Power System Protection

Types and Effects of Faults

A H Chowdhury, PhD
Professor
Dept. of EEE, BUET

4 July 2021
 Types of Faults

Type of electrical failure that causes

greatest concern is the short circuit or
‘fault’

• Three phase fault

• Single line to ground fault

• Line to line fault

• Double line to ground fault

• Open circuit fault

Generator Faults
 Generator Faults

Steam turbine

Generator

Excitation generator
 Generator Faults

A. Internal faults
1. Primary and backup phase or ground faults in the stator and associated areas
2. Ground faults in the rotor and loss-of-field excitation
B. System disturbances and operational hazards turbines
1. Loss of prime-mover; generator motoring 7. Uncleared system faults: backup distance;
2. Overexcitation: volts or hertz protection voltage controlled time overcurrent
3. Inadvertent energization: nonsynchronized 8. Overvoltage
connection 9. Loss of synchronism: out of step
4. Unbalanced currents: negative sequence; 10. Subsynchronous oscillations
breaker pole flashover 11. Loss of voltage transformer signal to relaying
5. Thermal overload or voltage regulator
6. Off-frequency operation for large steam 12. Generator breaker failure
 External Faults

• Large short circuit current → severe mechanical stress on turbine-generator shaft

• Slower temperature rise

• Fault unbalanced → severe vibration, heating of rotor

• External faults generally not covered by generator protection zone → differential protection does not
respond

• Overcurrent and earth fault protection of generator provides backup protection to external faults
 Thermal Overloading

• Temperature rise caused by

▪ Continuous overloading

▪ Cooling system failure

• Increases winding temperature → may damage insulation

• Overcurrent protection set at higher values for responding to excessive overloads

▪ Can not sense continuous overload

▪ Can not sense cooling system failure

 Unbalanced Loading

• Continuous unbalanced load ( 10% of Irated) cause dangerous heating of cylindrical rotor

• Unbalanced loading on generator can be due to

▪ Unsymmetrical fault near the generateor

▪ Mal-operation of a circuit breaker near generating station (not all pole being cleared)

• Negative sequence protection senses Unbalanced loading of generator

 Stator Winding Fault

• Involve armature winding

• Cleared very fast by complete shutdown of generator

• EMF is induced in the stator winding → opening the circuit is not enough
▪ Field is opened and de-energized by “field suppression”

• Stator faults include

▪ Phase to phase fault

▪ Phase to earth fault – most common

▪ Stator inter-turn fault – difficult to detect

 Stator Winding Fault

Phase to Earth Fault

• Normally occur in armature slots

• Damage directly related to neutral-earth resistor

• Smaller neutral-earth resistor → higher fault current → severe burning of stator core
– Large field circuit time constant → longer time to suppress field flux

– Circuit breaker in generator neutral reduce fault clearing time

• Protection scheme: circulating current biased differential protection

 Stator Winding Fault
Phase to Phase Fault
• Direct short circuit between stator windings very
rare
• Phase to earth fault may cause phase to phase
fault within the slots
• Most likely location → at end-connections of
armature windings → overhanging parts out side
the slots
• Cause sever arcing with high temperature,
melting of copper, fire risk
• Protection scheme: circulating current biased
differential protection
 Stator Winding Fault

Stator Inter-turn faults

• Short circuits between turns of a coil

– No such fault if stator winding made up of single-turn coils

• May develop owing to incoming current surges with a steep wave-front →may induce
high voltage (L di/dt) across turns at entrance of stator winding

• Protection scheme:
▪ Differential protection and overcurrent protection does not sense inter-turn faults

▪ Stator inter-turn fault protection detects the inter-turn faults

 Field Winding Faults
1. Rotor inter-turn fault
2. Conductor-to-earth faults - caused by mechanical and temperature stresses
 Field Winding Faults

• Field system normally not connected to earth → a single earth fault does not give rise to any fault
current
→ A second earth fault will short circuit part of winding and may thereby produce an unsymmetrical field
system, giving unbalanced force on rotor

– Such a force cause excess pressure on bearing and shaft

• Unbalanced loading on generator gives rise to negative sequence currents → cause negative
sequence component of magnetic field
– Negative sequence field rotates in opposite direction of main field and induces emf in rotor winding →
causes rotor heating
 Field Winding Faults

