Fault Calculation and Application to

Industries
SHORT CIRCUIT (FAULT) ANALYSIS
FAULT PROOF SYSTEM
➢ Not practical
➢ Neither economical
➢ Faults or failures occur in any power system

In the various parts of the electrical network under

short circuits or unbalanced conditions, the
determination of the magnitudes and phase angles.
➢ Currents
➢ Voltages
➢ Impedances
CAUSES OF FAULTS
Insulation Failure

• Design defects or errors

• Improper manufacturing
• Improper installation
• Aging insulation
• Over-voltages
CAUSES OF FAULTS
Electrical

• Lightning surges

• Switching surges

• Temporary and
dynamic over
voltages (TOV)
CAUSES OF FAULTS
Mechanical

• Wind
• Contamination
• Trees falling the
lines
• Conductor/
connector failures
• Broken/ rotten
wood poles
CAUSES OF FAULTS
Man or Animal Made

• Birds shorting out

lines
• Small animals
entering switchgears
• Vehicles colliding with
power line poles
• Aircraft colliding with
power lines
CAUSES OF FAULTS
Thermal

• Over-current
• Over-voltage

According to
Location

• Inter-phase Fault
• Inter-circuit Fault
• Cross Country
Fault
Consequences of Power System Faults
Electro-dynamic forces, resulting
in
➢ Deformation of the bus-
bars
➢ Disconnection of cables
➢ Excessive temperature with
the risk of damage to
insulation
➢ Electromagnetic
interference with
conductors in the vicinity
(disturbance to
communication lines,
personal danger)
➢ Mechanical and thermal
stress, resulting in damage
of equipment, personal
danger)
Consequences of Power System Faults
➢ Voltage dips during the time
required to clear the fault,
ranging from a few
milliseconds to a few hundred
milliseconds
➢ Shutdown of a part of the
network, the extent of that
part depending on the design
of the network and the
discrimination levels offered
by the protection devices;
➢ Dynamic instability and/or the
loss machine synchronization;
disturbances in
control/monitoring circuits,
etc.
Application of Fault Analysis
1. The determination of the required mechanical strength of
electrical equipment to withstand the stresses brought
about by the flow of high short circuit currents.
2. The selection of circuit breakers and switch ratings
3. The selection of protective relay and fuse ratings
4. The setting and coordination of protective devices
5. The selection of surge arrester and insulation ratings of
electrical equipment
6. The determination of fault impedances for use in stability
studies.
Application of Fault Analysis
7. The calculation of voltage
sags resulting from short
circuits
8. The sizing of series
reactors to limit the short
circuit currents to a
desired value
9. To determine the short
circuit capability of series
capacitors used in series
compensation of long
transmission lines
10.To determine the size of
grounding transformers,
resistances, or reactors
Factors to be Considered when
Performing Short Circuit Studies
Factors Affecting Fault
➢ Circuit configuration
➢ Grounding system design/methods
➢ Voltage class
➢ Relative insulation levels to ground and
between phases
➢ System characteristics
Most Common Power System Studies
• Load Flow Studies
• Short Circuit Studies
• Stability Studies
• Insulation
Coordination
• System Protection
Coordination
• Electromagnetic
Transients
• Harmonic Analysis
• Motor-starting
Studies
• Cable Ampacity
Studies
• Ground Mat Studies
• Arc Flash Analysis
Types of Currents

Various Types
of Currents

Normal Overload Short Circuit Ground Fault

Current Current Current Current
Short Circuit Current
• Short Circuit Current is greater than locked rotor current
and may range upwards in thousands of amperes.
• The Maximum value is limited by the maximum short circuit
current available on the system at the fault point.
• Short Circuit Current may be further classified as bolted or
arcing. Large amounts of short circuit current will flow into a
bolted fault than the arcing fault.
Ground Fault Current
• Ground fault current consist
of any current which flows
outside the normal circuit
path.
• Ground fault current flows in
the equipment grounding
conductor for low voltage
systems.
• In medium and high voltage
systems, ground fault current
may return to the source
through the earth.
• Ground fault current on low
voltage system maybe
classified as leakage, bolted
or arcing.
Shunt Faults
• Single line-to-ground faults

• Double line-to-ground faults

• Line-to-line faults

• Three-phase faults
Series Faults
• One-line open faults

• Two-line open faults

Probabilities of Occurrence of the
Various Types of Fault
• SLG Fault = 0.70

• L-L Fault = 0.15

• DLG Fault = 0.10

• Three-phase Fault = 0.05

Sources of Short Circuit Current

Synchronous Generator

Induction Motor

Synchronous Motor
Sources of Short Circuit Current
• Synchronous Generators – when
a short circuit occurs
downstream of a synchronous
generator, it may continue to
produce output voltage and
current.
• Synchronous Motors – delivers
short circuit current into the
fault until the motor completely
stops.
• Induction Motors – short circuit
current decays very quickly.
• Supply Transformers –
Transformer Impedances will
also limit the amount of short
circuit current from the utility
generators.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Fault
Currents

