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JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 1983.5.343-346

The Effect of Visuo-Motor Behavior Rehearsal

with Videotaped Modeling on Free Throw Accuracy
of Intercollegiate Female Basketball Players

Evelyn G. Hall and Elizabeth S. Erffmeyer

Louisiana State University

Recent years have seen increased utilization of various relaxation techniques to

enhance sport performance. A recent technique developed by Suinn (1972a, 1972b),
termed visuo-motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR), combines both visual imagery and
relaxation. Basically, VMBR consists of (a) an initial relaxation phase, (b) visualizing
performance during a specific stressful situation, and (c) performing the skill during
a simulated stressful situation.
Most of the evidence supporting the effectiveness of VMBR originates from anec-
dotal or case study reports (Suinn, 1972b, 1976). In Suinn's 1976 study, Olympic
skiers either received VMBR training or were assigned to a control condition. Be-
cause the coach strongly associated VMBR with performance increments, he urged
that VMBR training be given to the control group as well. Therefore, the difference
in performance results of the two groups could not be assessed empirically
(Suinn, 1976).
Noel (1980) assigned tennis players to either a control group or a VMBR group
that received a 10-day training session in relaxation and visualization before a major
tennis tournament. The results indicated no significant performance differences be-
tween the two groups. However, the higher ability VMBR group achieved a signifi-
cant improvement in the percentage of good first serves, whereas the lower ability
group decreased in serving accuracy.
Kolonay (1977) compared the effects of VMBR, visual imagery alone, and relax-
ation alone in facilitating basketball free throw shooting. The VMBR group listened
to a 10-minute relaxation and free throw audiotape prior to each of 15 basketball
practice sessions, whereas the other groups listened to either the relaxation tape
alone, the imagery tape alone, or engaged in irrelevant activity. Only the VMBR
group showed a significant increase in pre- to posttest percentages.
In a replication of Kolonay's study, Weinberg, Seabourne, and Jackson (1981)
compared karate performance of a relaxation group, an imagery group, a VMBR
group, and an additional placebo group. Each group practiced each cognitive
strategy daily for a 6-week period, and three concomitant performance tests were ad-
ministered. The final results indicated that the VMBR and relaxation groups ex-

Requests for reprints should be sent to Evelyn G. Hall, School of HPERD, Louisiana State
University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803.

343
344 HALL AND ERFFMEYER

hibited significantly less state anxiety than did the imagery or control groups. In ad-
dition, relative to the competitive aspect of karate (sparring), the VMBR group dis-
played a significant increase in performance over all of the other groups.
In a related study, the effects of a 6-week VMBR training session were compared
to a single exposure to VMBR (Weinberg, Seabourne, & Jackson, 1982). In Experi-
ment 1, subjects were assigned to either a 6-week VMBR session or a single exposure
to VMBR at the final testing session. Although no significant effects were found for
karate performance, the 6-week VMBR group exhibited less state anxiety than did
the single-exposure group. In addition, both groups decreased significantly in trait
anxiety over the 6-week period. In Experiment 2, the single exposure to VMBR was
given on the first day of class with no feedback or reinforcement concerning VMBR.
The 6-week VMBR group again utilized VMBR daily. Results again indicated a de-
crease in trait anxiety for both VMBR groups, although no differences were found
for state anxiety. In addition, the 6-week VMBR group exhibited higher perfor-
mance than did the single-exposure VMBR group.
The present study was essentially an extension and replication of earlier studies on
the effects of VMBR on performance. However, two important differences were
noted: a videotaped model was utilized with VMBR training, and highly skilled ath-
letes (e.g., college basketball players) were studied.

Method
Subjects
The volunteer subjects included 10 highly skilled female members of an inter-
collegiate basketball team. The group consisted of three seniors, two juniors, three
sophomores, and two freshmen who had previously acquired at least 4 years of high
school varsity basketball experience.
Procedure
The basketball players were randomly assigned to either a VMBR (videotaped
modeling) condition or a progressive relaxation and visual imagery (no modeling)
condition. Assessment of initial foul shooting ability of each subject was completed
by recording percentages of a set of 20 daily foul shots over a 5-day period.
Training Period. All subjects abstained from practicing foul shots during this
2-week training period. For the first week (5 days), all subjects received 30-minute
training sessions in progressive relaxation and visual imagery. During the second
week (5 days), all subjects practiced progressive relaxation and visual imagery for the
first 20-minute period. During the latter 20-minute period, the progressive relax-
ation/visual imagery group (without modeling) was instructed to simply continue
relaxing and visualizing excellent foul shooting, whereas the VMBR (videotape
modeling) group received instruction over the 20-minute period on modeling from a
videotape of a female basketball player executing 10 consecutive foul shots with per-
fect form. The videotaped model was filmed from behind so that each viewer could
imagine herself as the one taking the shot. The color videotape, which included
realistic sounds associated with foul shooting (e.g., bouncing ball, swishing net,
etc.), was viewed in a dimly lit room to help subjects maintain a state of relaxation.
The subjects viewed a 2-minute tape of the model, then closed their eyes to imagine
themselves making a perfect foul shot. After all five had successfully imagined a
perfect shot, the videotape was repeated. This sequence was followed over a
 EFFECT OF VMBR ON FREE THROW ACCURACY 345

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Figure 1 —A comparison of pre- and posttest foul shooting percentages of the VMBR and
relaxation groups.