• Reduced excitation may occur due to short circuit or an open circuit in field or exciter circuits or
a fault in automatic voltage regulator
– If field circuit breaker opens by mistake, fully loaded generator falls out of step and continues to run as
an induction generator drawing reactive power from bus

– Opening of field circuit breaker causes tripping of generator unit breaker

• Protection scheme:
▪ 'Rotor earth fault protection' provided for large generators

▪ Rotor temperature indicators used with large sets for detecting rotor overheating due to unbalanced
loading of generator
 Overvoltages

Atmospheric surge-voltages
• Caused by direct lightning strokes to overhead lines
• Induced and capacitively transferred voltage surges can reach generator via unit transformer
• Amplitude and duration of surge on generator side depends on type of lightning arresters used on
the HV side and on configuration of HV busbar
• Surge arresters and surge capacitors used for protection
 Overvoltages
Switching surges
• Switching operations may cause high transient overvoltage if restriking occurs across contacts of
circuit-breakers

• These transients similar to those obtained during intermittent earth faults (arcing grounds) and
may be limited by using circuit-breakers

Voltage transient
due to capacitor
bank switching
 Overvoltages

Arcing Grounds

• Repeated arcing across fault due to capacitances between conductors and ground
– This phenomenon is observed in ungrounded three phase systems

• In ungrounded three phase systems operating in a healthy balanced conditions, capacitances are
formed between conductors and ground
 Overvoltages

• During ground fault voltage across faulty conductor becomes zero, voltages across the healthy
conductors increase by a factor of 1.732

• Arc caused between faulty conductor and ground gets extinguished and restarts many times

• Amplitude of transient voltages during arcing grounds may reach a value of 5 times nominal
voltage
 Overvoltages

• In case of generator-transformer units, stray voltages may appear at generator neutral

during earth fault in HV network
– Due to capacitive coupling between HV and LV windings of step up transformer

• Magnitude of stray voltages depends on

▪ method of neutral earthing of the HV network

▪ step up transformer inter-winding capacitance

▪ ohmic value of generator neutral earth resistor

 Overvoltages

• HV system directly earthed, voltage across generator earthing resistor, during an HV

earth fault will be small

• HV network Petersen coil earthed, neutral voltage of generator can reach normal
setting of earth fault protection

– This problem solved by either increasing earth-fault relay setting or reducing ohmic value
of generator earthing resistor
 Overvoltages
• Surge arresters and R-C surge suppressors installed between generator and circuit-
breaker also assist in reducing switching surges
– provide overvoltage protection for all phases and between phases
 Abnormal Conditions

• Loss of excitation
• Loss of synchronism
• Wrong synchronization
• Asynchronous running without excitation
• Local overheating
• Leakage in hydrogen circuit
• Moisture in generator winding
• Oxygen in pure water circuit
• Overspeeding
• Motoring of generator
 Abnormal Conditions

Loss of excitation

• Results in loss of synchronism and slightly increased speed

• Machine continues to run as an induction generator, drawing excitation current from bus bars

• Damper winding acts like a squirrel cage

• Currents are taken at a high lagging power factor and magnitude similar to full load current → causes
overheating of stator winding and rotor winding

• Field should be either restored or machine should be shut off, before system stability is lost

• Protection scheme: Field-failure protection or loss of field protection

 Abnormal Conditions

Loss of synchronism

• If machine losses synchronism after a short circuit has been interrupted, a certain amount of slip is
generally permissible
– providing that stator current does not exceed 85% of maximum asymmetric short current with a solid short-
circuit at terminals
 Abnormal Conditions

Wrong synchronization

• In the event of wrong synchronization current can be higher than under short-circuit conditions

• This is not permissible → wrong synchronization must not occur

• Preventive measures
– Uncontrolled reclosure after complete isolation of generator from network must be avoided (because this quickly

results in an excessive phase angle)

 Abnormal Conditions

Asynchronous running without excitation

• If asynchronous running is requested by operator for emergency conditions, it must be monitored

• It must be decided whether asynchronous running is to be carried out with open or short-circuited
rotor

• Slip and stator current must not be allowed to exceed specified limits
 Abnormal Conditions