Totally Totally Partially

Symmetrical Asymmetrical Asymmetrical
Current Current Current
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Fault
Currents
• The instantaneous peak short circuit current is the
maximum peak instantaneous fault current on the
asymmetrical short circuit current waveform. It is
a function of X/R ratio of the system.

Instantaneous peak short circuit current

Asymmetrical short circuit current

Symmetrical short circuit current
SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
Per Unit Calculations
Advantages of using Per Unit
Calculations
• Values in per unit
quantities are much easier
to handle.
• Impedance being referred
to one side of the
transformer due to
transformation ratio is not
a problem
• Manufacturers specify the
impedances of their
equipment in percent (or
per unit) using the
nameplate rating of the
equipment.
Per Unit Calculations
Advantages of using Per Unit Calculations (cont.)
• The per unit impedances of electrical equipment of the
same type but different ratings usually lie within a narrow
range. This makes the detection of an erroneous
impedance data easy. Also, if the impedance of a particular
equipment is not known, it is acceptable for most studies to
select from range of tabulated typical values.
Per Unit Calculations
Advantages of using Per
Unit Calculations (cont.)
• Per-unit presentation
yields more relevant
information and easily
correlated data.
• Network calculations
are the same for
single-phase and
three-phase systems.
There is less chance of
mix-up between phase
and line voltages,
single phase and
three-phase powers,
primary and secondary
voltages.
Per Unit Calculations
Advantages of using Per Unit Calculations (cont.)
• Per-unit calculation is more convenient to use when the solution
requires a digital computer.
• Power system components, i.e., generators, transformers,
transmission lines, etc. are modeled with per unit impedances in
the different power system applications like Load flow. Short
Circuit, Power System Stability, Electromagnetic Transient, etc.
Choice or Per Unit Values
• Choose any two of the
electrical parameters. In
general, the base Volt-
Amperes and base Voltage
are chosen.
Note: For actual power system,
equipment are rated in kilovolts, kVA
or MVA. Thus, the bases are often
expressed in kV and MVA or kVA

• Calculate the Base

Impedance and Base
Current
Note: The base MVA or kVA will
also serve as base for true/real
power and reactive power. The
base Z will also be used as base for
resistance and reactance.
Single-phase Systems
Single-phase Systems

Base Power, kW1 = base kVA1

Base Power, kVAr1 = base kVA1

Three-phase Systems
Three-phase Systems
Per Unit Quantities
Per Unit Quantities
Changing the Base of Per Unit
Quantities
Changing the Base of Per Unit
Quantities
kVA Base for Motors
?????
Example 1
If the base quantities are chosen to be 100
MVA and 230 kV, express 220kV and 90,000kVA
in per unit.

Solution:
Example 2
Using the base quantities in example
1, what are the actual physical values of
1.1 per unit voltage and 50 per unit power?

Solution:

V = 1.1 pu x 230kV = 253kV

S = 50 pu x 100MVA = 5,000MVA
Example 3
A three-phase 125 MVA 13.2kV generator
has a subtransient reactance of 7%. Using
100MVA and 13.8kV base values, calculate the
new percent reactance of the generator

Solution:

Z[old] = 7%
MVA[old] = 125 MVA
kV[old] = 13.2kV
MVA[new] = 1000MVA
kV[new] = 13.8kV
Symmetrical Components
Charles Legeyt Fortescue discussed
in his 114-page paper “Method of
Symmetrical Coordinates Applied to the
Solution of Polyphase Networks”, which
was published in 1918 by the then AIEE
(now IEEE), that any set of N unbalanced
vectors can be represented by N sets of
balanced vectors.

• Balanced system can be simulated

with single phase. Easier to analyze
and compute.

• Three phase unbalanced vectors

three balanced “sequence vectors”
Symmetrical Components – Three
Phase System
• Positive-sequence components
consisting of three phasors
equal in magnitude displaced
from each other by 120 in
phase and having the same
sequence as the original
phasors

• Negative-sequence
components consisting of three
phasors equal in magnitude,
displaced from each other by
120 in phase and having a
phase sequence opposite that
of the original phasors.
Symmetrical Components
• Zero sequence components consisting of
three phasors equal in magnitude and with
zero phase displacement between each
other.

