Translingua – A New International Auxiliary Language Based on Esperanto and

Translingual Vocabulary

Introduction

Translingua is a language which is designed to be an international auxiliary language. The expressions and
vocabulary of the language will be governed by the three major principles of vocabulary: translinguality,
neutrality, and simplicity. The grammar of the language will also be governed by the three major principles of
grammar: translinguality, simplicity, and unambiguity.

Definitions of the three major principles of vocabulary

1. Translinguality
:A word is said to be translingual if the relevant ones are found in more than one language.
2. Neutrality
:A word is said to be neutral if one would not signify the support of either side of the conflict only because
of the usage of the word.
3. Simplicity
:A word is said to be simple if the word is simple in its pronunciation and analogical derivation.

Vocabulary

Its vocabulary should be selected considering the three major principles of vocabulary. The morpheme of
vocabulary consists of two groups: content morphemes and function morphemes. Content morphemes are
morphemes that have semantic meaning. On the other hand, function morphemes are morphemes to explain
grammatical relationships.

Content morphemes

The content morphemes of Translingua would satisfy all of three major principles and consist of the following
categories of morphemes. The list of categories may be changed, and it is not completed. The entry of one
category can fall into others.

1. Standardized terms
1.1. Metric origin
The words of metric origin will be a name of units of a system which is international.
1.1.1. SI units
Its group includes SI base units, SI derived units, and non-SI units accepted for use with SI.
metre – SI unit of length

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 Its derived words include metrer (to measure), metral (long), metrilo (ruler) etc.
litre – Non-SI units of volume accepted for use with SI
Its derived words include litrum (volume), litral (bulky), litrazo (liquid) etc.
1.1.2. Currency
Its group may include the currency currently in circulation.
dollar – currency of US
e.g. dollarum (money), dollarejo (bank), dollaral (financial)
dinar – currency of Islamic empires and its descendants currently in use
e.g. dinarer (to pay), dinaranto (price), dinarendo (debt)
won/yen – currency of Korea/Japan
e.g. wonal/yenal (round), wonum/yenum (circle)
1.2. International nomenclature
Nomenclature is a system of naming things. International nomenclature may include:
1.2.1. Taxonomical
Taxonomical nomenclature first introduced by Carl Linnaeus now governed currently by International Code
of Nomenclature (ICN, ICZN, ICNP, ICNCP etc.).
e.g. homo (human) and sapiens (sapient) from Homo sapiens
1.2.2. Astronomical
The name of stars and constellation standardized by International Astronomical Union (IAU)
Name: vegen (to fall) from vega, denebum (tail) from deneb
Constellation: virgo (virgin), vela (sails, clothes, veils), crater (cup)
1.2.3. Chemical
Nomenclature of chemical elements and compounds standardized by International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC).
Elements: lithio (stone) from lithium, hydro (water) from hydrogen
Compounds: benzenal (aromatic) from benzene, which is aromatic compound.

2. Proper nouns
Proper nouns can be used if the name is considered to have typical nature translingually. Also, if certain concept
is named after the proper noun translingually, the vocabulary can be derived from the word.
2.1. Anthroponyms
An anthroponym is a name of human beings.
Isaac Newton, for example
(a) Author of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Therefore, newtonal (natural).
(b) newtonen (to move) from Newton’s law of motion.
2.2. Theonyms

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A theonym is a name of god. Biblical figures may fall into this category.
e.g. vesten (to stay) from Vesta, gabrielum (health) from Gabriel
2.3. Toponyms
A toponym is a name of certain place. It can be used if it is:
2.3.1. A name of a country
dominicum (lord) from Dominican Republic
neder (under) from the Netherlands
lando (land) from England, the Netherlands, New Zealand, etc.
franca (free) from France
liberium (liberty) from Liberia
canadum (village) from Canada
2.3.2. Influential toponym
meccer (to visit) from Mecca
berlinum (wall) berliner (destroy) from the Berlin Wall

3. Loanwords
A loanword is a word adopted from one language into another. A word can be adopted from other languages if
the word is used translingually in other languages for the same concept as a form of a loanword.
3.1. Neologisms
A neologism is a coinage of a new word to describe a certain concept which did not exist before. Neologism
may be incorporated to the language if it is coined translingually in other languages for the same concept as a
form of a loanword.
e.g. quarko (particle) from quark, cyberer (to steer, to govern) from cybernetics
3.2. Words
e.g. eureker (to find) from Greek eureka, samuraier (to serve) from Japanese samurai, alcoholer (to addict)
from Arabic alcohol
3.3. Phrases
e.g. deja (already) from French déjà vu, amorer (to love) from Latin amor fati
3.4. Compounds
e.g. tele (far) and phono (sound) from telephone, lachrimo (tears) from Italian lacrimosa

Definitions of the three major principles of grammar

1. Translinguality
:The grammar is transligual if it covers the common features across the natural language.
2. Simplicity
:The grammar is simple if there are few rules to memorize and few exceptions.