Local overheating

• Local overheating can occur in generators for various reasons

• Difficult to locate with usual protection equipment

• Normally, emission products, in the form of gas, mist or smoke escape and these can be used for
tripping a signal
– analysis of these products provides a basis for decision
 Abnormal Conditions

Leakage in hydrogen circuit

 Abnormal Conditions

Leakage in hydrogen circuit

• Pure hydrogen is fine, but a mixture of air and hydrogen can be explosive
• Hydrogen losses are predetermined on the basis of gas consumption
• Long term monitoring is needed
– Hydrogen leakage into pure water system is detected separately by gas blow-off device in
pure water tank
– Other points of leakage are not directly detected

• Adequate ventilation should be provided in the vicinity of generator and terminal box
• Cooling water circuit closely monitored because any hydrogen carried along by water
is a danger factor
 Abnormal Conditions

Moisture in generator winding

• Moisture detectors and drains must be provided at all points where liquids can collect

• Situation can arise where make up hydrogen is moist and can thus introduce moisture into generator

• Can be overcome by a gas drying plant

 Abnormal Conditions

Oxygen in pure water circuit

• Dissolved oxygen in stator cooling water leads to corrosion of hollow copper strands (for windings
with direct cooling)

• Cause plugging in the copper winding

 Abnormal Conditions

Overspeeding

• May occur as a result of a fault in turbine governor or its associated equipment

• If main generator circuit-breaker is tripped while full electrical power is being delivered to network,
dangerous overspeeding is prevented by normal actions of governor

• Normal working of governor is supervised by additional protective devices

• Protection scheme: over-frequency and under-frequency protection

 Abnormal Conditions

Motoring of generator

• Will occur if driving torque of prime mover reduced below total losses of turbo-generator unit

• Active power will then be drawn from network in order to maintain synchronous running
– Generator will work as a synchronous motor

• If persist for 20+ seconds → serious over-heating of steam turbine blades

• Reverse-power protection achieved by directional power relay
 Abnormal Conditions

Vibrations

• May occur owing to unbalanced loads or certain types of mechanical faults

• Vibration detectors usually mounted on generator bearing pedestal

Excessive bearing temperature

• May arise due to mechanical faults, impurities in lubricating oil or defects in oil circulation system

• Detected by a temperature monitoring device embedded in bearing

 Abnormal Conditions
Bearing Current
• Induced emf may be developed in
generator shaft owing to magnetic
dissimilarities in armature field
• If bearing pedestals at each side of
generator are earthed, induced emf will
be impressed across thin oil films of
bearings
• Breakdown of oil-film can give rise to
heavy bearing currents
– Bearing pedestal insulated from earth and
insulation supervised by a suitable relay
– Shaft is earthed via a slip ring and resistor
Transformer Faults
 Transformer Faults

• Power transformers

• Power autotransformers

• Regulating transformers

• Step voltage regulators

• Grounding transformers

• Electric arc-furnace transformers

• Power-converter transformers
 Transformer Faults

• Transformers faults: winding short circuits, open circuits, overheating

• Open circuits are not harmful in themselves; no protection provided

• Overheating or overload protection not provided

• External-fault back-up protection by some form of overload protection

– pickup of such relaying equipment usually too high to provide effective transformer protection
except for prolonged short circuits

• Short circuit protection: percentage-differential protection

• External-fault back-up protection: overload protection

 Factors Affecting Differential Protection

1. Magnetizing inrush current, over-excitation, CT saturation (these conditions can result in an

unbalance to currents applied to relay, compared with expected currents when power flow into
transformer is equal to power flow out of transformer)

2. Different voltage levels (CTs are of different types, ratios , and performance characteristics)

3. Phase shifts in wye–delta-connected banks

4. Transformer taps for voltage control (alters ratio of voltage (and currents) between H.V. side and
L.V. side)

5. Phase shift or voltage taps in regulating transformers

 Factors Affecting Differential Protection
• Maximum inrush current
occurs if transformer is
energized when voltage
wave is passing through
zero

Magnetizing inrush
current phenomenon
(no residual flux initially
in transformer)
Factors Affecting Differential Protection