• The unbalanced phasor is equal to the

phasor sum of the symmetrical components
of each phase, i.e.,

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0
Operator a
Definition:
The operator a is a phasor with a
magnitude equal to unity an angle of 120,
i.e., a = 1/120
Function:
Any phasor that is
multiplied by the
operator a is rotated
counterclockwise by
120. This is shown by
the phasor diagram on
the right:
Operator a
Equalities of Operator a
 Symmetrical Components of
Unbalanced Three-phase Phasor
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 Eqn (1)
Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2 Eqn (2)
Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2 Eqn (3)

Vc1 Va1
Va2
Vb2 = aVa2 Va0 = Vb0 = Vc0
Vc2 = a2Va2
Vb1 = a2Va1
Vb2
Vc1 = aVa1

Vb1 Vc2 Zero Sequence

Negative Sequence
Positive Sequence
Symmetrical Components of
Unbalanced Three-phase Phasor
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 Eqn (1)
Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + aVa2 Eqn (2)
Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a2Va2 Eqn (3)

Eq’n (1a) + Eq’n (2a) + Eq’n (3a) yields:

(Va + Vb + Vc) = 3Va0 + (1+a2 + a) Va1
+ (1 + a + a2) Va2
Symmetrical Components of
Unbalanced Three-phase Phasor
Symmetrical Components of
Unbalanced Three-phase Phasor
In summary:
Symmetrical Components of
Unbalanced Three-phase Phasor
In summary (matrix form):
Sequence Impedances
Definition:
• Positive-sequence
impedance (Z1)

• Negative-sequence
impedance (Z2)

• Zero-sequence
impedance (Z0)
Positive-and Negative-Sequence
Reactance of Transformer
• The positive – and
negative-sequence
reactances of
transformers are equal,
regardless of the
construction of the
transformer.
Impedance Values of Three-Phase
Medium Voltage Transformers
VOLTAGE RATING kVA RATING % IMPEDANCE

2.4 kV – 13.8kV 300 – 500 Not less than 4.5%

2.4 kV – 13.8kV 750 – 2,500 5.75%

General Purpose 15 – 1,000 3% to 5.75%

Less than 600V

Typical Values for X/R Ratio of Medium Voltage

Transformers
X/R = 6
Fault Point
The fault point of a system is
that point to which the
unbalanced connection is
attached to an otherwise
balanced system.

To determine the fault current,

each sequence network of the
system is reduced to a
Thevenin’s equivalent network
as seen from the fault point.
Transformers
The negative-sequence
network of two-winding and
three-winding transformers
are modelled -exactly in the
same way as the positive-
sequence and the negative
sequence impedances of the
transformers are equal.

The same model as the

positive-sequence network is
used for transmission line in
as much as the positive
sequence impedances of
transmission lines are equal
Transformers (Zero-Sequence Circuit
Model)
(Representation from Analysis of Faulted Power System by P.M.
Anderson)
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Circuit Equivalent

Q P Q
P
ZPQ

P Q P Q
ZPQ

P Q P Q
ZPQ
Transformers (Zero-Sequence
Circuit Model)
(Representation from Analysis of Faulted Power System by P.M.
Anderson)
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Circuit Equivalent

P Q P Q
ZPQ

P Q P Q
ZPQ

P Q P Q
ZPQ
 Transformers (Zero-Sequence Circuit
Model)
(Representation from Analysis of Faulted Power System by P.M.
Anderson) Zero-Sequence Circuit Equivalent
ZP ZQ
Transformer Connection P Q

P ZR
Q R
R

ZQ ZP
P Q
P Q
ZR
R
R

ZP ZQ
P Q
P Q
ZR
R
R
Three phase fault

If Zf = 0
Single line-to-ground fault

If Zf = 0 and Zg = 0,
Line-to-line fault:

If Zf = 0,
Double line-to-ground fault
Assumptions Made to Simplify Short
Circuit Calculations
1. Pre-fault load currents are neglected, otherwise,
If = If(no load) + Iload, where Iload is determined from load
flow studies.
2. Pre-fault voltages are assumed equal to 1.0 per unit
3. Resistances are neglected (only for 115kV & up)
4. Mutual impedances, when not appreciable are neglected.
5. Off-nominal transformer taps are equal to 1.0 per unit
6. Positive- and negative-sequence impedances are equal.
7. All line capacitances are ignored.
8. All non-motor shunt impedances are ignored; motor loads
may be treated the same way as generators, i.e., voltage
sources.
Assumptions Made to Simplify Short
Circuit Calculations
9. The voltage magnitude and phase angle of generators
and in feeds are all set to the same value.
10.All tap changing transformers are in middle position.
11.Motors that are 50 hp and above are included in the
model
12.Studies have shown that the shunt elements and loads
have little influence on the short circuit currents (0.5%
to 4% and may compensate each other.
13.However, disregarding the actual generator pole
voltages and the actual positions of tap changing
transformers may sometimes lead to errors of up to
30%
Outline Procedures for Short Circuit
Calculations
1. Setup the network impedances expressed in per unit
on a common MVA base in the form of a single-line
diagram.
2. Determine the single equivalent (Thevenin’s)
impedance of each sequence network as seen from
the fault point.
3. Determine the distribution factor giving the current
in the individual branches for unit total sequence
current.
4. Interconnect the three sequence networks for the
type of fault under consideration and calculate the
sequence currents at the fault point.
Outline Procedures for Short Circuit
Calculations
6. Synthesis the phase currents from the
sequence currents.
7. Determine the sequence voltages throughout
the different sequence network from the
sequence current distribution and branch
impedances.
8. Synthesize the phase voltages from the
sequence voltages components.
9. Convert the per unit currents and voltages to
actual physical units.
Example Calculation
Assumed Common Power Base
Used: 2.5 MVA as my power base
400V as my voltage base

2.5 MVAB
IB =
3 400VB
IB = 3,608.44 Amperes
IA = IB x Ipu
IA = 3∅ symmetrical Fault
Per Unit Conversion

2.5 MVAB
Zu = tan−1 12 = 0.00167∠85.24°pu
1,500 MBAA

2.5 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝑍𝑇 = 0.05 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 7 = 0.05∠81.87°𝑝𝑢
2.5 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝐴

For 250mm2 THWN in conduit

R = 0.029 / 305m
X = 0.048  /305m

0.048Ω
ZC1 = 0.029 + j = 0.056∠58.86 → ohmic value
305m
Assumed Common Power Base (cont.)
Used: 2.5 MVA as my power base
400V as my voltage base

0.056 2.5 MVAB 10m

ZC1 = = 0.0029pu
10 400 V 2 305m

0.056 2.5 MVAB 100m

ZC2 = = 0.0717pu
4 400 V 2 305m

0.056 2.5 MVAB 75m

ZC3 = = 0.00538pu
4 400 V 2 305m

2
12 2.5 MVAB 380V
ZM1 = tan−1 8 = 0.271∠82.87°pu
100 1000 kVA 400

2
10 2.5 MVAB 380V
ZM2 = tan−1 8 = 0.301∠82.87°pu
100 750 kVA 400
Impedance Diagram Based On Fault Point 1
Determining Fault Current at Fault point 1
IA = IB x Ipu

Vpu
Ipu =
ZTpu

1
Ipu =
0.0446
Ipu = 22.42
∴ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐹3∅𝑠𝑦𝑚 = 3,608.44 (22.42)
= 80,901.22 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

𝑋 0.0038
= = 0.168
𝑅 0.0226
Asymmetrical Peak Short Circuit
𝑥
− ∕3
𝜏 = 0.49 − 0.1𝑒 𝑅

𝜏 = 0.49 − 0.1𝑒
𝜏 = 0.3954
X
−2πt∕
MF = 2 1 + e R

𝑀𝐹 = 2 1 + 𝑒 −2𝜋 0.3954 ∕0.168

𝑀𝐹 = 1.414
∴ IFasypeak = MF x IF3∅sym
= 1.414 x 80,901.22
= 114,394.32 Amperes
Asymmetrical RMS Short Circuit
𝑋
−2𝜋∕𝑅
𝑀𝐹𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚 = 1 + 2𝑒

= 1 + 2𝑒 −2𝜋∕0.168

= 1

=1

𝐼𝐴𝑆𝑌𝑀𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 1 𝑥 80,901.22
= 80,901.22
Impedance Diagram @ Fault Point 2
ZTpu = Zu + ZT + ZC1  (ZM2 + ZC3 ) + ZC2  ZM1
ZTpu = 0.0627∠54.71  0.312∠73.03 + 0.0717  0.271∠82.87
ZTpu = 0.0869 ∠ 39.95°pu

1
IA = IF3∅SYM = 3,608.44 x
0.0861
= 41,524.05 Amperes
Impedance Diagram @ Fault Point 3

ZTpu = Zu + ZT + ZC1  (ZC2 + ZM1 ) + ZC3  ZM2

ZTpu = 0.0627∠54.71  0.289∠68.61 + 0.0538  0.301∠82.87
ZTpu = 0.0769 ∠ 40.06°pu

1
IA = IF3∅SYM = 3,608.44 x
0.0769
= 46,923.79 Amperes
Single Line to Ground Fault
Impedance Network 7.5 MVA
• Positive Sequence ZUpu = tan−1 12
1000 MVA
• Negative Sequence
• Zero Sequence ZUpu = 0.075∠85.24°
𝑍1 = 0.0678∠57.51°
𝑍0 = 0.0612∠53.92°