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3. Unambiguity
:The grammar is unambiguous if few sentences may open to more than one interpretation.

Grammar

The following rules are the basic rules of Translingua grammar. It is designed to suffice for the three major
principles of grammar.
1. There is no article.
2. The adjectival particle la can be used to indicate proper nouns or with loanwords to preserve its foreign
meaning.
3. The adjectival particle le can be used before a prefixed noun, a nominal phrase, or a compound noun of two
different content stems.
4. Nouns have the nominal case ending –o. Nouns are not inflected by case, gender, or number. An adjectival
particle poly can be used to emphasize that the number of a noun is more than one.
5. Adjectives have the adjectival case ending –a. An adverbial particle plus/minus can be used to form the
comparative. The superlative is formed by the superlative derivational suffix -issim-,
6. The basic numerals are from the systematic element names.
7. The personal pronouns are same as nominal case of Latin, except for the 3rd personal pronoun, which is li
(singular), ili (plural), on (indefinite), and se (reflexive) regardless of the gender. Possessive pronouns can
be formed by adding the adjectival case ending –a.
8. Verbs are not changed by person or number. Verbal case endings are: -ex (causative infinitive), -ez (causative
indicative), -er (transitive infinitive), -es (transitive indicative), -en (intransitive infinitive), -et (intransitive
indicative)
9. Infinitive forms of verbs can be used to function as participles or in dependent clauses.
10. Auxiliary verbs have an ending –er in its infinitive mood. An indicative mood counterpart can be formed
by dropping an ending. One can use an auxiliary verb to mark tense, aspect, and mood: aver (past tense),
ioner (future tense), vener (recent past), facer (imperative mood), voler (volitional mood), pover
(conditional mood), quer (interrogative mood), dever (obligatory mood), ester (continual aspect).
11. The verb esten is a copula verb. Its indicative mood is est, which can be omitted.
12. Adverbs can be formed by putting the adverbial case ending –e at the end of the stem.
13. The case ending is omitted when used with the identical derivational suffix, or vice versa.

Functional morphemes

Functional morphemes in Translingua will satisfy at least two of the three major principles, which is neutrality
and simplicity, and consist of the following categories: affixes, prepositions, conjunctions, pro-forms, particles,
function verbs.

1. Affixes

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An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. There are two categories of affixes:
prefix and suffix.
1.1. Prefixes
A prefix is an affix which is placed before a stem of a word. Every prefix in Translingua is derivational. (As far
as the concept of derivation is concerned, it will be explained later) Prefixes are mostly from the Latin origin.
Notable prefixes include:
ab-: meaning disjunction, separation and suspension
ad-: meaning “to, towards”
bon-: forming amelioration (denoting superiority or valuableness)
con-: meaning “with, together”
de-: meaning “of, with”, composition, possession and utility
dis-: meaning distribution and dissemination
ex-: meaning “out of, from”, “without, deprived of” and “carrying out”
in-: meaning “in”
inter-: meaning “between”
mal-: forming pejoration (denoting inferiority or lack of quality)
mis-: meaning failure
ob-: forming an antonym (a word that has an opposite meaning)
peri-: meaning "around”
por-: meaning “for, in the sake of”
post-: meaning “after, behind”
pre-: meaning “before”
pro-: meaning “forward”
re-: meaning “again” and “backwards”
sub-: meaning “under, beneath”
sur-: meaning “on, above, over”
tra-: meaning “through”
trans-: meaning “across”
1.2. Suffixes
A suffix is an affix which is placed after a stem of a word. Suffixes are mostly from the Esperanto origin. A
suffix may fall into one of the following categories: derivational suffix or inflectional suffix.
1.2.1. Derivational suffixes
Derivation is the process of forming of a new word by adding affixes to a stem. By adding a derivational
suffix to a content morpheme, a stem will be converted to an ordinary word. An ordinary word is the word
which is used to describe an ordinary concept, which is covered by everyday language (colloquialism), formal
speech (oration), and formal writing (literary language) in the scope of the natural language.
Notable derivational suffixes include:
-ad-: continuous action made for some duration; an action or process
-al-: adjectival derivational suffix, indicating adjectival inherent meaning related to the stem
-an-: inhabitant or member of the group related to the stem
-ant-: indicating a quantity of
-and-: indicating a time of
-ar-: forming a collective noun; a collection or a unit consisting of distinct items; a list or a catalogue
-az-: concrete object possessing the quality related to the stem; food made from the material
-ebl-: meaning “able”, showing possibility
-eg-: augmentative suffix (making a word signifying a bigger object)