Typical magnetizing inrush current to transformers: (a) A-phase current to wye-

connected windings; (b) A-phase current to delta-connected windings
 Factors Affecting Differential Protection
• Initial inrush of currents have high component of even and odd harmonics
• Harmonic component of short circuit currents negligible

Harmonic restraining
• Operating coil of relay receives fundamental component of current only
• Restraining coil receives rectified sum of fundamental and harmonic component
→ inrush currents have more harmonic content, give more restraining torque
 Factors Affecting Differential Protection

Harmonic blocking

• Separate blocking relay used in series with contacts of differential relay

• Blocking relay contains a 100 Hz blocking filter in operating coil and 50 Hz blocking filter in
restraining coil
– During inrush currents, 2nd harmonic component predominant and blocking relay is blocked → blocking
relay contacts remain open

– During short circuits, 50 Hz component predominant → blocking relay operates and relay contact circuit is
closed
 Earth Fault of Transformer

• Restricted earth-fault protection by differential protection

• Additional/separate restricted earth-fault protection

• Leakage to frame protection

• Neutral current relays

 Earth Fault of Transformer

• Earth fault relays connected in

residual circuit of line CT's give
protection against earth faults on
delta or unearthed star connected
windings of transformers
 Earth Fault of Transformer

• When primary winding delta connected or has unearthed star point

– Earth faults on secondary side not reflected on primary side

→ Because earth faults on secondary side do not produce zero

sequence currents on primary side

– Earth fault relay connected on primary side operates on internal

earth faults in primary windings only

• Restricted earth fault protection may then be used for faults on star
connected earthed secondary winding of power transformer
 Earth Fault of Transformer

• Fault F1 → both I2, I1 flows → resultant F2 : earth fault within F1 : earth fault
transformer star beyond transformer
current in earth fault relay negligible connected winding

• Fault F2 → only I2 flows, I1 negligible →

I2 flows through earth fault relay

• Hence restricted earth fault-relay does

not operate for earth fault beyond
protected zone of transformer

Star connected side

protected by restricted earth
fault protection
 Earth Fault of Transformer

• Fault very near neutral point of transformer → voltage available for driving earth fault current is
small → low fault current

– Relay has to be too sensitive to sense such faults → would operate for spurious signals, external
faults, switching surges

• Practice is to set relay such that it operates for earth fault current of the order of 15% of rated
winding current

• Such setting protects restricted portion of winding → hence the name “restricted earth fault
protection”
 Parallel Transformer Banks

• Protecting two equally rated banks using only

CTs on source sides of common breakers and a
single relay is only half as sensitive as protecting
each bank from its own CTs

→ CT ratios must be twice as high as if individual

CTs were used for each bank

→ Secondary current for a given fault will be only

half as high

→ If one bank is smaller than the other, its

protection will be less than half as sensitive
 Parallel Transformer Banks

• If one bank is already energized and a second

bank is then energized, magnetizing-current
inrush will occur to both bank
– Inrush current decay at a much slower rate
than when a single bank is energized with no
banks in parallel
– Magnitude of inrush to bank already
connected will not be as high as that to the
bank being switched, but can easily exceed
twice the full-load-current rating of bank
 Parallel Transformer Banks

Problem with in-rush current

• DC component of inrush current to transformer bank produce dc voltage-drop
component in voltage applied to banks
→ Causes a build-up of dc magnetizing current in already-connected bank
→ Rate of which is same as rate at which the dc component of magnetizing current decreasing in
bank just energized
• When magnitudes of dc components in both banks become equal
→ No dc component in transmission-line circuit feeding the banks
→ A dc component circulating in loop circuit between banks
→ Time constant of loop circuit longer than time constant of dc component in transmission-line
circuit feeding the banks
 Parallel Transformer Banks

• Prolonged inrush currents with parallel transformers

 Buchholz Relay

• A Buchholz relay is a safety

device that senses
accumulation of gas in large
oil-filled transformers

• Alarm on slow accumulation

of gas or shut down
transformer if gas is produced
rapidly in transformer oil
 Buchholz Relay

• Two main elements

• Upper element - a float, attached to a hinge
→Can move up and down depending upon oil level in
Buchholz relay container
• A mercury switch fixed on float → alignment of switch
depends upon position of float
• Lower element - a baffle plate and mercury switch
• Plate fitted on a hinge in front of the oil inlet (main
tank side)
• → when oil enters in relay from that inlet in high
pressure alignment of baffle plate along with mercury
switch attached to it changes
 Buchholz Relay