20-minute period. Following each 20-minute session, the VMBR modeling subjects
responded to a visual imagery questionnaire adapted from Epstein (1980) to focus
their attention on relevant sensory cues.
Fading Period. A 5-day fading period followed the VMBR modeling period in
order to gradually reduce the subjects' dependency on the videotape. Three days
were interspersed alternately without the videotape, during which subjects practiced
positive visual images. On each of the 5 days, all subjects practiced shooting one set
of 20 foul shots, using either visual imagery (no modeling) or VMBR (modeling).
Implementation Period. Over a 5-day period, the number of successful foul shots
(set of 20) for each group were recorded. These percentages were utilized as the post-
test measures in the data analysis. In addition, the VMBR (modeling) group re-
sponded to the imagery questionnaire.

Results
A 2 X 2 (treatment x test) ANCOVA design was used in the data analysis with
pretraining scores as the covariate. The results of the analysis revealed a significant
difference, F(\,l) = 10.3, p < .05, between the VMBR (modeling) group and the
progressive relaxation and visual imagery (no modeling) group on the posttest scores
(see Figure 1). The VMBR (modeling) group showed significant improvement in foul
shooting performance.
Implementation-phase data from the imagery questionnaires revealed that all five
VMBR (modeling) subjects reported kinesthetic sensations and a first-person
perspective (inside the performer) during imagery. The two subjects who
demonstrated the greatest improvement reported that they always felt muscular
movement in association with their visual imagery.

Discussion
The results of the present study offer empirical support for the efficacy of VMBR
modeling in improving foul shooting accuracy of highly skilled basketball players.
This fact lends support to the suggestion that most forms of mental rehearsal are
more effective for experienced performers with relatively high levels of skill
(Corbin, 1972).
346 HALL AND ERFFMEYER

All subjects in the VMBR modeling group reported feeling kinesthetic sensations
in association with visual imagery, as has been reported by many athletes in previous
studies by Suinn (1972a, 1972b). Mental rehearsal of kinesthetic sensations specific
to a sport keeps rehearsal in the first-person perspective and facilitates auditory or
olfactory sensations.
The present study made a strong effort to actually train subjects to become more
proficient with VMBR through videotaped modeling. Earlier studies had often as-
sumed that subjects could use visual imagery without such training. However, the ef-
fective use of any type of imagery requires practice. The use of visual cues through
modeling proved to be very useful in providing an effective means of enhancing
VMBR techniques.
Visual imagery rehearsal techniques can potentially be implemented in a variety of
sports and a number of situations. Visual imagery has been used extensively by
superior athletes to practice physical skills such as jumps, shots, lifts, plays, routines,
and other strategies. Virtually any physical skill or combination of physical skills can
be practiced mentally once an athlete becomes adept at using imagery.
As Oxendine (1968) has suggested, mental rehearsal or similar techniques may be
employed at three stages: preceding, during, and following performance. Prior to
performance the athlete may picture the task requirements and rehearse the relevant
movement cues. During performance the athlete may remind himself or herself to
concentrate on specific strategies and specific cues; and after performance the athlete
may replay performance and detect any errors that need to be corrected. The present
study has demonstrated the efficacy of a visual imagery rehearsal technique in im-
proving free throw shooting accuracy, thus adding to the growing body of evidence
emphasizing the cognitive aspects of sport.

References
Corbin, C.B. Mental practice. In W.P. Morgan (Ed.), Ergogenic aids and muscular perfor-
mance. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Epstein, M. The relationship of mental imagery and mental rehearsal to performance of a
motor task. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1980, 2, 211-220.
Kolonay, B.J. The effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal on athletic performance. Unpub-
lished master's thesis. Hunter College, The City University of New York, 1977.
Noel, R.C. The effect of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal on tennis performance. Journal of
Sport Psychology, 1980, 2, 221-226.
Oxendine, J.B. Psychology of motor learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968.
Suinn, R. Behavior rehearsal training for ski racers: Brief report. Behavior Therapy, 1972, 3,
210-212. (a)
Suinn, R. Removing emotional obstacles to learning and performance by visuomotor behavior
rehearsal. Behavior Therapy, 1972, 3, 308-310. (b)
Suinn, R. Body thinking: Psychology for Olympic champions. Psychology Today, July 1976,
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Weinberg, R.S., Seabourne, T.G., & Jackson, A. Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal,
relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1981, 3,
228-238.
Weinberg, R.S., Seabourne, T.G., & Jackson, A. Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal on
state-trait anxiety and performance: Is practice important? Journal of Sport Behavior, 1982,
5, 209-219.

Manuscript submitted: January 19, 1983

Revision received: April 21, 1983