3Vpu
Ipu =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0

3Vpu
=
0.197
= 15.23
IA = ISLG = IB x Ipu
= 3,608.44 15.23
= 54,956.54 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Reactance Value for Induction Motors

Subtransient X” (pu)

Induction Motor above 600V 0.17

Induction Motor below 600V 0.25

ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
General Description of Calculation
Methodology

All machines are represented by their

internal impedances. Line capacitances
and that static loads are neglected.
Transformer taps cab be set at either
the nominal position or at the tapped
position and different schemes are
available to correct transformer
impedance and system voltages if off-
nominal tap setting exist. It is assumed
that the fault Is bolted, therefore, arc
resistances are not considered. System
impedances are assumed to be
balanced three-phase, and the method
of symmetrical components is used for
unbalanced fault calculations.
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
General Description of Calculation Methodology
(cont’d)

Three different impedance networks are formed

to calculate momentary, interrupting, and
steady-state short circuit currents, and
corresponding duties for various protective
devices. These are: ½ cycle network
(subtransient network); 1 1/2 – 4 cycle network
(transient network); and 30-cycle network
(steady-state network)
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
ANSI/IEEE Standards recommended the use of separate R
and X networks to calculate X/R values. An X/R ratio is
obtained for each individual faulted bus and short-circuit
current. This X/R ratios is then used to determine the
multiplying facto to account for the system DC offset.

Using the ½ cycle and 1 1/2 – 4 cycle networks, the

symmetrical rms value of the momentary and interrupting
short-circuit currents are solved first. These values are
then multiplied by appropriate multiplying factors to
finally obtain the asymmetrical value of the momentary
and interrupting short circuit currents.
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
½ Cycle Network

This is the current network used to calculate

momentary short-circuit current and protective
device duties at the ½ cycle after the fault. The
following table shows the type of device and its
associated duties using the ½ cycle network.
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
The ½ cycle network is also referred to as the
subtransient network because all rotating machines are
represented by their subtransient reactances, as shown
in the following table.
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
1 ½ - 4 Cycle
This the network is used to calculate the interrupting
short circuit current and protective device 1.5-4
cycles after the fault. The following table shows the
type of device and its associated duties using the 1 ½
- 4 cycle network
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
The ½ - 4 cycle network is also referred to as the
transient network. The type of rotating machine and
representation is shown in the following table:
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
30 Cycle Network
This the network is used to calculate the steady-state
short circuit current and duties for some of the
protectives 30 cycles after the fault. The following
table shows the type of device and its associated
duties using the 30 cycle network
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
The type of rotating machine and its representation in
the 30 cycle network is shown in the following table.
Note that induction machines, synchronous motors,
and condenser are not considered in the 30 cycle fault
calculation.
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Momentary (½ Cycle) Short Circuit Current

Asymmetrical RMS value of Momentary Short

Circuit Current

Imom, rms, symm = MFM • Imom, rms, symm

ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
High Voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting Duty (1.5-
4 Cycle)

If the contribution is from the Remote Bus, the

symmetrical value is corrected by the factor MF,

Where: t is the circuit breaker contact parting time. As

shown in the table below:
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio
Approximate values of resistance

aEffective resistance = X2V/2a3

Where:
X2V is rated voltage negative-sequence reactance,
Ta3 is rated voltage generator armature time constant (s).
The effective resistance is usually about 1.2 times dc resistance.
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio
Range and typical values of X/r ratios of system components at 60 Hz

Note: Actual values should be obtained, if practical

ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio

Based on class of transformer, obtain the proper factor from

table below. Multiply the transformer MVA ampere rating by
this factor before using Figure 17 to obtain the typical X/R
value
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio

3-PHASE, FOA-POWER TRANFORMER MVA

(STANDARD IMPEDANCE LIMITS)
Figure 17 – X/R Range for power transformers at 60 Hz
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio

NAMEPLATE H P

Figure 18 – X/R Range three-phase inductions motors at 60 Hz

ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio

Figure 19 – X/R range for small solid rotor and salient pole
generators and synchronous motors at 60 Hz
ANSI Short-circuit Calculation Methods
Resistance of system and typical X/R ratio
Equivalent system X/R ratio (at 60 Hz) at typical
locations for quick approximations)