• Fault in transformer (faults between turns, break down of

transformer core, core heating) → transformer oil
decomposes and produce gases; gas accumulate in upper
part of container → causes fall of oil level; lowers position of
float → tilts mercury switch → contacts of mercury switch
closes; energizes alarm circuit

• More severe types of faults (short circuit between phases or

to earth; faults in tap changing equipment) produce a surge
of oil → strikes baffle plate, causes mercury switch of lower
element to close → switch energizes trip circuit
 Over-Fluxing

• Flux density 'B' in transformer core proportional to V /f

• Power transformers are designed to withstand (Vn /fn x 1.1) continuously,

Vn - normal highest r.m.s. voltage fn - standard frequency

• Higher V/f causes higher core loss and core heating

• Capability for V/f for higher values is limited to a few minutes

 Over-Fluxing

• High V/f can occur in unit transformers and unit-auxiliary transformers if full excitation is applied to
generator before full synchronous speed is reached
– Automatic voltage regulator of generator have V/ f (Volts/Hertz) relay

– Relay blocks and prevents increasing excitation current before full speed and frequency is reached

• Overfluxing relay is not necessary for substation transformers

Transmission Line Faults
 Transmission Line Faults

• Non-unit type protection

1. Time Graded overcurrent protection

Discrimination obtained by
2. Current Graded overcurrent protection coordinating relays settings
3. Distance protection

• Unit type protection

1. Pilot wire differential protection

2. Carrier current protection based on phase comparison method

 Transmission Line Faults

• Separate protection systems necessary for earth faults

▪ Earth faults are more frequent on overhead transmission lines than phase faults

▪ Earth fault current is different from phase fault current in magnitude

• Time and current graded protection used where instantaneous operation is not necessary
▪ i.e., where time-lag in fault clearance does not cause instability or damage to cables, lines, etc.

▪ Also used as a back-up protection to main unit protection

 Transmission Line Faults

• Distance relaying employed where

▪ Time and graded current relaying is too slow or selectivity is not obtained from them, i.e. distance relaying
is applied for faster protection

• Three main types of measuring units

1. Impedance type distance relays (suitable for medium length lines)

2. Reactance type distance relays (suitable for short lines)

3. Mho type distance relays (suitable for long lines)

 Transmission Line Faults

• Unit type protection provides fast selective clearing

• Short lines - pilot wire protection based on differential circulating current principle (e.g. Merz-Price)
is used

• Long lines & interconnected lines - carrier current protection is used

– Radio signals of frequency bands (e.g. 1000-3000 MHz) are used for protection of feeders
 Transmission Line Faults

Overcurrent Protection

• Non-directional time graded overcurrent protection

• Directional time and current graded overcurrent protection

• Definite time overcurrent protection

• Earth fault protection

 Transmission Line Faults

• In time graded overcurrent protection time setting of over-current relays at different locations
is graded

• Relaying provided at each

station A, B, C 1.3
• Arrow pointing towards
both directions → indicates
relays operate for faults on
either sides
• Time lag indicated on arrow
head 1.3 sec

• Suitable for radial feeder in

which power flow is only in 1.3 sec
one direction
Graded time lag overcurrent protection of a radial feeder
 Transmission Line Faults

• Fault beyond C circuit breaker at C operates first, i.e., with relay time of 0.3 second
– Relays at B and A start operating but after about 0.3 second fault is cleared and relays at A and B get reset

– If relay at C fails to operate, relay at B provides back-up protection

• For faults between B and C circuit breaker only at B operates and likewise

1.3

Transformers
Time setting
of relays in these
feeders should be less 1.3 sec

than setting of relays

on main feeder 1.3 sec
 Transmission Line Faults

• Earth fault relay is residually connected

• Two relays are employed for phase faults and one for earth fault

• Phase fault and earth fault relays are set for short circuits → do not detect over-loads of small
magnitude

