:
A generating station has the following daily load cycle:
Time (Hours) 0-6 6 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 16 16 - 20 20 - 24
Load (MW) 20 25 30 25 35 20
Draw the load curve and find (i) maximum demand (ii) units generated per day (iii) average
load and (iv) load factor.

Practice Problem:
A generating station has the following daily load cycle:
Time (hours): 0-6 6-8 8-12 12-14 14-18 18-20 20-24
Load (MW): 45 35 75 20 80 25 50
a. Draw the load curve
b. Draw the load – duration curve
c. Calculate the load factor
d. Calculate plant capacity factor if the capacity of the plant is 120MW
Load Factor  Maximum Demand
(Hint: Plant Capacity Factor  Plant Capacity
)
 Practice Problem:
A residential consumer has 10 lamps of 40 W each connected at his premises. His demand is
as follows:
From 12 midnight to 5 AM – 40 W
From 5 AM to 6 PM – No Load
From 6 PM to 7 PM – 320 W
From 7 PM to 9 PM – 360 W
From 9 PM to 12 Midnight – 160 W

Ques 12: The following data were collected from the daily load curve of a power system during a year:

Load kW Duration Hours

15000 87
12000 And over 876
10000 And over 1752
8000 And over 2628
6000 And over 4380
4000 And over 7000
2000 And over 8760

Construct the annual load duration curve and find the load factor of the system.
Solution 12:
Annual load duration curve is plotted as shown in the Figure 12 below
Units generated in 8760 hours
 15000  87  12000(876  87)  10000  (1752  876)  8000  (2628  1752)
 6000  (4380  2628)  4000  (7000  4380)  2000  (8760  7000)

= 51,053,000
Units generated 51,053,000
Average Load    5828 kW
Time in hours 8760

Average Load 5828

Load Factor    0.3885 or 38.85%
Maximum Demand 15000 Answer
 15000
15000

12000 12000

10000 10000

8000 8000
6000 6000
Load in kW

4000 4000

2000 87 789 876 876 1752 2620 1760 2000

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 8760

Time in hours

Figure 12 Annual Load Duration Curve

Ques 13: A power station has to meet the following demand:

Group A: 200 kW between 8 A.M. and 6 P.M.
Group B: 100 kW between 6 A.M. and 10 A.M.
Group C: 50 kW between 6 A.M. and 10 A.M.
Group D: 100 kW between 10 A.M. and 6 P.M. and then between 6 P.M. and 6 A.M.
Plot the daily load curve and determine (i) diversity factor (ii) units generated per day (iii)
load factor.
Solution 13:
The given load cycle can be tabulated as under
Time (Hours) 0–6 6–8 8 – 10 10 – 18 18 – 24
Group A - - 200 kW 200 kW -
Group B - 100 kW 100 kW - -
Group C - 50 kW 50 kW - -
Group D 100 kW - - 100 kW 100 kW
Total load on 100 kW 150 kW 350 kW 300 kW 100 kW
power station
From this table, it is clear that total load on power station is 100 kW for 0—6 hours, 150 kW for
6—8 hours, 350 kW for 8—10 hours, 300 kW for 10—18 hours and 100 kW for 18—24 hours.
Plotting the load on power station versus time, we get the daily load curve as shown in the Figure
below. It is clear from the curve that maximum demand on the station is 350 kW and occurs
from 8 A.M. to 10 A. M. i.e.,

350

300
Load in kW

250

150

100
50
50

0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time in hours

Figure Daily Load Curve

Maximum demand = 350 kW
Sum of individual maximum demands of groups
= 200 + 100 + 50 + 100
= 450 kW
Sum of individual max . demand 450
a. Diversity Factor    1.286
Max. demand on station 350
Answer
b. Units generated/day
  Area (in kWh ) under load curve 
  100  6  150  2  350  2  300  8  100  6 
 

  4600 kWh 


Answer
4600
c. Average Load   191.7 kW
24
 191.7
So, Load Factor   100  54.8%
350
Answer
 Previous Year University Questions
Ques 1: Define spinning reserve. (2 Marks, December 2007, December 2010, May 2016)
Ques 2: Define the following. (6 Marks, December 2007)
i. Hot Reserve (2 Marks, December 2010)
ii. Cold Reserve (2 Marks, December 2010)
iii. Diversity Factor (2 Marks, Dec. 2010, Dec. 2011, June 2014, Dec. 2014)
Ques3: Explain load forecasting. (8 Marks, December 2007)
Ques 4: List any four objectives of power system control. (2 Marks, April 2008)
Ques 5: Discuss in detail the recent trends in real time control of power systems.
(16 Marks, April 2008)
Answer: Electricity networks worldwide are entering a period of change that is necessitating
improving methods of control and management. The regulators in the privatized
environments are actively rewarding utilities with demonstrable improvements in
customer satisfaction through power quality metrics. Although the core business
functions are unlikely to change dramatically, they will need to be performed more
efficiently and still meet these consumer-oriented goals. The inevitable outcome is for the
utilities to employ a combination of real-time and information technology (IT) systems to
support improved efficiencies and “right sizing” of their operations activity.
The basis of any real-time control is the SCADA system, which acquires data from
different sources, preprocesses it and stores it in a database accessible to different users
and applications. Modern SCADA systems are configured around the following standard
base functions:
 Data acquisition
 Monitoring and event processing Control
 Data storage archiving and analysis
 Application-specific decision support
 Reporting
SCADA system supervises, controls, optimizes and manages generation and transmission
systems. A SCADA control center performs centralized monitoring and control for field
sites over long-distance communications networks, including monitoring alarms and
processing status data. Based on information received from remote stations, automated or
operator-driven supervisory commands can be pushed to remote station control devices,
which are often referred to as field devices. Field devices control local operations such as
 opening and closing valves and breakers, collecting data from sensor systems, and
monitoring the local environment for alarm conditions
Although SCADA is a widely used application in most industries, requirements within
the electric utility industry for remote control of substations and generation facilities has
probably been the driving force for modern SCADA systems.
Different SCADA functions in power system monitoring and control are shown in the
figure below:

Figure SCADA functions in power system

Ques 6: Explain the following (12 Marks, December 2010)

i. Load Curve and Load Duration Curve
ii. Governor Control
iii. Security Control
Ques 7: Define connected load. (2 Marks, December 2011, June 2014)
Ques 8: What is a Load Curve? (2 Marks, December 2011, December 2012)
Ques 9: Define plant use factor (2 Marks, December 2011, May 2014)
Ques 10: Explain the types of load forecasting. (6 Marks, December 2012)
Ques 11: Explain the important objectives of power system and various control strategies during
its operation (16 Marks, December 2012)
Ques 12: What is maximum demand? (2 Marks, June2014)
Ques 13: Draw the load curve and load duration curve. Explain the importance of these curves in
connection with economic operation of power system. (8 Marks, June 2014)
Ques 14: Explain the following terms (4 Marks, June 2014)
i. Load factor
ii. Average demand
Ques 15: Distinguish between load curve and load duration curve. (2 Marks, December 2014)
Ques 16: What is the need for load forecasting in power system? (2 Marks, April 2015,
December 2015)
Ques 17: What are the advantages of computer control in power system? What are the types of
computer control? (2 Marks, April 2015)
Ques 18: Compare various stochastical methods of load forecasting. (16 Marks, April 2015)
Ques 19: Give a detailed account of online techniques for non – stationary load prediction.
(16 Marks, April
2015)
Ques 20: What is demand factor? (2 Marks, December 2015)
Ques 21: Classify the system load. (2 Marks, May 2016)