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-ej-: indicating a place
-el-: diminutive suffix (making a word signifying a smaller object)
-em-: indicating general inclination
-end-: meaning “must, should”, signifying duty or requirement
-eng-: signifying a holder for something
-estr-: signifying someone who directs or operates the subject; chief or boss
-ets-: denoting quality; having a character of the same aspect
-ic-: adverbial derivational suffix, indicating adverbial inherent meaning related to the stem
-ich-: belonging to the male sexuality
-id-: meaning “offspring of”, signifying an immature animal
-ig-: meaning “to cause to be”, causative verbal derivational suffix
-il-: signifying an instrument or a tool for performing something
-in-: belonging to the female sexuality
-ind-: meaning “worthy of, deserving to be”
-ing-: signifying something causing emotions related to the stem, active adjectival derivational suffix
-ir-: transitive verbal derivational suffix, indicating verbal inherent meaning related to the stem
-ish-: signifying a state of feeling an emotion caused by something related to the stem, passive adjectival
derivational suffix
-ism-: meaning a doctrine, a movement, or a custom
-issim-: the superlative derivational suffix
-ist-: meaning “one who does or makes”
-iz-: meaning “to become, to change in state”; intransitive verbal derivational suffix
-obl-: meaning “times, -fold”, used with numbers
-on-: signifying a fraction, used with numbers
-op-: signifying a collection or a group consists of certain amount of the number
-or-: signifying an element organizing the total
-uj-: signifying an object containing some quantity of substance
-ul-: signifying an individual or a person
-um-: nominal derivational suffix, indicating nominal inherent meaning related to the stem
1.2.2. Inflectional suffixes
An inflectional suffix is sometimes called as a grammatical suffix or an ending. Inflection changes the form
of a word which reflects a change in grammatical function. An inflectional suffix may fall into one of the
following categories: nominal case ending, adjectival case ending, verbal case ending and adverbial case
ending
(a) Nominal case ending: -o
e.g. formoso (beauty)
(b) Adjectival case ending: -a
e.g. formosa (beautiful)
(c) Verbal case ending

Infinitive Indicative
Causative -ex -ez
Transitive -er -es
Intransitive -en -et
e.g. mather (to learn), mathes (learn or learns), mathex (to teach), mathez (teach or teaches), mathen
(to be learned), mathet (am/is/are learned)
(d) Adverbial case ending: -e
e.g. formose (beautifully)

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 1.2.3. Conjugational omitting
Conjugation is an inflection of verbs. A conjugational omitting refers to phenomena that multiple suffixes
are contracted when a verbal derivational suffix is connected to a verbal case ending.
(a) Grammatical moods

Infinitive Indicative
Causative -igex becomes –ex -igez becomes –ez
Transitive -irer becomes –er -ires becomes –es
Intransitive -izen becomes -en -izet becomes –et

(b) Participles

Nominal Adjectival Adverbial participle

participle participle
Causative -igo or –ex -iga or –ex -ige or –ex
Transitive -iro or –er -ira or –er -ire or –er
Intransitive -izo or –en -iza or –en -ize or –en

1.2.4. Declensional omitting

Declension is an inflectional changing of the word which is not conjugation. Declensional omitting refers
to phenomena that multiple suffixes are contracted when a nominal derivative suffix is connected to a
nominal case ending. It also applies to an adjectival and adverbial suffix.
(a) –umo becomes –o
(b) –ala becomes –a
(c) –isha and –inga becomes –ish and –ing
(d) –ice becomes –e

2. Prepositions
A preposition is a word preceding a noun and expressing spatial or temporal relations.
2.1. Indefinite preposition je
A je (borrowed from Esperanto je) is the indefinite preposition, and it can be used to replace any preposition
with particular meanings, or no one preposition is clearly correct.
2.2. Prepositional prefix
Some prefixes can also be used as a preposition.
e.g. con (with), de (of, from)
2.3. Prepositional words
Some words can be used solely to form a preposition.
Notable prepositional words include:
al (to, toward), apud (beside, near, next to), che (at), contra (against, opposed to), dal (from, out of), dum
(during, while), ekde (since, starting at), exter (outside of), infer (below, under), krom (except, besides), lau
(along, according to), po (at the rate of), pri (about, concerning), sen (without), super (above, over), zis (until)

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3. Conjunctions
A conjunction is a part of speech that connects conjuncts, i.e., words, phrases, or clauses.
Notable conjunctions include:
au (or), char (because), ergo (therefore), kaj (and), kvankam (although), sed (but), si (if, whether)
3.1. Logical connectives
A logical connective is a word used to connect two conjuncts so that the value of the compound should produce
either true or false.
Notable logical connectives include:
au (or), et (and), iu (material implication) ou (exclusive or)
obau (nor), obet (not both), obiu (but not), obou (if and only if)

4. Pro-forms
A pro-form is a function word used to refer to another word, usually the one mentioned before, or when one can
notice the word from the context.
4.1. Personal pronouns
A personal pronoun is a pronoun which is used to refer to a particular grammatical person.