• Overload protection may be provided in addition, with long time setting (minutes) and low current
setting
 Transmission Line Faults
• Directional time and current graded systems suitable, where power can flow to fault from both
directions
– Circuit breakers on both sides should trip, so as to disconnect faulty line
– Such case occurs in parallel feeders, ring mains, T feeders, interconnected lines

(a) Parallel Feeders

(b) T Feeders

(c) Ring Main

 Transmission Line Faults

• Current grading is applied when impedance between two sub-stations is sufficient and current
grading can be applied

• Long time delays occurring in graded time lag system can be partly avoided
▪ Employ high speed high set overcurrent relays

▪ Operate at pre-determined setting without a time lag

 Transmission Line Faults

• Fault beyond C → relay at C actuated

• Fault between C and B → relay at B actuated
• Fault between B and A → relay at A actuated
• Current setting diminishes progressively from source to remote end of line
 Transmission Line Faults
Difficulties of Current Grading
a) Fault very near to B in section BC → relay at A may feel that it is in section AB

b) Fault currents for different types of fault are different → brings a certain difficulty in relay setting

c) For ring mains, T-feeders, parallel feeders etc. → power can flow to fault from either directions →
directional control is needed
 Transmission Line Faults

Earth Fault

• Separate overcurrent relay used for earth fault

– Provide faster and more sensitive protection for single line to ground faults

• Earth-fault currents depend on type of neutral earthing

▪ Unearthed neutral system
▪ Solid neutral earthed system
▪ Resistance neutral earthing system
▪ Low resistance earthing
▪ High resistance earthing
▪ Resonant neutral earthing system
▪ Earthing transformer earthing
 Transmission Line Faults

• Distance relaying used where time-lag cannot be permitted and selectivity cannot be obtained by
overcurrent relaying

• Distance relay measures Z (=V/I) at relay location → gives measure of distance between relay and
fault location

• For a given setting, distance relay picks up when

measured impedance < set value

→ hence, protects a certain length of line

 Transmission Line Faults

• 3 phase fault-measuring units can cater for all 7 phase faults [a-b, a-b-g, b-c, b-c-g, c-a, c-a-g,
a-b-c]

• 3 ground fault-measuring units can cater for all 3ground faults [a-g, b-g, c-g]

Presence of sequence components in various faults

Measure positive sequence

impedance between relay
location and fault so as to
cater for every fault
 Transmission Line Faults

• What happens when lightning strikes a tower?

– A traveling voltage is generated which travels back and forth along tower

– The wave is reflected at tower footing and at tower top

– This raises voltage at cross-arms and stresses insulators

• Insulator will flashover if this transient voltage exceeds its withstand level (back
flash-over)

• Back flash-over voltage generated by multiple reflections along the struck tower
and also along shield wire at adjacent towers
 Transmission Line Faults

• Different methods to reduce number of flashovers on lines

▪ Improve critical flashover of insulators

▪ Reduce tower footing resistance

▪ Installing shield wire for lines without shield wire

▪ Installing lightning arresters

 Transmission Line Faults

Shield wire or Earth wire for lightning strike protection

 Transmission Line Faults

• Tower footing resistance (TFR) is the

resistance from the tower top to the
ground offered by metal parts of
tower + ground resistance
Bus-Zone Faults
 Bus-Zone Faults

• Fault level at busbars is very high

• Generally single line to ground faults

• Internal bus faults less frequent than line faults

• Bus bar fault causes discontinuation of power to a large portion of system

– Should be interrupted in shortest possible time, e.g., (60 ms), in order to avoid damage to
installation due to heating of conductors

• System stability affected by fault in bus zone

• Can cause major system shut-down

 Bus-Zone Faults
Desirable features of bus protection
• High speed (less than 3 cycles)
• Stability for external faults
• Discrimination between fault in its protected section and fault elsewhere
• No unwanted operation
• No operation due to CT saturation or power swings
• ‘Main’ and ‘check’ protection to assure disconnection only when desirable
• Interlock overcurrent protection to trip generator unit if bus-zone protection operates
• Non-autoreclosure, no single pole tripping of circuit-breakers for bus-fault
 Bus-Zone Faults

Causes of bus zone faults

• Failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault

• Flashover across support insulator during overvoltages

• Heavily polluted insulator causing flashover

• Failure of connected equipment

• Earthquake, mechanical damage, etc.