Singular Plural
1st ego nos
2nd tu vos
3rd li ili
indefinite on
reflexive se

4.2. Correlatives
A correlative is a paradigm of pro-forms used to ask and answer the questions. A correlative pronoun is a
pronoun which is one of the word forms in the correlative paradigm.

Interrogative Indication Indefinite Universal Negative

qu- (what) ti- (this) unu- omni- neni- (no-)
(some-) (every-)
Thing quumo (what) tiumo unuumo omniumo neniumo
Individual quono (who) tiono unuono omniono neniono
Association quona (whose) tiona unuona omniona neniona
Quality quala (which) tiala unuala omniala neniala
Time quande (when) tiande unuande omniande neniande
Place queje (where) tieje unueje omnieje nenieje
Manner quice (how) tiice unuice omniice neniice
Amount quanta (how tianta unuanta omnianta nenianta
much)
Correlative pronoun can be also used to make indirect questions, relative clauses and adverbial clauses.
4.2.1. Indirect questions
An indirect question is a question serve as a content of an independent clause. It is used to emphasize
knowledge or the lack of knowledge of a fact.

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 Ego vedes quumo tu grapher. (I know what you write.)
Ego socrates ego queje cathedrer.(I wonder where to sit.)
4.2.2. Relative clauses
A relative clause is a dependent clause which is used to describe a noun before the clause. One may use
interrogative or indicative pro-forms.
When using interrogatives as relative pro-forms, one should match the pro-forms to its antecedent.
e.g. caniso quumo jachter cato (a dog which is chasing a cat)
e.g. homo quono aesoper aesopo (a human who is telling stories)
When using indicatives as relative pro-forms, tial- forms can be used.
e.g. caniso tialo jachter cato
e.g. homo tialo aesoper aesopo
4.2.3. Adverbial clauses
An adverbial clause is a dependent clause which serve as an adverb in the main clause. One may use
interrogative or indicative pro-forms. When using indicative pro-forms, tiic- forms can be used.
e.g. Neniono av esten tieje quande ego advenen, or Neniono av esten tieje tiice ego advenen. (No one was
there when I arrived.)

5. Particles
A grammatical particle is a function word which cannot be inflected, and associates with another word or phrase
to explain grammatical relation or context.
5.1. Adverbial particles that end with –au
almenau (at least), ambau (both), ankau (also), ankorau (still, yet), anstatau (instead of), apenau (barely),
baldau (soon), grau (because of), hierau (yesterday), hodiau (today), morgau (tomorrow)
5.2. Adverbial particles that does not end with –au
jes (yes), minus (less), non (not), nun (now), nur (only), plus (more), zus (just now)
5.3. Particles used with correlatives
ajn (every, any) as in quono ajn (whoever) and tiuumo ajn (anything)
tsi (this) as in tiumo tsi (this)
5.4. Adjectival particles
A particle la can be used to indicate proper nouns.
e.g. la Everest (Mt. Everest)
It can be also used with loanwords to indicate that the noun is preserving its foreign meaning.
e.g. la lingua (language or tongue)
A particle le can be used to indicate prefixed words, a nominal phrase or a compound noun.
e.g. le travitro (the window) whereas tra vitro (through the glass)
e.g. le post meridiem (afternoon) whereas post meridiem (afternoons)
e.g. le televido (the TV) whereas tele vido (distant view)
A particle poly can be used with nouns to indicate that the noun is plural. A noun used without poly can imply
that it may be both singular or plural. One can use a numeral un to emphasize that the noun is singular.
e.g. poly persono (people) whereas persono (a person/people) and un persono (a person/one person)

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6. Function verbs
A function verb is a verb used to express grammatical relationships with other words in a sentence. A function
verb may fall into one of the following categories: auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the copula
6.1. Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb is a verb accompanying a main verb and used to express grammatical meaning of the main
verb, i.e., tense, aspect, and modality. An auxiliary verb can also be used as a common verb while its semantic
meaning may change. Its conjugation is unique in that its infinitive forms always take an –er ending while its
indicative form is always formed by solely its stem.
Notable auxiliary verbs include:

infinitive indicative
past tense aver av
future tense ioner ion
volitional mood voler vol
conditional mood pover pov
imperative mood facer fac
obligatory mood dever dev
continual aspect ester est
recent past vener ven

6.2. Copula
A copula is a verb used to link the subject to its complement. There is only one copula verb esten. Its indicative
form est can be omitted depending on the context.
infinitive indicative
copula esten est

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